Cockroach Classification: ;Brown or black-bodied animals, included in class Insecta

of Phylum Arthropoda. Bright yellow, red, and green colored cockroaches are also
reported in tropical regions.
Cockroach Size and Appendages: ;Size ranges from ¼ inches to 3 inches (0.6-7.6 cm).
They have long antennae, legs, and a flat extension of the upper body wall that
conceals the head.
Cockroach Habits: ;Nocturnal omnivores that live in damp places. They are serious
pests and vectors of several diseases in human homes.
Cockroach Species and Body Regions: ;Periplaneta americana adults are 34-53 mm
long, with wings extending beyond the abdomen in males. The body is segmented into
head, thorax, and abdomen.
Cockroach Exoskeleton: ;The entire body is covered by a hard, brown, chitinous
exoskeleton. In each segment, hardened plates called sclerites (tergites dorsally,
sternites ventrally) are joined by a thin, flexible articular (arthrodial)
membrane.
Cockroach Head Structure: ;Triangular, lying anteriorly at right angles to the
longitudinal axis. Formed by fusion of six segments, showing great mobility due to
a flexible neck. Bears a pair of compound eyes.
Antennae of Cockroach: ;Thread-like, arising from membranous sockets in front of
the eyes, with sensory receptors for monitoring the environment.
Mouthparts of Cockroach: ;Anterior end of the head bears appendages forming a
biting and chewing type. Consist of a labrum (upper lip), mandibles, maxillae, and
a labium (lower lip). A median flexible lobe, the hypopharynx (tongue), lies within
the cavity.
Thorax and Appendages of Cockroach ;Consists of prothorax, mesothorax, and
metathorax. Head is connected to thorax by a short extension of the prothorax
(neck). Each thoracic segment bears a pair of walking legs.
Wings of Cockroach ;The first pair (forewings or tegmina) arises from the
mesothorax, are opaque, dark, and leathery, covering the hind wings at rest. The
second pair (hind wings) arises from the metathorax, are transparent, membranous,
and used in flight.
Abdomen of Cockroach ;In both males and females, consists of 10 segments. In
females, the 7th sternum is boat-shaped, forming a brood/genital pouch with the 8th
and 9th sterna.
Female Genital Pouch Contains ;Female gonopore, spermathecal pores, and collateral
glands.
Male Genital Pouch: ;Lies at the hind end of the abdomen, bounded dorsally by 9th
and 10th terga, ventrally by the 9th sternum. Contains dorsal anus, ventral male
genital pore, and gonapophysis.
Anal Styles: ;Males bear a pair of short, thread-like anal styles, which are absent
in females.
Anal Cerci ;Both sexes have a pair of these, present on the 10th segment; jointed
filamentous structures
Cockroach Alimentary Canal: ;Divided into foregut, midgut, and hindgut. Mouth opens
into a short tubular pharynx, leading to a narrow esophagus, then a crop (for food
storage), and a gizzard (proventriculus).
Gizzard (Proventriculus): ;Has an outer layer of thick circular muscles and thick
inner cuticle forming six highly chitinous plates (teeth) to grind food. The entire
foregut is lined by cuticle.
Digestive Glands: ;A ring of 6-8 blind hepatic/gastric caecae at the foregut-midgut
junction secretes digestive juice. A ring of 100-150 yellow, filamentous Malpighian
tubules at the midgut-hindgut junction helps in excretion.
Hindgut and Excretion: ;Broader than the midgut, differentiated into ileum, colon,
and rectum. The rectum opens out through the anus.
Cockroach Circulatory System: ;Open type. Blood vessels are poorly developed,
opening into space (haemocoel). Visceral organs are bathed in blood (haemolymph),
composed of colorless plasma and haemocytes.
Cockroach Heart: ;Elongated muscular tube along the mid-dorsal line of the thorax
and abdomen. Differentiated into funnel-shaped chambers with ostia on either side.
Blood enters from sinuses through ostia, pumped anteriorly.
Cockroach Respiratory System: ;Consists of a network of trachea, opening through 10
pairs of spiracles on the lateral side of the body. Thin branching tracheal tubes
(subdivided into tracheoles) carry oxygen.
Spiracle Regulation and Gas Exchange: ;Opening of spiracles is regulated by
sphincters. Gas exchange occurs at the tracheoles by diffusion.
Cockroach Excretion: ;Performed by Malpighian tubules, lined by glandular and
ciliated cells. They absorb nitrogenous wastes, converting them to uric acid
(uricotelic). Fat body, nephrocytes, and urecose glands also aid in excretion.
Cockroach Nervous System: ;Series of fused, segmentally arranged ganglia joined by
paired longitudinal connectives ventrally. Three ganglia in thorax, six in abdomen.
Nervous system spread throughout, with a bit in the head.
Brain Representation: ;Supra-oesophageal ganglion, supplying nerves to antennae and
compound eyes.
Cockroach Sense Organs: ;Antennae, eyes, maxillary palps, labial palps, anal cerci.
Compound eyes have ~2000 hexagonal ommatidia (mosaic vision - high sensitivity, low
resolution, nocturnal).
Cockroach Reproduction: ;Dioecious, with well-developed reproductive organs.
Male Reproductive System Includes: ;Pair of testes (4th-6th abdominal segments),
thin vas deferens from each testis to ejaculatory duct (through seminal vesicle),
opening at male gonopore (ventral to anus).
Accessory Reproductive Gland (Male): ;Characteristic mushroom-shaped gland in 6th-
7th abdominal segments.
Male External Genitalia: ;Male gonapophysis or phallomere (chitinous asymmetrical
structures).
Sperm Storage and Transfer: ;Sperms are stored in seminal vesicles, glued together
as spermatophores, discharged during copulation.
Female Reproductive System: ;Two large ovaries (2nd-6th abdominal segments), each
with eight ovarian tubules/ovarioles. Oviducts unite into a single median oviduct
(vagina), opening into the genital chamber.
Spermatheca in Females: ;A pair is present in the 6th segment, opening into the
genital chamber.
Oothecae: ;Fertilized eggs are encased in capsules called oothecae. Dark reddish-
brown, ~3/8" (8 mm) long. Dropped/glued near food source. Females produce 9-10
oothecae, each with 14-16 eggs.
Cockroach Development: ;Paurometabolous (development through nymphal stage). Nymphs
resemble adults, growing by molting ~13 times. Only adult cockroaches have wings.
Ecological Role and Impact of Cockroaches ;Wild species- no economic importance,
but those thriving near human habitat are pests because they destroy/contaminate
food. can transmit various bacterial diseases.
Frogs: Class and Habitat: ;Amphibia (phylum Chordata). Can live both on land and in
freshwater. Rana tigrina is the most common Indian species.
Frog Body Temperature Regulation: ;Poikilotherms (cold-blooded - body temperature
varies with environment).
Frog Camouflage: ;Ability to change color to hide from enemies (mimicry).
Frog Aestivation and Hibernation: ;Summer sleep (aestivation) and winter sleep
(hibernation) to protect from extreme temperatures.
Frog Skin: ;Smooth and slippery due to mucus, maintained moist. Dorsal side is
olive green with dark spots; ventral side is pale yellow. Frogs absorb water
through the skin.
Frog External Features: ;Body divisible into head and trunk (neck and tail absent).
Pair of nostrils above mouth. Bulged eyes covered by nictitating membrane.
Membranous tympanum (ear) on either side of eyes.
Frog Limbs and Digits ;Forelimbs and hind limbs aid in locomotion. Hind limbs (5
digits) are larger/muscular than forelimbs (4 digits). Feet have webbed digits.
Frog Sexual Dimorphism: ;Males have vocal sacs and a copulatory pad on the first
digit of the forelimbs (absent in females).
Frog Internal Organ Systems: ;Well-developed digestive, circulatory, respiratory,
nervous, excretory, and reproductive systems.
Frog Digestive System: ;Short alimentary canal (carnivores). Mouth opens to buccal
cavity, pharynx, short esophagus, stomach, intestine, rectum, cloaca. Liver
secretes bile (stored in gallbladder). Pancreas produces pancreatic juice.
Frog Food Capture and Digestion: ;Food captured by bilobed tongue. Digestion by HCl
and gastric juices in stomach. Partially digested food (chyme) passes to duodenum.
Duodenum and Bile/Pancreatic Juices ;Duodenum receives bile (from gallbladder) and
pancreatic juices (from pancreas) through a common bile duct. Bile emulsifies fat;
pancreatic juices digest carbohydrates/proteins. Final digestion in intestine.
Absorption in Frog Intestine ;Digested food is absorbed by villi and microvilli
(finger-like folds). Undigested waste to rectum, out through cloaca.
Frog Respiration: ;On land: buccal cavity, skin, and lungs (pulmonary respiration).
In water: skin (cutaneous respiration). Oxygen exchange by diffusion.
Frog Circulatory System: ;Well-developed, closed type. Also has a lymphatic system.
Blood vascular system: heart, blood vessels, blood. Lymphatic system: lymph, lymph
channels, lymph nodes.
Frog Heart: ;Muscular, 3-chambered (two atria, one ventricle), covered by
pericardium. Sinus venosus (triangular) joins right atrium, receiving blood via
vena cava. Ventricle opens into conus arteriosus.
Blood Circulation Path: ;Arteries carry blood from heart to body. Veins collect
blood, returning it to heart. Hepatic portal system (liver-intestine) and renal
portal system (kidney-lower body) are present.
Frog Blood Composition: ;Plasma and cells (RBCs/erythrocytes, WBCs/leucocytes,
platelets). RBCs are nucleated, contain hemoglobin. Lymph lacks some proteins and
RBCs.
Frog Excretory System: ;Kidneys, ureters, cloaca, urinary bladder. Kidneys are
compact, dark red, bean-like. Each kidney has uriniferous tubules/nephrons.
Ureters in Frogs ;Two ureters emerge from kidneys. In males, they act as
urinogenital ducts, opening into the cloaca. In females, ureters and oviduct open
separately. Urinary bladder is present.
Frog Excretory Product: ;Urea (ureotelic animal).
Frog Nervous and Endocrine Systems ;Includes both neural and endocrine glands.
Endocrine glands secrete hormones for chemical coordination. Pituitary, thyroid,
parathyroid, thymus, pineal body, pancreatic islets, adrenals, and gonads.
Frog Nervous system organization ;Central nervous system, peripheral, and
autonomic. Brain protected in the skull, connected to spinal cord through the
foramen magnum.
The frog brain is divided into ;fore-brain, mid-brain, and hind-brain.
Sense Organs in Frogs ;Touch (sensory papillae), taste (taste buds), smell (nasal
epithelium), vision (eyes - simple, spherical), hearing (tympanum, internal ears).
Male and female reproductive systems are, in frogs ;Well Organized.
Male Frog Reproductive System Components ;Yellowish ovoid testes, adhered to
kidneys by mesorchium. 10-12 vasa efferentia from testes, entering kidneys, opening
into Bidder's canal, then urinogenital duct, to cloaca.
Frog Cloaca Function ;Small, median chamber to pass faecal matter, urine, and
sperms to the exterior.
Female Frog Reproductive System Components ;Pair of ovaries (near kidneys, no
functional connection). Oviduct from each ovary opens separately into cloaca.
Fertilization and Development in Frogs ;Mature female lays 2500-3000 ova. External
fertilization in water. Larval stage (tadpole) undergoes metamorphosis.
Ecological and Economic Importance of Frogs ;Beneficial: eat insects, protect
crops. Maintain ecological balance (food chain link). Muscular legs used as food in
some countries.