Chapter 4 of

Physical Geography and Natural Disasters

R. ADAM DASTRUP

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Physical Geography and Natural disasters

Table of contents of the whole book

(This excerpt contains only Ch 4)

1. Introduction to Geographic Science

2. Universe and Solar System
3. Planet Earth
4. Tectonic Forces
5. Weathering, Erosion, and Deposition
6. Fluvial Processes and Systems
7. Oceans and Coastal Environments
8. Atmosphere and Weather
9. Weather Systems and Severe Weather
10. Global Climates and Change
11. Biomes and Ecosystems
12. Environmental Disasters
13. Wildfires
14. Appendix
 PART IV
TECTONIC FORCES

Open Rubric
4.1 GEOLOGIC
STRUCTURES AND
LANDFORMS

Stress and Strain

Stress is the force exerted per unit area, and strain is a material’s
response to that force. Strain is deformation caused by stress. Strain
in rocks can be represented as a change in rock volume and rock
shape, as well as fracturing the rock. There are three types of stress:
tensional, compressional, and shear. Tensional stress involves
pulling something apart in opposite directions, stretching and
thinning the material. Compressional stress involves things
coming together and pushing on each other, thickening the
material. Shear stress involves transverse movement of the material
moving past each other, like a scissor. (9 Crustal Deformation and
Earthquakes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

Deformation
When rocks are stressed, the resulting strain can be elastic, ductile,
or brittle, called deformation. Elastic deformation is strain that is
reversible after the stress is released. For example, when compressing
a spring, it elastically returns to its original shape after releasing it.
414 | 4.1 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND LANDFORMS

Ductile deformation occurs when enough stress is applied to a

material that the changes are permanent, and the material is no
longer able to revert to its original shape. For example, if a spring is
stretched too far, it can be permanently bent out of shape. Note
that concepts related to ductile deformation apply at the visible
(macro) scale, and deformation is more complicated at a
microscopic scale. Research of plastic deformation, which touches
on the atomic scale, is beyond the scope of introductory texts. The
yield point is the amount of strain at which elastic deformation is
surpassed, and permanent deformation is measurable. Brittle
deformation is when the material undergoes another critical point
of no return. When sufficient stress to pass that point occurs, it fails
and fractures. (9 Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An
Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

“Deformation” by NASA’s Earth Observatory is licensed under

Public Domain.
 4.1 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND LANDFORMS | 415

Important factors that influence how a rock will undergo elastic,

ductile, or brittle deformation is the intensity of the applied stress,
time, temperature, confining pressure, pore pressure, strain rate,
and rock strength. Pore pressure is the pressure exerted by fluids
inside of the open spaces (pores) inside of a rock or sediment.
Strain rate is how quickly material is deformed. Rock strength is
a measure of how readily a rock will respond to stress. Shale has low
strength, and granite has high strength.

Removing heat, such as decreasing temperature, makes the material

more rigid. Likewise, heating materials make them more ductile.
Heating glass makes it capable of bending and stretching.
Regarding strain response, it is easier to bend a piece of wood
slowly without breaking it.

Sedimentary rocks are essential for deciphering the geologic history

of a region because they follow specific rules. First, sedimentary
rocks are formed with the oldest layers on the bottom and the
youngest on top. Second, sediments are deposited horizontally, so
sedimentary rock layers are originally horizontal, as are some
volcanic rocks, such as ash falls. Finally, sedimentary rock layers that
are not horizontal are deformed in some manner – often looking
like they are tiling into the earth. Scientists can trace the
deformation a rock has experienced by seeing how it differs from its
original horizontal, oldest-on-bottom position. This deformation
produces geologic structures such as folds, joints, and faults that are
caused by stresses.
416 | 4.1 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND LANDFORMS

Stress and Mountain Building

The sheer power and strength of two or more converging
continental plates smash upwards that create mountain ranges.
Stresses from geologic uplift cause folds, reverse faults, and thrust
faults, which allow the crust to rise upwards. The subduction of
oceanic lithosphere at convergent plate boundaries also builds
mountain ranges. When tensional stresses pull crust apart, it breaks
into blocks that slide up and drop down along normal faults. The
result is alternating mountains and valleys, known as a basin-and-
range.

“Folding” is licensed under Creative Commons

Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International.

Folds

Geologic folds are layers of rock that are curved or bent by ductile
deformation. Terms involved with folds include axis, which is the
line along which the bending occurred, and limbs, which are the
dipping beds that make up the sides of the folds. Compressional
forces most commonly form folds at depth, where hotter
 4.1 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND LANDFORMS | 417

temperatures and higher confining pressures allow ductile

deformation to occur.

Folds are described by the orientation of their axes, axial planes, and
limbs. They are made up of two or more dipping beds, dipping in
opposite directions, which come together along a line, called the
axis. Each set of dipping beds is known as a fold limb. The plane
that splits the fold into two halves is known as the axial plane. (9
Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An Introduction to
Geology, n.d.)

Symmetrical folds have mirrored limbs across their axial planes.

The limbs of a symmetrical fold are inclined at the same, but
opposite, angle indicating equal compression on both sides of the
fold. Asymmetrical folds have dipping, non-vertical axial planes,
where limbs dip into the ground at different angles. Recumbent
folds are very tight folds with limbs compressed near the axial
planes and are generally horizontal, and overturned folds are where
the angles on both limbs dip in the same direction. The fold axis is
where the axial plane intersects the strata involved in the fold. A
horizontal fold has a horizontal fold axis. When the axis of the fold
plunges into the ground, the fold is called a plunging fold.
418 | 4.1 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND LANDFORMS

“Rock Folding” by Colin Park is licensed under Creative Commons

Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International.

Anticline

Anticlines are arch-like (“A”-shaped) folds, with downward

curving limbs that have beds that dip away from the central axis of
the fold. They are convex-upward in shape. In anticlines, the oldest
rock strata are in the center of the fold along the axis, and the
younger beds are on the outside. An antiform has the same shape as
an anticline, but in antiforms, the relative ages of the beds in the
fold cannot be determined. Oil geologists have an interest in
anticlines because they can form oil traps, where oil migrates up
along the limbs of the fold and accumulates in the high point along
the axis of the fold. (9 Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An
Introduction to Geology, n.d.)
 4.1 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND LANDFORMS | 419

Erdölquelle

Undurchlässiger
Erdgas
Schieferton
Erdöl
Poröses
Speichergestein

Ausgangsgestein

“Anticline Trap” is licensed under the Creative Commons

Attribution-Share Alike 3.0 Unported.

Syncline

Synclines are trough-like (“U” shaped), upward-curving folds that

have beds that dip in towards the fold’s central axis. They are
concave-upward in shape. In synclines, the older rock is on the
outside of the fold, and the youngest rock is on the inside of the
fold along the axis. A synform has the shape of a syncline but, like
an antiform, does not distinguish between the ages of the units.
420 | 4.1 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND LANDFORMS

“Anticline” by Pearson Scott Foresman is licensed under Public

Domain.

Monocline

Monoclines are step-like folds, in which flat rocks are upwarped or

downwarped, then continue flat. They are relatively common on
the Colorado Plateau, where they form “reefs,” ridges that act as
topographic barriers and should not be confused with ocean reefs.
Capitol Reef National Park is an example of a monocline in Utah.
Monoclines can be caused by bending of shallower sedimentary
strata as faults grow below them. These faults are commonly called
“blind faults” because they end before reaching the surface and can
be either normal or reverse faults. (9 Crustal Deformation and
Earthquakes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

Dome

A dome is a symmetrical to semi-symmetrical upwarping of rock

beds, like in Utah’s San Rafael Swell. Domes have a shape like an
 4.1 GEOLOGIC STRUCTURES AND LANDFORMS | 421

inverted bowl, similar to domes on buildings, like the Capitol

Building. Some domes are formed from compressional forces, while
other domes are formed from underlying igneous intrusions, by salt
diapirs, or even impacts, like upheaval dome in Canyonlands
National Park. (9 Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An
Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

Basin

A basin is the inverse of a dome. The basin is when rock forms a

bowl-shaped depression. The Uinta Basin is an example of a basin
in Utah. Technically, geologists refer to rocks folded into a bowl-
shape as structural basins. Sometimes structural basins can also be
sedimentary basins in which large quantities of sediment
accumulate over time. Sedimentary basins can form as a result of
folding but are much more commonly produced in mountain
building, between mountain blocks or via faulting. Regardless of
the cause, as the basin sinks, called subsidence, it can accumulate
even more sediment as the sediment’s weight causes more
subsidence in a positive-feedback loop. There are active sedimentary
basins all over the world.
4.2 EARTHQUAKES

Types of Faults
Faults are the places in the crust where brittle deformation occurs
as two blocks of rocks move relative to one another. There are three
major fault types: normal, reverse, and strike-slip. Normal and
reverse faults display vertical, also known as dip-slip, motion. Dip-
slip motion consists of relative up and down movement along a
dipping fault between two blocks, the hanging wall and the
footwall. In a dip-slip system, the footwall is below the fault
plane, and the hanging-wall is above the fault plane. An excellent
way to remember this is to imagine a mine tunnel through a fault;
the hanging wall would be where a miner would hang a lantern, and
the footwall would be at the miner’s feet. Faults are more prevalent
near and related to plate boundaries but can occur in plate interiors
as well. Faults can show evidence of movement along the fault
plane. Slickensides are polished, often grooved surfaces along the
fault plane created by friction during the movement. A joint or
fracture is a plane of breakage in a rock that does not show
movement or offset. Joints can result from many processes, such as
cooling, depressurizing, or folding. Joint systems may be regional
affecting many square miles. (9 Crustal Deformation and
Earthquakes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)
 4.2 EARTHQUAKES | 423

“Moab Fault” by Andrew Wilson” is licensed under Public Domain.

Normal faults move by a vertical motion where the hanging-wall

moves downward relative to the footwall along the dip of the fault.
Tensional forces create normal faults in the crust. Normal faults
and tensional forces are commonly caused at divergent plate
boundaries and where tensional stresses are stretching the crust. An
example of a normal fault is the Wasatch Fault along the Wasatch
Range.

Grabens, horsts, and half-grabens are all blocks of crust or rock

bounded by normal faults. Grabens drop down relative to adjacent
blocks and create valleys. Horsts go up relative to adjacent down-
dropped blocks and become areas of high topography. Where
together, horsts and grabens create a symmetrical pattern of valleys
surrounded by normal faults on both sides and mountains. Half-
424 | 4.2 EARTHQUAKES

grabens are a one-sided version of a horst and graben, where blocks

are tilted by a normal fault on one side, creating an asymmetrical
valley-mountain arrangement. The mountain-valleys of the Basin
and Range Province of Western Utah and Nevada consist of a series
of full and half-grabens from the Salt Lake Valley to the Sierra
Nevada Mountains. When the dip of a normal fault decreases with
depth (i.e., the fault becomes more horizontal as it goes deeper), the
fault is listric. Extreme versions of listric faulting occur when
substantial amounts of extension occur along very low-angle
normal faults, known as detachment faults. The normal faults of
the Basin and Range appear to be-come detachment faults at depth.
(9 Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An Introduction to
Geology, n.d.)

Horst Graben

Normal
fault
“Horst and Graben” by the United States Geologic Survey is
licensed under Public Domain.

Reverse faults, caused by compressional forces, are when the

hanging wall moves up relative to the footwall. A thrust fault is a
reverse fault where the fault plane has a low dip angle (generally less
than 45 degrees). Thrust faults bring older rocks on top of younger
 4.2 EARTHQUAKES | 425

rocks and can cause repetition of rock units in the stratigraphic

record. Convergent plate boundaries with subduction zones create
a particular type of “reverse” fault called a megathrust fault.
Megathrust faults cause the most significant magnitude
earthquakes and commonly cause tsunamis.

Pop-up Pop-down

Reverse
faults
“Reverse Faults” by the United States Geologic Survey is licensed
under Public Domain.

Strike-slip faults have a side to side motion. In the pure strike-slip

motion, crustal blocks on either side of the fault do not move up or
down relative to each other. There is left-lateral, called sinistral,
and right-lateral, called dextral, strike-slip motion. In left-lateral or
sinistral strike-slip motion, the opposite block moves left relative to
the block that the observer is standing on. In right-lateral or dextral
strike-slip motion, the opposite block moves right relative to the
observer’s block. Strike-slip faults are most associated with
transform boundaries and are prevalent in fracture zones adjacent
to mid-ocean ridges.

Bends in strike-slip faults can create areas where the sliding blocks
426 | 4.2 EARTHQUAKES

create compression or tension. Tensional stresses will create

transtensional features with normal faults and basins like
California’s Salton Sea, and compressional stresses will create
transpressional features with reverse faults and small-scale
mountain building, like California’s San Gabriel Mountains. The
faults that play off transpression or transtension features are known
as flower structures.

An example of a right-lateral strike-slip fault is the San Andreas

Fault, which denotes a transform boundary between the North
American and Pacific plates. An example of a left-lateral strike-slip
fault is the Dead Sea fault in Jordan and Israel. (9 Crustal
Deformation and Earthquakes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

“Strike-slip Fault” is licensed under Creative Commons Attribution

4.0 International.

Causes of Earthquakes
People feel approximately 1 million earthquakes a year. Few are
 4.2 EARTHQUAKES | 427

noticed far from the source. Even fewer are significant earthquakes.
Earthquakes are usually felt only when they are greater than a
magnitude 2.5 or greater. The USGS Earthquakes Hazards
Program has a real-time map showing the most recent earthquakes.
Most earthquakes occur along active plate boundaries. Intraplate
earthquakes (not along plate boundaries) are still poorly
understood. (9 Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An
Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

Earthquake energy is known as seismic energy, and it travels

through the earth in the form of seismic waves. To understand
some of the basics of earthquakes and how they are measured,
consider some of the fundamental properties of waves. Waves
describe a motion that repeats itself in a medium such as rock or
unconsolidated sediments. The magnitude refers to the height,
called amplitude, of a wave. Wavelength is the distance between
two successive peaks of the wave. The number of repetitions of the
motion over time, called cycles per time, is the frequency. The
inverse of frequency, which is the amount of time for a wave to
travel one wavelength, is the period. When multiple waves combine,
they can interfere with each other. When the waves are in sync with
each other, they will have constructive interference, where the
influence of one wave will add to and magnify the other. If the
waves are out of sync with each other, they will have destructive
interference. If two waves have the same amplitude and frequency
and are ½ wavelength out of sync, the destructive interference
between them can eliminate each wave.
428 | 4.2 EARTHQUAKES

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The elastic rebound theory explains the release of seismic energy.

When the rock is strained to the point that it undergoes brittle
deformation, built-up elastic energy is released during dis-
placement, which radiates away as seismic waves. When the brittle
deformation occurs, it creates an offset between the fault blocks at a
starting point called the focus. This offset propagates along the
surface of rupture, which is known as the fault plane.

The fault blocks of persistent faults like the Wasatch Fault of Utah
are locked together by friction. Over hundreds to thousands of
years, stress builds up along the fault. Eventually, stress along the
fault overcomes the frictional resistance, and slip initiates as the
rocks break. The deformed rocks “snap back” toward their original
 4.2 EARTHQUAKES | 429

position in a process called elastic rebound. Bending of the rocks

near the fault may reflect this buildup of stress, and in earth-quake-
prone areas like California, strain gauges that measure this bending
are set up in an attempt to understand more about predicting an
earthquake. In some locations where the fault is not locked, seismic
stress causes a continuous movement along the fault called fault
creep, where displacement occurs gradually. Fault creep occurs
along some parts of the San Andreas Fault.

The release of seismic energy occurs in a series of steps. After a

seismic energy release, energy begins to build again during a period
of inactivity along the fault. The accumulated elastic strain may
produce small earthquakes (on or near the main fault). These are
called fore-shocks and can occur hours or days before a massive
earthquake, but they may not occur at all. The main release of
energy occurs during the major earthquake, known as the
mainshock. Aftershocks may then occur to adjust strain that built
up from the movement of the fault. They generally decrease over
time. (9 Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An Introduction
to Geology, n.d.)

Earthquake Zones
Nearly 95 percent of all earthquakes occur along with one of the
three types of tectonic plate boundaries, but earthquakes do occur
along all three types of plate boundaries. About 80 percent of all
earthquakes strike around the Pacific Ocean basin because it is lined
with convergent and transform boundaries. Called the Ring of
Fire, this is also the location of most volcanoes around the planet.
430 | 4.2 EARTHQUAKES

About 15 percent take place in the Mediterranean-Asiatic Belt,

where convergence is causing the Indian Plate to run into the
Eurasian Plate, creating the largest mountain ranges in the world.
The remaining 5 percent are scattered around other plate
boundaries or are intraplate earthquakes. (Reading: The Nature of
Earthquakes | Geology, n.d.)

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Transform Plate Boundaries

Transform plate boundaries occur when two tectonic plates grind

parallel to each other rather than colliding or subducting. Deadly
earthquakes occur at transform plate boundaries, creating strike-
slip faults because they tend to have shallow focuses where the
 4.2 EARTHQUAKES | 431

rupture occurs. The faults along the San Andreas Fault zone
produce around 10,000 earthquakes a year. Most are tiny, but
occasionally one is massive. In the San Francisco Bay Area, the Hay-
ward Fault was the site of a magnitude 7.0 earthquake in 1868. The
1906 quake on the San Andreas Fault had a magnitude estimated at
7.9.

During the 1989 World Series, a magnitude 7.1 earthquake struck

Loma Prieta, near Santa Cruz, California, killing 63 people,
injuring 3,756, and cost $6 billion. A few years later, in Northridge,
California, a magnitude 6.7 earthquake killed 72 people, injured
12,000 people, and caused $12.5 billion in damage. This earthquake
occurred on an unknown fault because it was a blind thrust fault
near Los Angeles, California.

Although California is prone to many natural hazards, including

volcanic eruptions at Mt. Shasta or Mt. Lassen, and landslides on
coastal cliffs, the natural hazard the state is linked with is
earthquakes. New Zealand also has strike-slip earthquakes, about
20,000 a year, but only a small percentage of those are large enough
to be felt. A 6.3 quake in Christchurch in February 2011 killed
about 180 people. (Reading: The Nature of Earthquakes | Geology,
n.d.)

Convergent Plate Boundaries

Earthquakes at convergent plate boundaries mark the motions of

the subducting lithosphere as it plunges through the mantle,
creating reverse and thrust faults. Convergent plate boundaries
produce earthquakes all around the Pacific Ocean basin. The
432 | 4.2 EARTHQUAKES

Philippine Plate and the Pacific Plate subduct beneath Japan,

creating a chain of volcanoes and produces as many as 1,500
earthquakes annually.

In March 2011, an enormous 9.0 earthquake struck off Sendai in

northeastern Japan. This quake, called the 2011 Tōhoku
earthquake, was the most powerful ever to strike Japan and one of
the top five known worldwide. Damage from the earthquake was
over-shadowed by the tsunami it generated, which wiped out
coastal cities and towns. Two months after the earthquake, about
25,000 people died or were missing, and 125,000 buildings were
damaged or destroyed. Aftershocks, some as large as major
earthquakes, have continued to rock the region. A map of
aftershocks is seen here. Recently, the New York Times created an
interactive website of the Japan earthquake and tsunami.

The Pacific Northwest of the United States is at risk from a

potentially massive earthquake that could strike any time.
Subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate beneath North America
produces active volcanoes, but large earthquakes only hit every 300
to 600 years. The last was in 1700, with an estimated magnitude of
around 9.0. The elastic rebound theory, as applied to subduction
zones, can be viewed here.

Massive earthquakes are the hallmark of the thrust faulting and

folding when two continental plates converge. The 2001 Gujarat
earthquake in India was responsible for about 20,000 deaths, and
many more people became injured or homeless. In Understanding
Earthquakes: From Research to Resilience, scientists try to
understand the mechanisms that cause earthquakes and tsunamis
 4.2 EARTHQUAKES | 433

and how society can deal with them. (Reading: The Nature of
Earthquakes | Geology, n.d.)

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Divergent Plate Boundaries

Many earthquakes occur where tectonic plates are moving apart or

where a tectonic plate is tearing itself apart. Earthquakes at mid-
ocean ridges are small and shallow because the plates are young,
thin, and hot. On land where continents split apart, earthquakes are
larger and stronger. A classic example of normal faulting along
divergent boundaries is the Wasatch Front in Utah and the entire
Basin and Range through Nevada.
434 | 4.2 EARTHQUAKES

“Wasatch Fault” by the United States Geologic Survey is licensed

under Public Domain.

Intraplate Boundaries

Intraplate earthquakes are the result of stresses caused by plate

motions acting in solid slabs of the lithosphere. In 1812, a
magnitude 7.5 earthquake struck near New Madrid, Missouri. The
earthquake was strongly felt over approximately 50,000 square
miles and altered the course of the Mississippi River. Because very
few people lived there at the time, only 20 people died. Many more
people live there today. A similar earthquake today would
undoubtedly kill many people and cause a great deal of property
damage. (Reading: The Nature of Earthquakes | Geology, n.d.)
4.3 MEASURING AND
LOCATING EARTHQUAKES

Focus and Epicenter

The focus, also called a hypocenter of an earthquake, is the point
of initial breaking or rupturing where the displacement of rocks
occurs. The focus is always at some depth below the ground surface
in the crust, and not at the surface. From the focus, the
displacement propagates up, down, and laterally along the fault
plane. The displacement produces shock waves, creates seismic
waves. The larger the displacement and the further it propagates,
the more significant the seismic waves and ground shaking. More
shaking is usually the result of more seismic energy released. The
epicenter is the location on the Earth’s surface vertically above the
point of rupture (focus). The epicenter is also the location that
most news reports give because it is the center of the area where
people are affected. The focus is the point along the fault plane
from which the seismic waves spread outward. (9 Crustal
Deformation and Earthquakes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)
436 | 4.3 MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES

“Focus and Epicenter” by the Utah Geologic Survey is licensed

under Public Domain.

Seismic Waves
Seismic waves are an expression of the energy released after an
earthquake in the form of body waves and surface waves. When
seismic energy is released, the first waves to propagate out are body
waves that pass through the planet’s body. Body waves include
primary waves (P waves) and secondary waves (S waves). Primary
waves are the fastest seismic waves. They move through the rock via
compression, very much like sound waves move through the air.
Particles of rock move forward and back during the passage of the P
waves. Primary waves can travel through both fluids and solids.
Secondary waves travel slower and follow primary waves,
propagating as shear waves. Particles of rock move from side to side
during the passage of S waves. Because of this, secondary waves
cannot travel through liquids, plasma, or gas.

When an earthquake occurs at a location in the earth, the body

 4.3 MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES | 437

waves radiate outward, passing through the earth and into the rock
of the mantle. A point on this spreading wave-front travels along a
specific path that reaches a seismograph located at one of the
thousands of seismic stations scattered over the earth. That specific
travel path is a line called a seismic ray. Since the density (and
seismic velocity) of the mantle increases with depth, a process called
refraction causes earthquake rays to curve away from the vertical
and bend back toward the surface, passing through bodies of rock
along the way.

“Seismic Waves” by the United States Geologic Survey is licensed

under Public Domain.

Surface waves are produced when P and S body waves strike the
earth’s surface and travel along the Earth’s surface, radiating
outward from the epicenter. Surface waves travel more slowly than
body waves. They have complex horizontal and vertical ground
movements that create a rolling motion. Because they propagate at
the surface and have complex motions, surface waves are responsible
for most of the damage. Two types of surface waves are Love waves
and Rayleigh waves. Love waves produce horizontal ground
shaking and, ironically from their name, are the most destructive.
Rayleigh waves produce an elliptical motion of points on the
438 | 4.3 MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES

surface, with longitudinal dilation and compression, like ocean

waves. How-ever, with Raleigh waves, rock particles move in a
direction opposite to that of water particles in ocean waves. (9
Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An Introduction to
Geology, n.d.)

Earth is like a bell, and an earthquake is a way to ring it. Like other
waves, seismic waves bend and bounce when passing from one
material to another, like moving from a dense rock to rock with
even higher density. When a wave bends as it moves into a different
substance, it is known as refraction, and when waves bounce back,
it is known as reflection. Because S waves cannot move through a
liquid, they are blocked by the liquid outer core, creating a shadow
zone on the opposite side of the planet to the earthquake source.

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Seismographs
Seismographs are instruments used to measure seismic waves.
They measure the vibration of the ground using pendulums or
springs. The seismograph principle involves mounting a recording
device solidly to the earth and suspending a pen or writing
instrument above it on a spring or pendulum. As the ground
shakes, the suspended pen records the shaking on the recording
device. The graph resulting from measurements of a seismograph is
a seismogram. Seismographs of the early 20th century were mostly
springs or pendulums with pens on them that wrote on a rotating
drum of paper. Digital ones now use magnets and wire coils to
measure ground motion. Typical seismograph arrays measure
vibrations in three directions: north-south (x), east-west (y), and
up-down (z).
440 | 4.3 MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES

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To determine the distance of the seismograph from the epicenter,

seismologists use the difference between when the first P waves
and S waves arrive. After an earthquake, P waves will appear first on
the seismogram, followed by S waves, and finally, body waves,
which have the largest amplitude on the seismogram. Surface waves
do lose energy quickly, so they are not measured at great distances
from the focus. Seismograph technology across the globe record the
arrival of seismic waves from each earthquake at many station sites.
The distance to the epicenter can be determined by comparing
arrival times of the P and S waves. Electronic communication
among seismic stations and connected computers used to make
calculations mean that locations of earthquakes and news reports
about them are generated quickly in the modern world. (9 Crustal
Deformation and Earthquakes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)
 4.3 MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES | 441

Locating Earthquakes
Each seismograph gives the distance from that station to the
earthquake epicenter. Three or more seismograph stations are
needed to locate the epicenter of an earthquake through
triangulation. Using the arrival-time difference from the first P wave
to the first S wave, one can determine the distance from the
epicenter, but not the direction. The distance from the epicenter to
each station can be plotted as a circle, the distance being equal to
the circle’s radius. The place where the circles intersect demarks the
epicenter. This method also works in three dimensions with spheres
and multi-axis seismographs to locate not only the epicenter but
also the depth of the earthquake’s focus.

Seismograph Network
The International Registry of Seismograph Stations lists more than
20,000 seismographs on the planet. Seismologists can use and
442 | 4.3 MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES

compare data from sets of multiple seismometers dispersed over a

wide area, a seismograph network. By collaborating, scientists can
map the inside of the earth’s properties, detect large explosive
devices, and predict tsunamis. The Global Seismograph Network, a
set of worldwide linked seismographs that distribute real-time data
electronically, consists of more than 150 stations that meet specific
design and precision standards. The Global Seismograph Network
helps the Comprehensive Nuclear-Test-Ban Treaty Organization
monitor for nuclear tests. The USArray is a network of hundreds of
permanent and transportable seismographs within the United
States. The USArray is being used to map the subsurface through a
passive collection of seismic waves created by earthquakes. (9
Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An Introduction to
Geology, n.d.)

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Determining Earthquake
Magnitudes

Richter Scale

Magnitude is the measure of the intensity of an earthquake. The

Richter scale is the most well-known magnitude scale devised for
an earthquake and was the first one developed by Charles Richter at
CalTech. This was the magnitude scale used historically by early
seismologists. The Richter scale magnitude is determined from
measurements on a seismogram. Magnitudes on the Richter scale
are based on measurements of the maximum amplitude of the
needle trace measured on the seismogram and the arrival time
difference of S and P waves, which gives the distance to the
earthquake. (9 Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An
Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

The Richter scale is a logarithmic scale, based on powers of 10. The

amplitude of the seismic wave recorded on the seismogram is ten
times greater for each increase of 1 unit on the Richter scale. That
means a magnitude six earthquake shakes the ground ten times
more than a magnitude 5. However, the actual energy released for
each 1-unit magnitude increase is 32 times greater. That means
444 | 4.3 MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES

energy released for a magnitude six earthquake is 32 times greater

than a magnitude 5 earthquake. The Richter scale was developed
for distances appropriate for earthquakes in Southern California
and on seismograph machines in use there. Its applications to more
considerable distances and massive earthquakes are limited.
Therefore, most agencies no longer use Richter’s methods to
determine the magnitude but generate a quantity called the
Moment Magnitude, which is more accurate for large earthquakes
measured at the seismic array across the earth. As numbers, the
moment magnitudes are comparable to the magnitudes of the
Richter Scale. The media still often give magnitudes as Richter
Magnitude even though the actual calculation was of moment
magnitude.

“Earthquake Severity” is licensed under Public Domain.

 4.3 MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES | 445

Moment Magnitude Scale

The Moment Magnitude Scale depicts the absolute size of

earthquakes, comparing information from multiple locations and
using a measurement of actual energy released calculated from the
cross-sectional area of rupture, amount of slippage, and the rigidity
of the rocks. Because of the unique geologic setting of each
earthquake and because the rupture area is often hard to measure,
estimates of moment magnitude can take days to months to
calculate. (9 Crustal Deformation and Earthquakes – An
Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

Like the Richter magnitude, the moment magnitude scale is

logarithmic. Both scales are used in tandem because the estimates of
magnitude may change after a quake. The Richter scale is used as a
quick determination immediately following the quake (and is
usually reported in news accounts), and the moment magnitude is
calculated days to months later. The magnitude values of the two
magnitudes are approximately equal except for massive
earthquakes.

Modified Mercalli-Intensity Scale

The Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale is a qualitative scale (I-

XII) of the intensity of ground shaking based on damage to
structures and people’s perceptions. This scale can vary depending
on the location and population density (urban vs. rural). It was also
used for historical earthquakes, which occurred before quantitative
measurements of magnitude could be made. The Modified Mercalli
Intensity maps show where the damage is most severe based on
446 | 4.3 MEASURING AND LOCATING EARTHQUAKES

questionnaires sent to residents, newspaper articles, and reports

from assessment teams. Recently, USGS has used the internet to
help gather data more quickly.

Shakemaps (written ShakeMaps by the USGS) use high-quality

seismograph data from seismic networks to show areas of intense
shaking. They are the result of rapid, computer-interpolated
seismograph data. They are useful in crucial minutes after an
earthquake, as they can show emergency personnel where the most
significant damage likely occurred and locate areas of possible
damaged gas lines and other utilities.

“Modified Mercalli Intensity Scale” by the United States Geologic

Survey is licensed under Public Domain.
4.4 EARTHQUAKE RISK

Ground Shaking, Location, and

Direction
In general, the larger the magnitude, the stronger the shaking, and
the longer the shaking will last. However, other factors influence
the level of shaking. Closer earthquakes will inherently cause more
shaking than those farther away. The location of the epicenter and
direction of rupture will influence how much shaking is felt. The
direction that the rupture propagates along the fault influences the
shaking. The path of most significant rupture can intensify shaking
in effect known as directivity.

The nature of the ground materials affects the properties of the

seismic waves. Varied materials respond differently to an
earthquake. Think of shaking jello versus shaking a meatloaf; one
will jiggle much more to the same amount of shaking. The response
to shaking depends on their degree of consolidation; lithified
sedimentary rocks, and crystalline rocks shake less than
unconsolidated sediments and landfill. This is because seismic
waves move faster through consolidated bedrock, move slower
through unconsolidated sediment, and move slowest through
unconsolidated materials with high water content. Since the energy
is carried by both velocity and amplitude, when a seismic wave
slows down, its amplitude increases, which in turn increases seismic
448 | 4.4 EARTHQUAKE RISK

shaking. Energy is transferred to the vertical motion of the surface

waves.

Depth of Focus
The focus is the place within the Earth where the earthquake starts,
and the depth of earthquakes influences the amount of shaking.
Deeper earthquakes cause less shaking at the surface because they
lose much of their energy before reaching the surface. Recall that
most of the destruction is caused by surface waves, caused by the
body waves reaching the surface.

What Determines Destruction?

Building Materials
Building material choices can influence the amount of damage
caused by earthquake shaking. The flexibility of building materials
relates to their resistance to damage by earthquake waves.
Unreinforced Masonry (URM) is the most devastated by ground
shaking. Wood framing held together with nails that can bend and
flex with wave passage are more likely to survive earthquakes. Steel
also can deform elastically before brittle failure. The Salt Lake City
campaign “Fix the Bricks” has useful information on URMs and
earthquake safety.

Shaking Intensity and Duration

More significant shaking and duration of shaking will cause more

 4.4 EARTHQUAKE RISK | 449

destruction than less shaking and shorter shaking. Resonance is

when the frequency of seismic energy matches a building’s natural
frequency of shaking, determined by properties of the building, and
intensifies the shaking’s amplitude. This famously happened in the
1985 Mexico City Earthquake, where buildings of heights between
6 and 15 stories were especially vulnerable to earthquake damage.
Skyscrapers designed with earthquake resilience have dampers, and
base isolation features to reduce resonance. Changes in the
structural integrity of a structure could alter its resonance.
Conversely, changes in measured resonance can indicate potential
changes in structural integrity. (9 Crustal Deformation and
Earthquakes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

Earthquake Recurrence

Geologists dig earthquake trenches across some faults to measure

ground deformation and estimate the frequency of occurrence of
past earthquakes. Trenches are useful for faults with prolonged
recurrence intervals (100s to 10,000s of years), which is the period
be-tween significant earthquakes. In areas with more frequent
earthquakes and more measured earthquake data, trenches are less
necessary. A long hiatus in earthquake activity could indicate the
buildup of stress on a specific segment of a fault with strain held in
place by friction, which would indicate a higher probability of an
earthquake along that segment. This hiatus of seismic activity along
a length of a fault (i.e., a fault that is locked and not having any
earthquakes) is known as a seismic gap.

Secondary Hazards Caused by

450 | 4.4 EARTHQUAKE RISK

Earthquakes Liquefaction
Liquefaction is when saturated unconsolidated sediments (usually
silt or sand) is liquefied from shaking. Shaking causes loss of
cohesion between grains of sediment, reducing the effective stress
resistance of the sediment. The sediment flows very much like the
quicksand presented in movies. Liquefaction creates sand
volcanoes, which is when liquefied sand is squirted through an
overlying (usually finer-grained) layer, creating cone-shaped sand
features. It may also cause buildings to settle or tilt.

Earthquake-induced tsunamis have caused many of the more recent

devastating natural disasters. Tsunamis form when earthquakes
offset the seafloor in the ocean subsurface. This offset can be caused
by fault movement or underwater landslides and lifts a volume of
ocean water generating the tsunami wave. Tsunami waves travel fast
with low amplitude in deep ocean water but are significantly
amplified as the water shallows as they approach the shore. When a
tsunami is about to strike land, the water in front of the wave along
the shore will recede significantly, tragically causing curious people
to wander out. This receding water is the drawback of the trough in
front of the tsunami wave, which then crashes onshore as a wall of
water upwards of a hundred feet high. Warning systems have been
established to help mitigate the loss of life caused by tsunamis.

Landslides

Shaking can trigger landslides (see landslide section for more

information). One example is the 1992 magnitude 5.9 earthquake
in St. George, Utah. This earthquake caused the Spring-dale
 4.4 EARTHQUAKE RISK | 451

landslide, having a scarp that offset and destroyed several structures

in the Balanced Rock Hills subdivision.

Seiches

Seiches are waves on lakes generated by earthquakes, which cause

sloshing of water back and forth and, sometimes, even changes in
elevation of the lake. A seich in Hebgen Lake during the 1959
earthquake caused significant destruction to structures and roads
around the lake.

Land Elevation Changes

Significant subsidence and upheaval of the land can occur about the
slippage that causes earthquakes. Land elevation changes are the
result of the relaxation of stress and subsequent movement along
the fault plane. The 1964 Alaska earthquake is an excellent example
of this. Where the fault cuts the surface, the elevation of one side
causes a fault scarp that maybe a few feet to 20 or 30 feet in height.
The Wasatch Mountains represent an accumulation of fault scarps
of a couple of dozen feet at a time over a few million years.

Human-Induced Earthquakes
Can humans create earthquakes? Not intentionally, but the answer
is yes, and here is why. If a water reservoir is built on top of an active
fault line, the water may lubricate the fault and weaken the stress
built up within it. This may either create a series of small
earthquakes or potentially create a massive earthquake. Also, the
452 | 4.4 EARTHQUAKE RISK

sheer weight of the reservoir r’s water can weaken the bedrock
causing it to fracture. Then the obvious concern is if the dam fails.
Earthquakes can also be generated if humans inject other fluids into
a fault, such as sew-age or chemical waste. Finally, nuclear
explosions can trigger earthquakes. One way to determine if a
nation has tested a nuclear bomb is by monitoring the earthquakes
and energy released by the explosion.
4.5 VOLCANISM

Magma Generation
Magma and lava contain three components – melt, solids, and
volatiles (dissolved gases). The liquid part, called melt, is made of
ions from minerals that have already melted. The solid part, called
solids, are crystals of minerals that have not melted (higher melting
temperature) and are floating in the melt. Volatiles are gaseous
components dissolved in the magma, such as water vapor, carbon
dioxide, sulfur, and chlorine. The presence and amount of these
three components affect the physical behavior of the magma. (4
Igneous Processes and Volcanoes – An Introduction to Geology,
n.d.)
454 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

stratosphere Volcanic gasses mix with

atmosphere

the atmosphere
troposphere

Volcanic eruption,
extrusion of lava

Magma differentiation in
magma reservoirs
crust
lithosphere

Intrusion, stagnation,
crystallisation
Moho
Intrusion, underplating

Magma rises
mantle
asthenosphere

Partial melting,
origin of magma

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Geothermal Gradient
Although it is scorching under the Earth’s surface, the crust and
mantle are mostly solid. This heat inside the Earth is caused by
residual heat left over from the original formation of Earth and
radioactive decay. The rate at which temperature increases with
depth is called the geothermal gradient. The average geothermal
gradient in the upper 100 kilometers of the crust is generally about
25 degrees Celsius per kilometer (km). So, for every kilometer of
depth, the temperature increases by about 25 degrees Celsius. (4
Igneous Processes and Volcanoes – An Introduction to Geology,
n.d.)
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 455

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Decompression Melting
Magma is created at the mid-ocean ridge by decompression melting.
The mantle is solid but is slowly flowing under enormous pressure
and temperatures due to convection. Rock is not a good conductor
of heat, so as mantle rock rises, the pressure is reduced along with
the melting point (the green line), but the rock temperature
remains about the same, and the rising rock begins to melt. Pressure
changes instantaneously as the rock rises, but temperature changes
456 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

slowly because of the low heat conductivity of rock. In the figure

above, setting B: mid-ocean ridge shows a mass of mantle rock at a
pressure-temperature X on the P-T diagram and its geographical
location on the cross-section under a mid-ocean ridge. At this
location, the P-T diagram shows the red arrow increasing to the
right. Thus, hotter rock is now shallower, at a lower pressure, and
the new geothermal gradient (red line) shifts past the solidus (green
line) and melting starts. As this magma continues to rise at
divergent boundaries and encounters seawater, it cools and
crystallizes to form new lithospheric crust. (4 Igneous Processes and
Volcanoes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

Flux Melting
Another way that rocks melt is when volatile gases (e.g., water
vapor) are added to mantle rock from a descending subducting slab
in a process called flux melting (or fluid-induced melting). The
subducting slab contains oceanic lithosphere and hydrated
minerals. As the slab descends and slowly increases in temperature,
volatiles are expelled from these hydrated minerals, like squeezing
water out of a sponge. The volatiles then rises into the overlying
asthenospheric mantle, which lowers the melting point of the
peridotite minerals (olivine and pyroxene). The pressure and
temperature of the overlying mantle rock do not change, but the
addition of volatiles lowers the melting temperature. This is
analogous to adding salt to an icy roadway. The salt lowers the
melting/crystallization temperature of the solid water (ice) so that it
melts. Another example is welders adding flux to lower the melting
point of their welding materials.
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 457

Flux melting is illustrated in setting D: island arc (subduction zone)

of the P-T diagram above. Volatiles added to mantle rock at
location “Z” act as a flux to lower the melting temperature. This is
shown in the P-T diagram by the solidus (green line) shifting to the
left. The solidus line moves past the geothermal gradient (red line),
and melting begins. Magmas producing the volcanoes of the Ring
of Fire, associated with the circum-Pacific subduction zones, are a
result of flux melting. As introduced in the minerals chapter, water
ions can bond with other ions in the crystal structures of amphibole
(and other silicates), which is essential in considering how magmas
form in subduction zones by “flux melting.” Such hydrated
minerals in subducting slabs contribute water to the flux melting
process. (4 Igneous Processes and Volcanoes – An Introduction to
Geology, n.d.)
Accretionary prism
Volcanic arc

Ocean trench

Oceanic crust Continental

crust

Moho

discontinuity

Solid Magma

uppermost e
pher chamber
Lithos
mantle
Rising

diapirs

re
he
sp
no
the
As Subduction zone

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458 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

Magma Composition
In 1980, Mount St. Helens blew up in the costliest and deadliest
volcanic eruption in United States history. The eruption killed 57
people, destroyed 250 homes, and swept away 47 bridges. Mount
St. Helens today still has minor earthquakes and eruptions, and
now has a horseshoe-shaped crater with a lava dome inside. The
dome is formed of viscous lava that oozes into place.

It should first be noted that magma is molten material inside the

earth, while lava is molten on the earth’s surface. The reason for the
distinction is because lava can cool quickly from the air and solidify
into rock rapidly, while magma may never reach the earth’s surface.
Volcanoes do not always erupt in the same way. Each volcanic
eruption is unique, differing in size, style, and composition of the
erupted material. One key to what makes the eruption unique is the
chemical composition of the magma that feeds a volcano, which
determines (1) the eruption style, (2) the type of volcanic cone that
forms, and (3) the composition of rocks that are found at the
volcano.

Different minerals within rocks melt at different temperatures, and

the amount of partial melting and the composition of the original
rock determine the magma’s composition. Magma collects in
magma chambers in the crust at 160 kilometers (100 miles) beneath
the surface of a volcano.

The words that describe the composition of igneous rocks also

describe magma composition. Mafic magmas are low in silica and
have darker magnesium, and iron-rich mafic minerals, such as
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 459

olivine and pyroxene. Felsic magmas are higher in silica and have
lighter colored minerals such as quartz and orthoclase feldspar. The
higher the amount of silica in the magma, the higher is its viscosity.
Viscosity is a liquid’s resistance to flow.

Viscosity determines what the magma will do. Mafic magma is not
viscous and will flow smoothly to the surface. Felsic magma is
viscous and does not flow smoothly. Most felsic magma will stay
deeper in the crust and will cool to form intrusive igneous rocks
such as granite and granodiorite. If felsic magma rises into a magma
chamber, it may be too viscous to move, and so it gets stuck.
Dissolved gases become trapped by thick magma, and the magma
chamber begins to build pressure.

Explosive Eruptions
The type of magma in the chamber determines the type of volcanic
eruption. A massive explosive eruption creates even more
devastation than the force of the atom bomb dropped on Nagasaki
at the end of World War II, in which more than 40,000 people died.
A massive explosive volcanic eruption is 10,000 times as powerful.
Felsic magmas erupt explosively because of hot, gas-rich magma
churning within its chamber. The pressure becomes so great that
the magma eventually breaks the seal and explodes, just like when a
cork is released from a champagne bottle. Magma, rock, and ash
burst upward in an enormous explosion creating volcanic ash called
tephra. It should be noted that when looked under a microscope,
the volcanic “ash” is actual microscopic shards of glass. That is why
it is so dangerous to inhale the air following an eruption.
460 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

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Scorching hot tephra, ash, and gas may speed down the volcano’s
slopes at 700 km/h (450 mph) as a pyroclastic flow. Pyroclastic
flows knock down everything in their path. The temperature inside
a pyroclastic flow may be as high as 1,000 degrees Celsius (1,800
degrees Fahrenheit). Before the Mount St. Helens eruption in 1980,
the Lassen Peak eruption on May 22, 1915, was the most recent
Cascade eruption. A column of ash and gas shot 30,000 feet into
the air. This triggered a high-speed pyroclastic flow, which melted
snow and created a volcanic mudflow known as a lahar. Lassen Peak
currently has geothermal activity and could erupt explosively again.
Mt. Shasta, the other active volcano in California, erupts every 600
to 800 years. An eruption would create a large pyroclastic flow, and
probably a lahar. Of course, Mt. Shasta could explode and collapse
like Mt. Mazama in Oregon.
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 461

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Volcanic gases can form toxic and invisible clouds in the

atmosphere that could contribute to environmental problems such
as acid rain and ozone destruction. Particles of dust and ash may
stay in the atmosphere for years, disrupting weather patterns and
blocking sunlight.
462 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

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Effusive Eruptions
Mafic magma creates gentler effusive eruptions. Although the
pressure builds enough for the magma to erupt, it does not erupt
with the same explosive force as felsic magma. People can usually be
evacuated before an effusive eruption, so they are much less deadly.
Magma pushes toward the surface through fissures and reaches the
surface through volcanic vents. Click here to view a lava stream
within the vent of a Hawaiian volcano using a thermal camera.

Low-viscosity lava flows down mountainsides. Differences in

composition and where the lavas erupt result in lava types like a
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 463

ropy form pahoehoe and a chunky form called aa. Although

effusive eruptions rarely kill anyone, they can be destructive. Even
when people know that a lava flow is approaching, there is not
much anyone can do to stop it from destroying a building, road, or
infrastructure.

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464 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

Volcano Features and Types

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A volcano occurs where lava erupts at the surface and solidifies into
rock. There are several types of volcanoes based on their shape,
eruption style, magmatic composition, and other aspects. The most
massive craters are called a caldera, such as the Crater Lake Caldera
in Oregon. Many volcanic features are produced by viscosity, a
fundamental property of lava. Viscosity is the resistance to flowing
by a fluid. Low viscosity magma flows easily more like syrup, the
basaltic volcanism that occurs in Hawaii on shield volcanoes. High
viscosity means a sticky magma, typically felsic or intermediate, that
flows slowly, like toothpaste. (4 Igneous Processes and Volcanoes –
An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 465

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Shield Volcanoes

The largest volcano is a shield volcano and is characterized by

broad, low-angle flanks, a small vent, or groups of vents at the top,
and basaltic magma. The name “shield” comes from the side view
resembling a medieval warrior’s shield. They are typically associated
with hotspots, midocean ridges, or continental rifts where upper
mantle material rises, and build up slowly from many low-viscosity
basaltic lava flows that can travel long distances, hence making the
low-angle flanks. Because the magma is basaltic and low viscosity,
the eruption style is not explosive but rather effusive, meaning that
466 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

volcanic eruptions are small, localized, and predictable. Therefore,

this eruption style is not typically much of a hazard.

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Mauna Loa (info) and the more active Kilauea (info) in Hawaii are
good examples of vents on a shield volcano. The eruption of
Kilauea from fissures in Hawaii in 2018, while not explosive,
produced viscous lavas that did considerable damage to roads and
structures. Shield volcanoes are also found in Iceland, the
Galapagos Islands, Northern California, Oregon, and the East
African Rift (USGS, 2011).
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 467

“Hawaiian Islands” by NASA’s Earth Observatory is licensed under

Public Domain.

Basaltic magma can form several rock types and unique landforms.
Based on magma temperature, composition, and content of
dissolved gases and water vapor, there are two main types of basaltic
volcanic rocks with Hawaiian names – pahoehoe and aa. Pahoehoe
is a basaltic magma that flows smoothly into a “ropey” appearance.
In contrast, aa (sometimes spelled a’a or ʻaʻā and pronounced “ah-
ah”) has a crumbly blocky appearance. (Peterson and Tilling 1980).
Felsic silica-rich lavas also form aa flows.

In basaltic lava flows, the low viscosity lava can smoothly flow,
and it tends to harden on the outside but continue to flow
internally within a tube. Once the interior flowing lava subsides, the
tube may be left as an empty lava tube. Lava tubes famously make
468 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

caves (with or without collapsed roofs) in Hawaii, Northern

California, the Columbia River Basalt Plateau of Washington and
Oregon, El Malpais National Monument in New Mexico, and
Craters of the Moon National Monument in Idaho. Fissures, cracks
that originate from shield-style eruptions, are also common.
Magmas from fissures are typically very fluid and mafic. The
volcanic activity itself causes some fissures, and some can be
influenced by tectonics, such as the common fissures parallel to the
divergent boundary in Iceland. See above for fissure flows from
Kilauea in 2018.

Since basalt flows are thick accumulations of lava with a

homogeneous composition that flows quickly when the lava begins
to cool, it can contract into columns with a hexagonal cross-section
called columnar jointing. This feature is common in basaltic lava
flows but can be found in more felsic lavas and tuffs. (4 Igneous
Processes and Volcanoes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

Cinder Cones

Cinder cones are small volcanoes with steep sides, made of cinders
and volcanic bombs ejected from a clear central vent. Typically, they
come from mafic lavas that have high volatile content. Cinders form
when hot lava is ejected into the air, cooling and solidifying before
they reach the flank of the volcano. The largest cinders are called
volcanic bombs. Cinder cones form in short-lived eruption events
that are common in the western United States.

A recent and striking example of a short-lived cinder cone is the

1943 eruption near Parícutin, Mexico. The cinder cone started with
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 469

an explosive eruption shooting cinders out of a vent in the middle

of a farmer’s field. Quickly, volcanism continued building the cone
to a height of over 300 feet in a week and 1,200 feet in the first eight
months. After the initial explosive gases and cinders were released,
growing the cone, basaltic lava poured out around the base of the
cone. This order of events is typical for cinder cones: first violent
eruption, then the formation of cone and crater, followed by a low-
viscosity lava flow from the base (the cone of cinders is not strong
enough to support a column of lava rising to the top of the crater).
The Parícutin cinder cone was built over nine years and covered
about 100-square miles with ashes and destroyed the town of San
Juan.

“Groundhog Cinder Cone” by the United States Department of

Agriculture is licensed under Public Domain.
470 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

Lava Domes

Lava domes are a relatively small accumulation of silica-rich

volcanic rocks, such as rhyolite and obsidian, that is too viscous to
flow, and therefore, pile high close to the vent. The domes often
form within the collapsed crater of a stratovolcano near the vent
and grow by expansion from within. As it grows, its outer surface
cools and hardens, then shatters, spilling loose fragments down its
sides. An excellent example of a lava dome is inside of a collapsed
stratovolcano crater is Mount Saint Helens. Examples of a stand-
alone lava dome are Chaiten in Chile and the Mammoth Mountain
in California. (Volcanoes: Principal Types of Volcanoes, n.d.)
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 471

“Chaiten Volcano Lava Dome, Chile” by NASA’s Earth Observatory

is licensed under Public Domain.

Composite Volcanoes

Composite volcanoes, also called stratovolcanos, has steep flanks,

a symmetrical cone shape, a distinct crater, and rises prominently
above the surrounding landscape. The figure at the beginning of
this section shows a stratovolcano. Examples include Mount
Rainier in the Cascade Range in Washington and Mount Fuji in
Japan. Stratovolcanoes can have magma with felsic to mafic
composition. However, felsic to intermediate magmas are most
472 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

common. The term “composite” refers to the alternating layers of

pyroclastic materials (like ash) and lava flows. The viscous nature of
the intermediate and felsic magmas in subduction zones results in
steep flanks and explosive eruption styles. Stratovolcanoes are made
of alternating lava flows and ash. (4 Igneous Processes and
Volcanoes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

“Mount Rainier and the Emmons Glacier” by the National Park

Service is licensed under Public Domain.
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 473

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Calderas

Calderas are generally large (some up to 15 miles in diameter),

steep-walled, basin-shaped depressions formed by the collapse of a
volcanic edifice into an emptying magma chamber and although
the word caldera only refers to the vent, many use calderas as a
volcano type, typically formed by high-viscosity felsic volcanism
with high volatile content. Crater Lake, Yellowstone, and Long
Valley Caldera are good examples. At Crater Lake National Park in
Oregon, about 6,800 years ago, Mount Mazama was a composite
volcano that erupted in a sizeable explosive blast, ejecting massive
volcanic ash. The eruption rapidly drained the underlying magma
474 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

chamber causing the top to collapse into it, forming a significant

depression that later filled with water. Today a resurgent dome is
found rising through the lake as a cinder cone, called Wizard Island.
4.5 VOLCANISM | 475
476 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

“Mount Mazama Eruption” by the United

States Geologic Survey is licensed under
Public Domain.

“Crater Lake” is licensed under Creative Commons

Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported.

Flood Basalts

A rare volcanic eruption type, unobserved in modern times, is the

flood basalt. Flood basalts are some of the largest and lowest
viscosity types of eruptions known. They are not known from any
eruption in human history, so the exact mechanisms of eruption are
still debatable. Some famous examples include the Columbia River
Flood Basalts in Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, the Deccan
Traps, which cover about 1/3 of the country of India, and the
Siberian Traps, which may have been involved in the Earth’s most
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 477

massive mass extinction at the end of the Permian. (4 Igneous

Processes and Volcanoes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

Supervolcanoes

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The Yellowstone caldera erupted three times in the recent past, at

2.1, 1.3, and 0.64 million years ago. Each eruption created large
rhyolite flows and pyroclastic clouds of ash that solidified into tuff.
These extra-large eruptions rapidly emptied the magma chamber
causing the roof to collapse and form a caldera. Three calderas are
still preserved from these eruptions, and most of the roads and
478 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

hotels of Yellowstone National Park are located within the caldera.

Two resurgent domes are located within the last caldera.

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Yellowstone volcanism started as a hot spot under the North

American lithosphere about 17-million years ago near the Oregon/
Nevada border. As the North American plate slid southwestward
over the stationary hotspot, surface volcanism followed and helped
form Idaho’s Snake River Plain, eventually arriving at its current
location in northwestern Wyoming. As the plate moved to the
southwest over the stationary hotspot, it left a track of past volcanic
activities.
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 479

“Yellowstone Relief Map” by the United States Geologic Survey is

licensed under Public Domain.

The Long Valley Caldera near Mammoth California is a massive

explosive volcano that erupted 760,000 years ago and dumped a
significant amount of ash throughout the United States, similar to
the Yellowstone eruptions. This ash formed the large Bishop Tuff
deposit. Like the Yellowstone caldera, the Long Valley Caldera
contains the town of Mammoth Lakes, a major ski resort, an
airport, and a major highway. Further, there is a resurgent dome in
the middle and active hot springs. (4 Igneous Processes and
Volcanoes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)
480 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

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Distribution of Volcanic Activity

Most volcanoes are located at active plate boundaries called
interplate volcanism. The prefix “inter-” means “between.” In
contrast, some volcanoes are not associated with plate boundaries
but are found within the plate far from plate boundaries. These are
called intraplate volcanoes, and hotspots and fissure eruptions form
many. The prefix “intra-” means “within.” The following discusses
volcanism’s location in more detail with mid-ocean ridges,
subduction zones, continental rifts representing interplate
volcanism, and hot spots representing intraplate volcanism.
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 481

Volcanoes along Mid-Oceanic Ridges

Although most volcanism occurs on the ocean floor along the mid-
ocean ridge (a type of divergent plate boundary), they are the least
observed since most are under 10,000 to 15,000 feet of ocean, an
exception being Iceland. As the oceanic plates diverge and thin, hot
mantle rock is allowed to rise, pressure from depth is released,
which causes the ultramafic mantle rock (peridotite) to melt
partially. The resulting magma is basaltic in composition based on
the concept of partial melting discussed earlier. Because most
volcanoes on the ocean floor are basaltic, most of the oceanic
lithosphere is also basaltic near the surface with phaneritic gabbro
and ultramafic peridotite forming underneath. Icelandic volcanism
is an example of this, but lying above sea level.

An underwater volcanic eruption occurs when basaltic magma

erupts underwater, forming pillow basalts or in small explosive
eruptions. Lava erupting into seawater forms pillow-shaped
structures, hence the name. In association with these seafloor
eruptions, an entire underwater ecosystem thrives in parts of the
mid-ocean ridge. This ecosystem exists around tall vents emitting
black, hot mineral-rich water called deep-sea hydrothermal vents
(also known as black smokers).

This hot water, up to 380 degrees Celsius (716 degrees Fahrenheit),

is heated by the magma and dissolves many elements that support
the ecosystem. Deep underwater where the sun cannot reach, this
ecosystem of organisms depends on the heat of the vent for energy
and vent chemicals as its foundation of life called chemosynthesis.
The foundation of the ecosystem is hydrogen sulfide-oxidizing
482 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

bacteria that live symbiotically with the larger organisms. Hydrogen

sulfide (H2S, the gas that smells like rotten eggs) needed by these
bacteria is contained in the volcanic gases emitted from the
hydrothermal vents. The source of most of this sulfur and other
elements is the Earth’s interior. (4 Igneous Processes and Volcanoes
– An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

“Mid-Ocean Ridge System” by the National Oceanic and

Atmospheric Administration is licensed under Public Domain.

Volcanoes along Convergent Boundaries

Volcanoes are a vibrant manifestation of plate tectonics processes.

Volcanoes are common along convergent and divergent plate
boundaries but are also found within lithospheric plates away from
plate boundaries. Wherever mantle can melt, volcanoes may be the
result. Volcanoes erupt because mantle rock melts. The first stage in
creating a volcano is when mantle rock begins to melt because of
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 483

scorching temperatures, lithospheric pressure lowers, or water is

added.

Subduction Zones

During the process of subduction, water is expelled from the

hydrated minerals causing partial melting by flux melting in the
overlying mantle rock. This creates a mafic magma that rises
through the lithosphere and can change the composition by
interacting with surrounding continental crust as well as by magma
differentiation. These changes then evolve basaltic magma into a
more silica-rich rock in volcanoes and plutons. These silica-rich
rocks are felsic to intermediate rocks such as andesite, rhyolite,
pumice, and tuff. The Ring of Fire surrounding the Pacific Ocean
is dominated by subduction and contains volcanoes with silica-rich
magma. These volcanoes are discussed in more detail in the
stratovolcano section.

Large earthquakes are prevalent along convergent plate boundaries.

Since the Pacific Ocean is rimmed by convergent and transform
boundaries, 80 percent of all earthquakes occur around the Pacific
Ocean basin, called the Ring of Fire. A description of the Pacific
Ring of Fire along western North America is below:

• Subduction at the Middle American Trench creates volcanoes

in Central America.
• The San Andreas Fault is a transform boundary.
• Subduction of the Juan de Fuca plate beneath the North
American plate creates the Cascade volcanoes like Mount St.
Helens, Mount Rainer, Mount Hood, and more.
484 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

• Subduction of the Pacific plate beneath the North American

plate in the north creates the long chain of the Aleutian
Islands volcanoes near Alaska.

Mt. Garibaldi
Aleutian trench Mt. St. Helens
Kurile trench
Japan trench

Izu Ogasawara trench

Ryukyu trench
Puerto Rico trench
Philippine
Mt. Pinatubo trench
Marianas trench
Mt. Mayon Middle America
trench
Challenger Deep
Equator
Krakatoa Bougainville trench

Java (Sunda)
trench

Tonga trench Peru-Chile trench

Kermadec trench

South Sandwich
trench

“Pacific Ring of Fire” is licensed under Public Domain.

Continental Rifts

In addition to volcanoes at the mid-ocean ridge and subduction

zones, some volcanoes are at continental rifts, where the
lithosphere is diverging and thinning, such as in the Basin and
Range Province in North America and the East African Rift Basin
in Africa. The thinning allows for some of the lower crustal rocks
or upper mantle rocks to rise, releasing some pressure and causing
partial melting. The magma generated is less dense than the
surrounding rock and rises through the crust to the surface,
erupting as basalt. These basaltic eruptions are usually in the form
of flood basalts, cinder cones, and basaltic lava flows. For example,
young cinder cones are found in south-central Utah, the Black
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 485

Rock Desert Volcanic Field, which is part of the Basin and Range
crustal extension. The 1-minute video (below) illustrates volcanism
in the Basin and Range Province. These Utah cinder cones and lava
flows started erupting 6 million years ago with the last volcanic
eruption 720 years ago. (4 Igneous Processes and Volcanoes – An
Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

Hotspots

The primary source of intraplate volcanism is hotspots. Hotspots

occur when lithospheric plates glide over a hot mantle plume, an
ascending column of hot rock (solid, not magma) originating from
deep within the mantle. A chain of ancient volcanoes formerly
active but now inactive for millions of years can be seen on the
seafloor or on continents, which leads to an active intraplate
volcano, indicating hotspot volcanism. The Pacific oceanic plate
overrode a hotspot mantle plume producing a long volcanic island
chain beginning with the Emperor Seamounts in the northwest
Pacific and terminating at the Hawaiian Islands with currently
active volcanoes. When the North American continental plate
overrode a mantle plume hotspot, a chain of ancient volcanic
calderas formed extending from Southwestern Idaho to the
Yellowstone caldera. (4 Igneous Processes and Volcanoes – An
Introduction to Geology, n.d.)
486 | 4.5 VOLCANISM

“Hawaiian Hot Spot” by the National Park Service is licensed under

Public Domain.

Once the ascending magma reaches the lithosphere, it spreads out

into a mushroom-shaped head that is tens to hundreds of
kilometers across. Think of the Bowen’s Reaction Series and the
temperatures of the magmas that contain the respective minerals. If
hot mafic magma rises beneath felsic continental crust spreads into
a head below the felsic boundary, the higher heat of the mafic
magma may cause the felsic rock above it to melt. There may be
mixing of the mafic material from below with the felsic above to
form intermediate magmas, or the felsic magma may melt and rise
higher, forming granitic batholiths or even emerging as a felsic
volcano. Such felsic (granitic) batholiths lie at the core of the Sierra
Nevada Mountains and comprise Yosemite’s dramatic features.
Since most mantle plumes are beneath the oceanic lithosphere,
volcanism’s initial stages typically take place on the seafloor. Over
time, basaltic volcanoes may form islands like those in Hawaii. If
the hotspot is under the continental lithosphere, magma of more
 4.5 VOLCANISM | 487

felsic to intermediate (silica-rich) composition rises into an

explosive volcano like Mt. St. Helens or the Yellowstone caldera.
4.6 PREDICTING
ERUPTIONS AND RISK

Predicting Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanologists try to forecast volcanic eruptions, but this has proven
to be as difficult as predicting an earthquake. Many pieces of
evidence can mean that a volcano is about to erupt, but the time
and magnitude of the eruption are challenging to pin down. This
evidence includes the history of previous volcanic activity,
earthquakes, slope deformation, and gas emissions. (Volcanic
Eruptions | Earth Science, n.d.)
 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK | 489

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History of Volcanic Activity

A volcano’s history, how long since its last eruption and the period
between its previous eruptions, is an excellent first step to predicting
eruptions. If the volcano is considered active, it is currently erupting
or shows signs of erupting soon. A dormant volcano means there
is no current activity, but it has erupted recently. Finally, an extinct
volcano means there is no activity and will probably not erupt again.
Active and dormant volcanoes are heavily monitored, especially in
populated areas. (Volcanic Eruptions | Earth Science, n.d.)
490 | 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK

Earthquakes

Moving magma shakes the ground, so the number and size of

earthquakes increase before an eruption. A volcano that is about
to erupt may produce a sequence of earthquakes. Scientists use
seismographs that record each earthquake’s length and strength to
determine if an eruption is imminent.

Magma and gas can push the volcano’s slope upward. Most ground
deformation is subtle and can only be detected by tiltmeters, which
are instruments that measure the angle of a volcano’s slope.
However, ground swelling may sometimes create considerable
changes in the shape of a volcano. Mount St. Helens grew a bulge
on its north side before its 1980 eruption. Ground swelling may also
increase rockfalls and landslides. (Volcanoes | Earth Science, n.d.)

Gas Emissions

Gases may be able to escape a volcano before magma reaches the

surface. Scientists measure gas emissions in vents on or around the
volcano. Gases, such as sulfur dioxide (SO2), carbon dioxide (CO2),
hydrochloric acid (HCl), and even water vapor, can be measured
at the site or, in some cases, from a distance using satellites. The
amounts of gases and their ratios are calculated to help predict
eruptions. (Volcanoes | Earth Science, n.d.)

Remote Monitoring

Some aspects of volcanic monitoring can be monitored using

satellite technology. Satellites also monitor temperature readings and
 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK | 491

deformation. As technology improves, scientists are better able to

detect changes in a volcano accurately and safely. Since
volcanologists are usually uncertain about an eruption, officials may
not know whether to require evacuation. If people are evacuated,
and the eruption does not happen, the people will be displeased and
less likely to evacuate the next time there is a threat of an eruption.
The costs of disrupting business are high. However, scientists
continue to work to improve the accuracy of their predictions.

Volcanic Hazards
Volcanoes are responsible for a large number of deaths. Volcanic
hazards have been famous for centuries, but recent eruptions are
better documented. The most apparent hazard is the lava itself
within a lava flow, but volcanic hazards go far beyond a lava flow.
For example, on May 18, 1980, Mount Saint Helens erupted with
an explosion and landslide that removed the upper 1,300 feet (400
m) of the mountain. This explosion was immediately followed by a
lateral blast and pyroclastic flow [23] covering 230 square miles of
forest with ash and debris. The effects of the blast are shown on the
before and after images. The pyroclastic flow (see below) moved at
speeds of 50 – 80 miles per hour (80-130 km/hr), flattened trees,
and ejected a giant ash cloud into the air. Watch the 7-minute USGS
video for an account of May 18, 1980, which killed 57. Pyroclastic
flows are common in explosive eruptions of stratovolcanoes.

In 79 AD, Mount Vesuvius, located near Naples, Italy, violently

erupted, sending a pyroclastic flow over the Roman countryside,
including the cities of Herculaneum and Pompeii. The buried
492 | 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK

towns were discovered in an archeological expedition in the 18th

century. Pompeii famously contains the remains (casts) of people
suffocated by ash and covered by 10 feet (3 m) of ash, pumice lapilli,
and collapsed roofs. (4 Igneous Processes and Volcanoes – An
Introduction to Geology, n.d.)

Pyroclastic Flows

The most dangerous volcanic hazard are pyroclastic flows. These

flows are a mix of lava blocks, pumice, ash, and hot gases between
400 to 1,300 degrees Fahrenheit. The turbulent cloud of ash and gas
races down the steep flanks at high speeds up to 120 mph (much
faster than people can run) into the valleys around composite
volcanoes. Most explosive, silica-rich, high viscosity magma
volcanoes such as composite cones usually have pyroclastic flows.
The rock tuff and welded tuff is often formed from these pyroclastic
flows.

There are numerous examples of deadly pyroclastic flows. In 2014,

the Mount Ontake pyroclastic flow in Japan killed 47 people. The
flow was caused by magma heating groundwater into steam, which
then rapidly ejected with ash and volcanic bombs. Some were killed
by inhalation of toxic gases and hot ash, while volcanic bombs struck
others. Two short videos below document the eyewitness video of
pyroclastic flows. In the early 1990s, Mount Unzen erupted several
times with pyroclastic flows. The pyroclastic flow shown in this
short video killed 41 people. In 1902, on the Caribbean Island
Martinique, Mount Pelee erupted with a violent pyroclastic flow
that destroyed the entire town of St. Pierre and killing 28,000 people
 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK | 493

in moments. (4 Igneous Processes and Volcanoes – An Introduction

to Geology, n.d.)

“Pyroclastic Flow at Mayon Volcano” by the United States

Geologic Survey is licensed under Public Domain.

Lahars

A lahar is an Indonesian word for a mudflow that is a mixture

of water, ash, rock fragments, and other debris moving down the
flanks of a volcano (or other nearby mountains covered with freshly-
erupted ash) and entering adjacent river valleys. They form from
the rapid melting of snow or glaciers on volcanoes. They are like a
slurry of concrete but can flow up to 50 mph while still on the steep
flanks. Since lahars are slurry-like, they can travel long distances in
river valleys like a flash flood.

During the 1980 Mount St. Helens eruption, lahars reached

17-miles (27 km) down the North Fork of the Toutle River.
494 | 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK

Prehistoric lahar flows have been mapped at significant vol-canoes

such as Mount Rainier near Tacoma, Washington (Rosi et al. 1999).
Prehistoric lahars occupied river floodplains where large cities are
found today, as shown on the map. Similarly, Mount Baker poses
a hazard as shown by this hazard map for Mount Baker north of
Seattle, Washington. A recent scenario played out when a lahar from
the volcano Nevado del Ruiz Colombia, buried a town in 1985 and
killed an estimated 25,000 people.

“Lahar off Mount St. Helens” by the United States Geologic Survey
is licensed under Public Domain.

Landslides and Landslide-Generated

Tsunamis

The flanks of a volcano are steep and unstable, which can lead to
slope failure and generate dangerous landslides. For example, the
landslide at Mount St. Helens 1980 released a considerable amount
of materials as the entire north flank collapsed. The landslide moved
 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK | 495

at speeds of 100-180 mph. Movement of magma, explosive

eruptions, massive earthquakes, and heavy rainfall can trigger these
landslides. In unique situations, the landslide material can reach
water and cause a tsunami. In 1792 in Japan, Mount Unzen erupted,
causing a giant landslide that reached the Ariake Sea and made a
tsunami that killed 15,000 people on the opposite shore.

Tephra and Ash

Volcanoes, mainly composite volcanoes, eject substantial amounts

of tephra (ejected rock materials) and ash (fragments less than 2 mm
or 0.08 inches. Tephra is heavier and falls closer to the vent. Larger
blocks and bombs pose hazards to those close to the eruption, such
as at the 2014 Mount Ontake disaster in Japan discussed earlier.
Ash is fine and can be carried long distances away from the vent,
and can cause building collapses and respiratory issues like silicosis.
Hot ash can be dangerous to those close to the eruption and disrupt
services such as airline transportation farther away. For example, in
2010, the Eyjafjallajökull volcano in Iceland created a giant ash cloud
in the upper atmosphere that caused the most significant air travel
disruption in northern Europe since a seven-day airline shut down
during World War II. No one was hurt, but the cost to the world
economy was estimated to be billions of dollars. (4 Igneous Processes
and Volcanoes – An Introduction to Geology, n.d.)
496 | 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK

“Ash Plume from Mount Cleveland” by NASA’s Earth Observatory

is licensed under Public Domain.

Volcanic Gases

Magma contains dissolved gases. As rising magma reaches the

surface, the confining pressure decreases, allowing gases to escape,
like gases coming out of solution after opening a soda bottle.
Therefore, volcanoes, when not erupting, release hazardous gases
such as carbon dioxide (CO2), sulfur dioxide (SO2), hydrogen
sulfide (H2S), and hydrogen halides (HF, HCl, or HBr). Carbon
dioxide can sink and accumulate in low-lying depressions on the
earth’s surface. Mammoth Mountain Ski Resort in Mammoth
Lakes, California, is located within the Long Valley Caldera.
Therefore, the whole ski resort and town are within the caldera. In
2006, three ski patrol members were killed after skiing into snow
depressions near fumaroles filled with carbon dioxide (info).
 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK | 497

Therefore, in volcanic areas where carbon dioxide emissions occur,

avoid low-lying areas that may trap carbon dioxide.

In rare cases, a volcano can suddenly release gases without warning.

Called a limnic eruption, this commonly occurs in crater lakes as
gases pour from the water. It infamously occurred in 1986 in Lake
Nyos, Cameroon, killing almost 2,000 people due to carbon dioxide
asphyxiation.

Volcanic Monitoring

Volcano monitoring requires geologists to use many instruments to

detect changes that may indicate an eruption is imminent. Some of
the main observations include regular monitoring for earthquakes
(including unique vibrational earthquakes called harmonic tremors,
caused by magma movement), changes in the orientation and
elevation of the land surface, and an increase in gas emissions.
498 | 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK

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Volcanic Landforms and

Geothermal Activity

Volcanic Landforms and Vents

Volcanoes are associated with many types of landforms. The

landforms vary with the composition of the magma that created
them. Hot springs and geysers are also examples of surface features
related to volcanic activity.

The most apparent landforms created by lava are volcanoes, most

 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK | 499

commonly as cinder cones, composite volcanoes, and shield

volcanoes or eruptions that take place through fissures. The
eruptions that created the entire ocean floor are fissure eruptions.
Magma intrusions ALSO can create landforms. The image on the
right is of Shiprock in New Mexico, which is the neck of an old
volcano that has eroded.

Lava Domes

When lava is viscous, it flows slowly. If there is not enough magma

or enough pressure to create an explosive eruption, the magma may
form a lava dome. However, because the magma’s viscosity is so
thick, the lava does not flow far from the volcanic vent. Lava flows
often make mounds right in the middle of craters at the top of
volcanoes.

Lava Plateaus and Land

A lava plateau forms when enormous amounts of fluid lava flow

over an extensive area. When the lava solidifies, it creates a large,
flat surface of the igneous rock. Lava creates new land as it solidifies
on the coast or emerges from beneath the water. Over time the
eruptions can create whole islands. The Hawaiian Islands are formed
from shield volcano eruptions that have grown over the last 5 million
years.

Hot Springs and Geysers

Water sometimes encounters the hot rock. The water may emerge at
the surface as either a hot spring or a geyser. Water heated below
500 | 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK

ground that rises through a crack to the surface creates a hot spring.
The water in hot springs may reach temperatures in the hundreds of
degrees Celsius beneath the surface, although most hot springs are
much cooler.

Benefits of Volcanic Activity

There are many benefits to volcanic activity. One of the significant
benefits is the fact that volcanic activity can create very fertile soil for
agriculture. The problem is that many civilizations developed near
volcanoes for this reason – with sometimes deadly effects. Volcanic
activity can also create many mineral resources such as gold, silver,
nickel, copper, and lead. Volcanic rock is often used for landscaping,
tile, and cement.

Some of the most amazing landscapes are near volcanoes because

volcanic activity builds land creating, breathtaking scenery.
Volcanoes are economically vital for many regions because of the
recreational activity and tourism they bring.

Finally, a new but essential trend is geothermal power. The heat

generated by volcanoes can create electricity to power civilization.
Geothermal power is an entirely renewable resource free of pollution
and energy dependence from fossil fuels. Iceland – the surface
manifestation of the mid-Atlantic ridge – has a goal of powering the
entire nation on geothermal energy. Geothermal energy is also being
used in California, Kilauea, Hawaii, and now Utah.
 4.6 PREDICTING ERUPTIONS AND RISK | 501

“Geothermal Energy” is licensed under Creative Commons

Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International.

“Nesjavelli
r Power
Station in
Southwest
Iceland” is
licensed
under
Public
Domain.
4.7 TSUNAMIS

Most people never thought much about tsunamis until the

cataclysmic event that occurred on December 26, 2004, in
Indonesia. Tsunami is a Japanese term that means “harbor wave”.
There are four significant ways tsunamis form: underwater
earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, landslides, or extraterrestrial
impacts such as asteroids. These four seismic events will be looked
at in greater detail in a minute. The formation of a tsunami by these
catastrophic events is called tsunami initiation.

“Aerial of Sukuiso, Japan” by the United States Navy is licensed

under Public Domain.

Now once a tsunami is generated, it will travel outward in a circular

radius from the tsunami epicenter at speeds of 500 mph. However,
the height of each wave crest in the deep ocean is only 2-3 feet; thus,
 4.7 TSUNAMIS | 503

large ships never feel tsunamis in the deep ocean. It is essential to

stop here and briefly discuss the physics of energy traveling through
water. First, a wave of water is called a wave – that was easy! Next,
the distance between two wave peaks or heights is called a
wavelength. The frequency is when it takes one wavelength
(distance between two wave peaks) to pass a given position. Thus,
waves with long wavelengths have low frequencies because it takes a
long time for the wave to cross a given point. Waves that have short
wavelengths have high frequencies.

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Have you ever watched an object floating in the water as a wave

passes by it? Let’s say it is a stick in the ocean. Now when that wave
passes by, the stick does not travel with the wave; rather, the stick
504 | 4.7 TSUNAMIS

bops up and down but stays relatively in the same place. That is
because the water does not travel with the wave’s energy; instead,
the energy passes through the water causing the water to travel in a
circle (which appears as an up, slightly forward, down, and
backward motion). The depth of the circular size of motion
generated by waves is half the distance from each wave crest. Thus if
the distance from one wave crest to the next wave crest is one mile,
the depth of the water’s circular motion is half a mile. This is
important because tsunamis have very long wavelengths; thus, their
depths reach the ocean floor.

It was noted above that the height of a tsunami is only a few feet
high with very long wavelengths out in the deep ocean. This is
because in the deep water, the amplitude of the waves is minimal,
and the wavelengths quite large for anyone on a boat to notice. As
the tsunami approaches the shoreline, it begins to slow down and
grow taller because the friction between the oscillating tsunami
waves comes into more contact with the rising elevation of the
seafloor. This friction causes the wave’s amplitude to grow, the
wavelength shortens (distance between each successive tsunami
wave), and the frequency becomes shorter, causing the energy of the
tsunami to grow taller. The height of a tsunami is called the run-
up. Thus when a tsunami reaches the shore, it may have slowed to
30-40 mph but dramatically higher. The size of the run-up is
determined by the distance between the tsunami epicenter and the
shoreline, the energy released by the tsunami initiation, and the
steepness of the continental slope.
 4.7 TSUNAMIS | 505

“Tsunami” is licensed under Creative Commons

Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported.

Tsunamis are also not a massive, single wave coming ashore; rather,
they are a series of powerful, rippling waves called a tsunami train.
As the waves approach shore, the shoreline frequently disappears as
the water is pulled back into the ocean to build up the waves. Many
people find this strange event enticing and go onto the beach to see
the fish flapping on the newly bare ground. However, this is a false
sense of security, and within minutes the series of waves come
crashing ashore. Often, there can be up to ten individual tsunami
waves, and the most powerful waves tend to be the second or third
wave. So if the water along the coastline disappears, people need to
quickly gather their family and friends and head to higher ground.
506 | 4.7 TSUNAMIS

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Formation of a Tsunami

Earthquakes

Most tsunamis occur because of powerful subduction zone such as

the Ring of Fire. Thus, most tsunamis are generated by a reverse
fault or thrust fault earthquakes along subduction zones because of
the amount of water displaced by these events. However, not all
reverse fault earthquakes can initiate tsunamis. The minimum
magnitude of an earthquake needed to create a tsunami is a 7.5; the
Asian tsunami of 2004 was generated by a 9.1 magnitude thrust
 4.7 TSUNAMIS | 507

fault along an oceanic-to-oceanic subduction zone. Strike-slip faults

along transform boundaries do not generate tsunamis because their
parallel movement does not displace enough water.

The potential for a tsunami striking the United States is very high
for a variety of reasons. One is because of the oceanic-to-continental
subduction zone in the northwestern states of Washington,
Oregon, and northern California. Recall from previous modules
that this subduction zone generates earthquakes, but has produced
the major volcanoes of the region such as Mount St. Helens, Mt.
Rainer, and Mt. Shasta. Research shows that ever few hundred
years, the region experiences a 9.0 magnitude earthquake generating
a significant tsunami that would reach coastal cities within 20
minutes. There would be no time to evacuate the people in time.

The Great East Japan Earthquake of 2011 was the most documented
natural disaster in human history.
508 | 4.7 TSUNAMIS

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Volcanoes

Less common, but still a force to consider, are large, violent,

composite volcanoes. There are a couple of ways a volcano can
generate a tsunami. Sometimes just the energy released by the
volcano along with the pyroclastic flow can initiate a tsunami.
Other times, a violent eruption can cause a portion of a volcano’s
slope to slide off into the ocean. The most dangerous way would be
if a volcano explodes or collapses to generate a caldera in the ocean.

There are some real-world examples of this occurring. In 1883 on

the volcanic island of Krakatau (image on the right), a violent
 4.7 TSUNAMIS | 509

eruption occurred, producing a tsunami that killed 35,000 people

and destroyed two-thirds of the island. It is believed a massive
pyroclastic flow slammed into the ocean, producing a massive
tsunami. Ultimately the eruption was so violent that the island
collapsed to produce a massive caldera of the former island.

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A concern today is the volcanic islands off western Africa called the
Canary Islands. Scientists are concerned with an unstable slope on
the western side of one of the volcanic islands. Their concern is that
a significant eruption could cause a portion of the slope to slide off
into the Atlantic Ocean, generating a massive tsunami. Within 9
hours – traveling at 500 mph – this tsunami would reach the
eastern United States with a run-up of nearly 150 feet!
510 | 4.7 TSUNAMIS

Last but not least is the major island of Mauna Loa, Hawaii.
Scientific studies of the former volcanic islands that use to be over
this hot spot show that shield volcanoes tend to grow fastest just
before they move off the hot spot. Mauna Loa is the most active
volcano in the world and is about to move off the hot spot. A new
volcanic island is beginning to form underwater just east of the
main island. Studies show that the increased activity and lava flows
can destabilize portions of the slopes as more weight is added.
Fieldworks has discovered that Mauna Loa has had over 60 giant
debris avalanches that slide into the Pacific Ocean. These slides tend
to be 10-20 miles long and could ultimately generate a tsunami 900
feet high.

Landslides

Large scale landslides can also displace large amounts of water to

generate massive tsunamis. Often, it is a volcanic eruption or
earthquake that generates the landslide, which creates a tsunami.
One concern for the United States is an underwater landslide – a
submarine landslide – off the eastern coast of the continental
shelf can displace enough water to generate a 20-foot tsunami and
reach the nation within 20 minutes. The most massive landslide
ever recorded in human history happened in Lituya Bay, Alaska. A
magnitude 7.0 earthquake along the Denali Fault generated a
massive rockfall into the bay, which produced a 1,700-foot tsunami.
However, the bay contained most of the energy, and thus a major
catastrophe was averted. Nevertheless, the concern is another such
event occurring in Glacier Bay, Alaska, which is a significant tourist
attraction for cruise lines.
 4.7 TSUNAMIS | 511

Asteroid Impacts

The rarest, but most lethal tsunami would be generated by an

asteroid or comet impact. If an asteroid were to make it through the
earth’s atmosphere, there is a 70 percent chance it would land in the
ocean. For example, an asteroid striking the Atlantic Ocean could
produce a tsunami that would cover over half of the nation. All
coastal cities around the world would also be destroyed.
Furthermore, with 90 percent of all humans living near a large body
of water, well, you see the impact! The last asteroid impact in the
ocean occurred 65 million years ago and produced a tsunami half a
mile high.

“Asteroid
Impact” by
Reimund
Betrams
from
Pixabay.

Coastal Impacts
There are a variety of coastal vulnerabilities caused by tsunamis. As
noted in previous modules, there are two types of effects of
tsunamis (and all disasters). The primary effects are pretty straight
forward. Areas at most risks of tsunamis are highly populated
512 | 4.7 TSUNAMIS

coastal regions such as major cities. Moreover, if the tsunami occurs

during high tide, the fingers of destruction will reach farther inland.
Most of the deaths from the Asian tsunami of 2004 were from
flooding and the actual debris within the water. Other primary
effects include coastal erosion and the destruction of ecosystems.
The following are aerial photographs of tsunamis from National
Geographic.

“Aerial View of Ache, Sumatra, Indonesia” by the United States

Navy is licensed under Public Domain.

The secondary effects of tsunamis are less noticeable. These

include contaminated water sources, disease outbreaks, chemical
pollution, homelessness, and economic loss. Sometimes the
secondary effects are worse than the primary effects because all the
new attention occurs with the primary effects, but very little
attention is on the region after a few months.
 4.7 TSUNAMIS | 513

Mitigation Against Tsunamis

People and ecosystems are quite resilient to natural disasters, but a
lot must be done to prevent massive death and destruction, to begin
with. After a deadly tsunami in Hawaii in the 1950s, the United
States developed the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center. If a 7.5
magnitude earthquake occurs somewhere in the Ring of Fire, a
tsunami watch is released by NOAA, indicating that a seismic event
just occurred that could have generated a tsunami. In the Pacific
Ocean, a system of instruments on the ocean floor and buoys
monitors the Pacific Ocean for tsunamis. If the system detects a
tsunami, a signal is sent to satellites, which is then sent to coastal
areas, and a tsunami warning is announced.

“Understanding Tsunami Alerts” by the National Weather Service

is licensed under Public Domain.

Another mitigation measure is tsunami run-up maps. A tsunami

run-up map indicates how far a tsunami will travel inland based on
the continental shelf and strength of the tsunami. By
514 | 4.7 TSUNAMIS

understanding where and how far a tsunami will travel inland,

government agencies can determine proper zoning and building
codes. Before the Asian tsunami of 2004, the United States had
tsunami run-up maps of Indonesia but were considered classified.
Indonesia, being a more impoverished nation, did not have run-up
maps for their nation. After the catastrophic event, the U.S.
military saw how destabilizing this was to the nation and decided to
release this information from the run-up maps to the region.

Other ways the impacts of tsunamis can be minimized include:

• Strong building codes and zoning policies that are enforced by

local officials
• Planting and protecting existing natural barriers such as
vegetation and coastal areas
• Proper education of how to prepare and what to do during
and after a tsunami
 4.7 TSUNAMIS | 515

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4.8 ATTRIBUTION AND
REFERENCES

Creative Commons Attribution

An Introduction to Geology by Chris Johnson, Matthew D.
Affolter, Paul Inkenbrandt, Cam Mosher is licensed under CC BY-
NC-SA 4.0

Natural Disasters and Human Impacts by R. Adam Dastrup, MA,

GISP is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Physical Geology – 2nd Edition by Steven Earle is licensed

under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Geology by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA 4.0

Earth Science by Lumen Learning is licensed under CC BY-NC-SA

4.0

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