Digital Electronics

Quang-Kien Trinh, Assoc. Prof

Hong-Tham Tran Thi, Ph.D.
 Introduction
❑ Digital Electronics is a branch of electronics which deals
with the digital signals to perform various tasks and meet
various requirements.
▪ It is based upon the digital design methodologies and consists
of digital circuits, integrated circuits (ICs) and logic gates.
▪ It uses only binary digits (ex. bit 0, 1)
 Introduction
❑ Analog signal vs. Digital signal :
▪ Analog : time-varying signal that can take on any value
across a continuous range.
▪ Digital : the output varies at discrete voltage levels
commonly called HIGH and LOW.
 Introduction
❑ Digital circuit only works with two voltage states : HIGH
and LOW (sometimes, they called TRUE and FALSE).
▪ Example : BJT works as a switch in digital circuit. +5V
means HIGH and 0V means LOW.
 Introduction
❑ Analog signal vs. Digital signal :
Analog Digital
• Most signals (events) in real- • Digital data can be stored in
world are “analog”. memory and used for
• Analog processing is usually calculation.
simple and faster. • Compatible with computer &
• Traditional electronic systems display technologies.
were mostly analog. • System can be programmed.
• Digital IC families make design
much easier.
 Introduction
❑ Analog system vs. Digital system :

Analog & Digital audio system

 Introduction
❑ The advantages of digital system over analog system :
▪ Reproducibility of the results and accuracy.
▪ More reliable than analog system due to better immunity to noise.
▪ Ease of design
▪ Data protection (encryption, authentication, integrity)
▪ Programmability, high-speed, economy, …
 Introduction
❑ How to get digital data from analog signal : SAMPLING.

❑ The process of measuring the instantaneous values of

continuous-time signal in a discrete form.
 Introduction
❑ Noise in analog and digital systems :
 Introduction
❑ The applications of digital electronics: everywhere in the
real-world.
 Course Syllabus
❑ Digital Electronics course :
▪ Number systems, operations and codes.
▪ Logic gates : AND, OR, NAND, NOR, …
▪ Boolean Algebra and Logic Simplification
▪ Combinational logic circuit & applications
▪ Sequential logic circuit & applications
 Course Syllabus
❑ Textbook :
▪ Digital Fundamentals, Thomas L. Floyd, 11th edition, Pearson
Education, 2015.
▪ Digital Electronics : Principles, Devices and Applications,
Anil K. Maini, John Wiley & Sons, 2007.
❑ Evaluation :
Attendance & Practical work Mid-term Exam Final Exam
Exercises (10%) (10-20%) (20-30%) (50%)
Introductory Concept
 Binary Digits
❑ Digital system usually used binary digits to represent the
state or data.
▪ Binary digits have 2 bits : 0 & 1. In digital circuit, they are
represented by two different voltage levels called HIGH and
LOW. There are 2 ways to represent binary digits : positive
and negative logics.
 Binary Digits
❑ Groups of bits (combinations of 1s and 0s), called codes, are
used to represent numbers, letters, symbols, instructions, and
anything else required in a given application.
 Logic Level
❑ The voltages used to represent a 1 and a
0 are called logic levels.
▪ In a practical digital circuit, a HIGH can
be any voltage between a specified
minimum value and a specified
maximum value. Likewise, a LOW can
be any voltage between a specified
minimum and a specified maximum.
 Digital Waveform
❑ Digital waveforms consist of voltage levels that are
changing back and forth between the HIGH and LOW levels
or states.
▪ A digital waveform is made up of a series of pulses.
 Logic Pulse
❑ A pulse has two edges : a leading edge and a falling edge.
▪ The time required for a pulse to go from its LOW level to its
HIGH level is called the rise time (tr), and the time required
for the transition from the HIGH level to the LOW level is
called the fall time (tf).
 Logic Pulse
❑ Most waveforms encountered in digital systems are
composed of series of pulses, sometimes called pulse trains,
and can be classified as either periodic or nonperiodic.
 Example
❑ A portion of a periodic digital waveform is shown in the
figure. The measurements are in milliseconds. Determine the
following: (a) period (b) frequency (c) duty cycle
 Digital Waveform
❑ In digital systems, all waveforms are synchronized with a
basic timing waveform called the clock. The clock is a
periodic waveform in which each interval between pulses (the
period) equals the time for one bit.
▪ Each bit in a sequence occupies a defined time interval called
a bit time.
 Timing Diagram
❑ A timing diagram is a graph of digital waveforms showing
the actual time relationship of two or more waveforms and
how each waveform changes in relation to the others.
 Data Transfer
❑ Data refers to groups of bits that convey some type of
information. Binary data, which are represented by digital
waveforms, must be transferred from one device to another
within a digital system or from one system to another.
 Example
❑ Determine the total time required to serially transfer the
eight bits contained in waveform A of the figure, and indicate
the sequence of bits. The left-most bit is the first to be
transferred. The 1 MHz clock is used as reference.
❑ What is the total time to transfer the same eight bits in
parallel?
Number System
 Number System
❑ Number system is just a method used to “count” things or
“know” quantity.
Computer system :
 Number System
❑ The number of independent digits or symbols used in a
number system is known as radix or base of this number
system.
 Number System
❑ Number system :
▪ Base conversion : digital system
may use a variety of different
number systems → these number
systems can be converted from
one to the other one.
 Decimal Number System
❑ Decimal Numbers:
▪ Decimal number system is a radix-10 number system and has
10 different digits (0-9) .
▪ All high numbers after ‘9’ are represented in terms of these
10 digits.
▪ The place values of different digits in a mixed decimal
number start from the decimal point with the integer part on
the left and the fractional part on the right.
3586.265
 Binary Number System
❑ Binary number system is a radix-2 number system and has
only 2 digits (0-1) .
❑ All large binary number are represented in term of ‘0’ and
‘1’.
❑ This type of number system is mostly used in computer
system because it corresponds to logic operation which is the
backbone in any computer system.
 Binary Number System
❑ The relationship between decimal and binary number
system :

❑ The range of unsigned (non-negative) decimal that can be

represented in N bit :
 Binary Number System
❑ To display the decimal number, binary
counting sequence is used to represent the
number from 1 to 15.
▪ Digital counters frequently have this same
pattern of digits :
 Example
❑ Convert the binary number to decimal :
▪ 1101101
▪ 10.111
 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
❑ A systematic method of converting whole numbers from
decimal to binary is the repeated division-by-2 process.
 Decimal-to-Binary Conversion
❑ The decimal fraction part can be converted to binary by
repeated multiplication by 2.
 Example
❑ Convert the decimal number to binary :
▪ 23
▪ 45.5
▪ 0.375
 Binary Arithmetic
❑ Binary addition : four basic rules.

❑ Binary addition with carry :

 Binary Arithmetic
❑ Binary subtraction : four basic rules.

❑ Binary subtraction :
 Binary Arithmetic
❑ Binary multiplication : four basic rules.

❑ Binary multiplication :
 Binary Arithmetic
❑ Binary division : follows the same procedure as division in
decimal.
 Signed Number
❑ Binary representation of both positive and negative decimal
numbers includes the sign-bit magnitude method, the 1’s
complement method and the 2’s complement method.
❑ In sign-bit representation, the MSB bit represents the sign
with ‘0’ denoting plus and ‘1’ denoting minus.
▪ E.g : ‘9’ = ‘00001001’, ‘-9’ =‘10001001’
▪ ‘+0’ = ‘0000’, ‘-0’ = ‘1000’
 Signed Number
❑ In 1’s complement format, if the MSB is '0', then the
number is positive. Its negative counterpart is obtained by
simply complementing (reversing) all bits (again, a '1' results
in the MSB position when the number is negative).
▪ “9” = ‘00001001’, “-9” = “11110110”
▪ “+0” = “0000”, “-0” =“1111”
 Signed Number
❑ In 2’s complement format, the positive number represents
in the same way with 1’s complement but negative number is
obtained by taking its positive representation and
complementing (reversing) all bits then adding one to it.
 Floating-Point Representation
❑ IEEE 754 Standard :

• Single precision : E (biased), e = E – 127 (actual)

❑ Double precision :
 Exercise
❑ Determine the decimal values corresponding to the binary
single-precision floating point :

❑ Determine the binary single-precision floating point

representing for the following decimals : 0.75, -2.625,
37/32
 Arithmetic with Signed Number
❑ Addition :
1. Both numbers are positive
2. Positive number with magnitude larger than negative
number
 Arithmetic with Signed Number
❑ Addition :
3. Positive number with magnitude larger than negative
number
4. Both numbers are negative.

▪ The sum is 2’s complement form.

 Arithmetic with Signed Number
❑ Overflow condition : when two numbers are added and the
number of bits required to represent the sum exceeds the
number of bits in the two numbers, an overflow results as
indicated by an incorrect sign bit.
 Exercise
❑ Find the addition :
• (275.75)10+ (37.875)10
• (-118)10 + (-32)10
 Arithmetic with Signed Number
❑ Subtraction : the special case of addition.
▪ Rule : To subtract two signed numbers, take the 2’s
complement of the subtrahend and add. Discard any final
carry bit.
▪ Example : 8 – 3 = 8 + (-3) = 5
 Exercise
❑ Perform the subtraction operation :
• (+43)10 − (−53)10.
 Arithmetic with Signed Number
❑ Multiplication :
▪ The sign of the product of a multiplication depends on the
signs of the multiplicand and the multiplier :
❖ If the signs are the same, the product is positive.
❖ If the signs are different, the product is negative.
 Arithmetic with Signed Number
❑ There are 2 methods of binary multiplication :

Repeat left-shift and add

Repeat add and right-shift

 Exercise
❑ Multiply :
a) (100.01)2 × (10.1)2 by using the ‘repeated add and left-
shift’ algorithm
b) (2B)16×(3) 16 by using the ‘add and right-shift’ algorithm.
 Arithmetic with Signed Number
❑ Division :
▪ While binary multiplication is the process of repeated
addition, binary division is the process of repeated
subtraction.

Repeat right-
shift and subtract
 Arithmetic with Signed Number
❑ Division :
▪ Repeated Subtract and
Left-Shift :
 Exercise
❑ Divide :
a) (110101)2 : (1011)2 by using the ‘repeated right-shift and
subtract’ algorithm
b) (100011)2 : (100)2 by using the ‘repeated subtract and left-
shift’ algorithm.
 Arithmetic with Signed Number
❑ Floating point arithmetic :
▪ Addition and Subtraction :
 Arithmetic with Signed Number
❑ Floating point arithmetic :
▪ Multiplication and Division :
 Exercise
❑ Find the result using floating-point arithmetic :
• (39)10 + (19)10
• (37)10 x (10)10
 Octal Number System
❑ The octal number system is composed of eight digits : 0, 1,
2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7.
▪ Octal-to-Decimal conversion : sum of weight method.
 Octal Number System
❑ Decimal-to-Octal conversion : repeated division by 8 &
repeated multiplication by 8 for fractional part.
 Octal Number System
❑ Octal-to-Binary conversion : each octal digit can be
represented by a 3-bit binary number

❑ Example : (13)8 = (001011)2

 Hexadecimal Number System
❑ The hexadecimal number system
has a base of sixteen; that is, it is
composed of 16 numeric and
alphabetic characters.
▪ Each hexadecimal digit represents a
4-bit binary number.
▪ The conversion methods to decimal
and binary (vice versa) are similar
to octal number system.
 Binary Coded Decimal (BCD)
❑ The binary coded decimal (BCD) is a type of binary code
used to represent a given decimal number in an equivalent
binary form.
weight
 Excess-3 Code
❑ The excess-3 code for a given decimal number is
determined by adding ‘3’ to each decimal digit in the given
number and then replacing each digit of the newly found
decimal number by its four-bit binary equivalent.
 Gray Code
❑ Gray code is an unweighted binary code in which two
successive values differ only by 1 bit.
 Gray Code
❑ The application of Gray code in 3 bit shaft code :
 ASCII Code
❑The ASCII (American
Standard Code for
Information Interchange)
code was introduced in the
1960s.
❑It contains 128 7-bit
codewords (therefore
represented by decimals
from 0 to 127).
 Seven-Segment Display Code

Common anode Common cathode 7-Segment LED

Seven-Segment Display Code
 Parity Code
❑ A parity bit is an extra bit added to a string of data bits in
order to detect any error.
 Hamming Code
❑ The most common types of error-correcting codes used in
RAM are based on the Hamming code.
❑ In the Hamming code, k parity bits are added to an n-bit
data word, forming a new word of n + k bits.
Hamming (7,3) : correct 1-bit error
Logic Gates
 Logic Function
❑ Boolean Algebra named after George Bool (1815-1864 English
mathematician ) who used it to study human logical reasoning – the calculus of
proposition.
▪ Elements of Boolean Algebra : TRUE or FALSE (0 or 1).
▪ Basic operations : AND (.), OR (+), NOT(~), NAND, NOR, XOR, NXOR

A A A
Y Y Y
B B B

A A A
A Y Y Y Y
B B B
 Logic Gate
❑ Logic gates are the actual physical implementations of logic
operators.
▪ These gates form the basic building blocks for all digital logic
circuits.
▪ Logic gates process signals which represent TRUE and
FALSE.
 Logic Gate
❑ Logic gate is an electronic circuit having one or more than one
input and only one output. The relationship between the input and
the output is based on a certain logic.
▪ Logic gates are primarily implemented using diodes or transistors
acting as electronic switches, but can also be constructed using
other devices such as vacuum tube, relay, …
 Logic Gate
❑ Logic symbol : each logic gate is presented by a logic
symbol to demonstrate its working function as well as
interface method with the other circuits.
▪ There are two sets of symbols for elementary logic gates in
common use, both defined in ANSI/IEEE Std 91-1984 and its
supplement ANSI/IEEE Std 91a-1991.

Distinctive shape Rectangular shape

(IEEE Std 91/91a-1991) (IEEE Std 91/91a-1991)
 Logic Gate
❑ Truth table : is a mathematical table used in logic which sets
out the functional values of logical expressions on each of
their functional arguments.
▪ In particular, truth tables can be used to show for each
combination of values taken by their logical variables.
 Logic Gate
❑ Logic function : is a mathematical expression which
describes the relationship of output signals depending on the
corresponding input signals.
▪ Logic function is a Boolean function which may be
practically implemented by digital logic gates.
 Logic Gate
❑ Logic waveform : is a graphical depiction of the relationship
of the output to the inputs with respect to time.
 Logic Gate
❑ The basic logic gates are :
▪ AND, OR, NOT, …
▪ NAND, NOR, XOR, EXOR, …
❑ Both inputs and outputs to/from logic gates are expressed in
terms of 1s and 0s.
▪ NAND and NOR gates are called universal gates.
 Buffer Gate
❑ The first basic gate is the buffer. The output of a buffer is
simply the input. A buffer has one input and one output; its
output always equals its input.
▪ The main purpose of a buffer is to regenerate the input,
usually using a strong high and a strong low.
 NOT Gate
❑ The inverter (NOT circuit) performs the operation called
inversion or complementation. The inverter changes one logic
level to the opposite level.
▪ In terms of bits, it changes a 1 to a 0 and a 0 to a 1.
 NOT Gate
❑ The operation of NOT gate :
 NOT Gate
❑ Logic expression of NOT gate :
𝑋 = 𝐴ҧ

❑ 1’s complement circuit :

 AND Gate
❑ An AND gate produces a HIGH output only when all of the
inputs are HIGH. When any of the inputs is LOW, the output
is LOW.
▪ The AND gate is composed of two or more inputs and a
single output.
 AND Gate
❑ The operation of AND gate :
 AND Gate
❑ Logic expression of AND gate :
𝑋 = 𝐴. 𝐵
 AND Gate
❑ AND gate as an enable device :
 AND Gate
❑ AND gate in seat/belt alarm system:
 OR Gate
❑ An OR gate produces a HIGH on the output when any of the
inputs is HIGH. The output is LOW only when all of the
inputs are LOW.
▪ An OR gate has two or more inputs and one output. An OR
gate can have any number of inputs greater than one.
 OR Gate
❑ The operation of OR gate :
 OR Gate
❑ Logic expression of OR gate :
𝑋 =𝐴+𝐵
 OR Gate
❑ OR gate in intrusion detection system :
 NAND Gate
❑ The NAND gate is a popular logic element because it can be
used as a universal gate; that is, NAND gates can be used in
combination to perform the AND, OR, and inverter
operations.
▪ A NAND gate produces a LOW output only when all the
inputs are HIGH. When any of the inputs is LOW, the output
will be HIGH.
 NAND Gate
❑ The operation of NAND gate :
 NAND Gate
❑ Logic expression of NAND gate :

𝑋 = 𝐴. 𝐵

Level indication system

 NOR Gate
❑ The term NOR is a contraction of NOT-OR and implies an
OR function with an inverted (complemented) output.
▪ A NOR gate produces a LOW output when any of its inputs is
HIGH. Only when all of its inputs are LOW is the output
HIGH.
 NOR Gate
❑ The operation of NOR gate :
 NOR Gate
❑ Logic expression of NOR gate :

𝑋 =𝐴+𝐵 Landing gear system

 Exclusive-OR Gate
❑ The exclusive-OR (XOR) gate performs modulo-2 addition.
The output of an exclusive-OR gate is HIGH only when the
two inputs are at opposite logic levels.
 Exclusive-OR Gate
❑ The operation and logic expression of XOR gate :

Circuit comparison
 Exclusive-NOR Gate
❑ Exclusive-NOR gate has the output opposite with that of
Exclusive-OR gate. When the two input logic levels are
opposite, the output of the exclusive-NOR gate is LOW.
 Exclusive-NOR Gate
❑ The operation of XNOR gate :

Equivalent circuit
 Tristate Logic Gate
❑ Tristate logic gates have three possible output states, i.e. the
logic ‘1’ state, the logic ‘0’ state and a high-impedance state.
❑ The high-impedance state is controlled by an external
ENABLE input.
Tristate Logic Gates
74 Logic Families
CD40 Logic Families
 Exercise
❑ Draw the truth table of the logic circuit :
 Exercise
❑ Draw circuits that implement these following functions :
• y = a. b. c. d
• y=a+b+c+d
• y = a. b + c. d. e
• y = (a + b). (c + d + e)
 Logic Families
❑ Logic families are sets of chips that may implement
different logical functions, but use the same type of
transistors and voltage levels for logical levels and for the
power supplies.
▪ These families vary by speed, power consumption, cost,
voltage & current levels.
▪ IC digital logic families : DL, DTL, RTL, TTL, ECL, MOS,
CMOS.
 Logic Families
❑ Voltage parameters :
▪ VIH(min) : high-level input voltage,
the minimum voltage level
required for a logic 1 at an input.
▪ VIL(max) : low-level input voltage
▪ VOH(min) : high-level output
voltage
▪ VOL(max) : low-level output
voltage TTL Logic Families
 Logic Families
❑ Noise margin :
▪ Noise is present in all real systems. It adds
random fluctuation to voltages
representing logic levels.
▪ The maximum noise voltage that can be
tolerated by a circuit is termed its noise
immunity (Noise Margin).
 Logic Families
❑ Noise margin of TTL logic families :
 Logic Families
❑ Current parameters :
▪ IOH : Current flowing into an output in the logical “1” state under
specified load conditions.
▪ IOL : Current flowing into an output in the logical “0” state under
specified load conditions.
▪ IIH : Current flowing into an input when a specified HIGH level is
applied to that input.
▪ IIL : Current flowing into an input when a specified LOW level is applied
to that input.
 Logic Families
❑ Fan-out : the maximum number of standard logic inputs that
an output can drive reliably. It is also known as the loading
factor.
▪ Fan-out is related to the current parameters (both in HIGH
and LOW states).
 Logic Families
❑ Propagation delay :
▪ All gates have a certain propagation delay time : tPD.
▪ This is the average of the two switching times.
 Logic Families
❑ Power requirements :
▪ Every IC needs a certain amount
of electric power to operate.
▪ Power supply : VCC (TTL), VDD
(CMOS)
▪ Power dissipation :
𝑃𝐷(𝑎𝑣𝑔) = 𝐼𝐶𝐶(𝑎𝑣𝑔) × 𝑉𝐶𝐶

𝐼𝐶𝐶(𝐻) + 𝐼𝐶𝐶(𝐿)
𝐼𝐶𝐶(𝑎𝑣𝑔) =
2
 Logic Families
❑ Speed – power product :
measures the combined effect
between propagation delay and
power dissipation.
▪ Desired properties : short
propagation delay (high-speed),
low power dissipation.
 Logic Families
❑ Logic interfacing problem : different logic families have
different voltage and current specifications.
 Logic Families
❑ Voltage interfacing problem :
▪ Example : a HIGH output pin may produce a voltage that is
too low to be recognized as HIGH state by the input pin.
▪ Solution : use a pull-up resistor.
 Logic Families
❑ Current interfacing problem :
▪ Example : a HIGH output pin may not source enough current
to drive the input pin.
▪ Solution : use a buffer.
 Logic Families
❑ Diode Logic (DL) :
▪ Simple, does not scale
▪ Need an active element.

❑ Resistor – Transistor Logic (RTL) :

▪ Replace diode switch with transistor
switch
▪ Can be cascaded
▪ Large power draw
 Logic Families
❑ Diode – Transistor Logic (DTL) :
▪ Diode logic with transistor amplification.
▪ Reduce power consumption
▪ Faster than RTL.
 Logic Families
❑ Transistor – Transistor Logic (TTL) : implemented with
bipolar process technology that combines or integrates NPN
transistors, PN junction diodes and diffused resistors in a
single monolithic structure.
 Logic Families
❑ Emitter – Coupled Logic (ECL) :
▪ Based on BJT but delay time reduced by preventing
transistors from saturation.
▪ Very fast operation, high power consumption.
 Logic Families
❑ Complement MOS (CMOS):
▪ Extreme low power consumption than TTL and ECL.
▪ Excellent noise immunity.
▪ Widely used for large-scale devices.
Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Invented by Gorge Boole in 1854.
❑ Boolean algebra is mathematics of logic.
❑ It is one of the most basic tools available to the logic
designer and thus can be effectively used for
simplification of complex logic expressions.
❑ It contains a set of mathematical rules that govern a two-
valued (binary) system represented by zeros and ones.
 Boolean Algebra
❑ Boolean implementation :
Boolean Algebra
 Boolean Algebra
❑ In Boolean algebra, the letter can only take on either of
two values, that is, 0 and 1.
❑ The values assigned to a variable in Boolean algebra
only have a logic significance.
❑ In Boolean algebra ‘.’ means an AND operation and ‘+’
means an OR operation.
❑ Boolean algebra captures the essential properties of both
logic operations such as AND, OR and NOT and set
operations such as intersection, union and complement.
 Boolean Laws
❑ Postulates of Boolean Algebra
❑ De Morgan Laws

𝐴 + 𝐵 = 𝐴.ҧ 𝐵ത

𝐴. 𝐵 = 𝐴ҧ + 𝐵ത

❑Basic Boolean Algebra rules

𝐴. 𝐵ത + 𝐴.ҧ 𝐵 = ?

De Morgan (1806-1871) English mathematician

 Logic Functions A B C Y
A
❑ Representation of logic function B
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
Y
0 1 0 0
▪ Schematics C
0 1 1 1
1 0 0 0
▪ Boolean function 1 0 1 1
Y= A . B + C 1 1 0 1
▪ TRUTH TABLE 1 1 1 1

THE TRUTH TABLE

-Theorem1: All logic functions can be expressed in the form of sum standard
products (minterm) or product standard sums (maxterm)
-Theorem2: Set of (AND, OR, NOT) is enough to describe/construct all logic
functions/circuits
 TTL logic
❑ Three basic logic functions (NOT, NAND, and NOR) can be
implemented by basic logic gates.
 CMOS logic
❑ Three basic logic functions (NOT, AND, and OR) can be
implemented by basic logic gates.

VDD VDD

A A
C B
B
C
 CMOS logic vs TTL logic
❑ Three basic logic functions (NOT, AND, and OR) can be
implemented by basic logic gates.
Specifications TTL CMOS
Basic Gate NAND NOR/NAND
Passive Elements &
Components MOSFETs
Transistors
Fan-out 10 >50
Noise Immunity Strong Extremely Strong
Noise Margin Moderate High
TPD in ns 1.5 to 30 1 to 210
Clock Rate in MHz 35 10
Power/Gate in mWatt 10 0.0025
Figure of Merit 100 0.7
 Logic Circuit
❑ Combinational Logic Circuit :
▪ Comparator
▪ Arithmetic functions : addition, subtraction, multiplication,
division.
 Logic Circuit
❑ Combinational Logic Circuit :
▪ Encode and Decode circuits.
 Logic Circuit
❑ Combinational Logic Circuit :
▪ Data selection : multiplexing and demultiplexing
 Logic Circuit
❑ Sequential Logic Circuit :
▪ Storage function : memory, register, …
 Logic Circuit
❑ Sequential Logic Circuit :
▪ Counting function : counter system
 Integrated Circuit (IC)
❑ Logic function can be implemented simply by digital
integrated circuit (IC) consisting of a large number of
transistors.
 Programmable Logic Circuit
• Programmable logic requires both hardware and software.
Programmable logic devices can be programmed to perform
specified logic functions and operations by the manufacturer
or by the user.
 FPGA
• FPGA* (Xilinx.com):
• Field-programmable Gate Arrays are semiconductor
devices that are based around a matrix of configurable
logic blocks (CLBs) connected via programmable
interconnects. FPGAs can be reprogrammed to desired
application or functionality requirements after
manufacturing.
• Other means to build a digital system:
• ASICs Application-Specific Integrated Circuits
• ASSPs Application-Specific Standard Products

* Modern FPGA is an integrated IC based on CMOS technology

146 3/26/2023
 Logic Circuit Testing
❑ Test and Measurement Instruments : digital oscilloscope,
logic analyzer, digital multimeter, …