IPC

Module I: Group and Group Influence

Unit 1: Groups
A group is a collection of individuals who interact with one another, share common goals, and
influence each other’s behavior and attitudes. Groups play a crucial role in interpersonal processes
and counseling, as they provide a structured environment for social interaction, support, and
personal growth.

Types of Group
1. Formal Groups (Structured, organizational, goal-oriented)
• Command Groups – Permanent groups following a hierarchy (e.g., CEO and department
heads).
• Task Groups – Temporary teams formed to complete a specific task (e.g., policy
implementation team).
• Project Groups – Cross-functional teams focused on a project (e.g., product development
team).
• Committees – Groups formed for decision-making or problem-solving (e.g., hiring
committee, ethics committee).
• Workgroups – Employees working together under a supervisor (e.g., customer service
team).
• Functional Groups – Departments based on specific functions (e.g., HR, Marketing,
Finance).
• Problem-Solving Groups – Teams addressing specific issues (e.g., quality improvement
team).
2. Informal Groups (Unstructured, social, self-formed)
• Friendship Groups – Formed based on personal relationships (e.g., colleagues who hang
out together).
• Interest Groups – Based on shared hobbies or passions (e.g., photography club, chess
club).
• Reference Groups – Groups influencing an individual’s values and behaviors (e.g.,
aspiring lawyers looking up to a legal association).
• Cliques – Small exclusive groups within a larger setting (e.g., a close-knit student group).
• Social Groups – Formed for networking and companionship (e.g., gym buddies, online
communities).

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• Support Groups – Provide emotional help and encouragement (e.g., Alcoholics

Anonymous, grief support groups).
• Community Groups – Voluntary groups for a common cause (e.g., neighborhood clean-
up teams).
Dynamics of Group Formation
• Forming – Members come together, establish roles, and set objectives.
• Storming – Conflicts arise as individuals assert their opinions.
• Norming – Group cohesion develops; rules and norms are established.
• Performing – The group works effectively towards goals.
• Adjourning – The group disbands after achieving its purpose (for temporary groups).

structure and dynamics of work groups

• Size – Determines communication, coordination, and efficiency.
• Roles – Defined responsibilities (e.g., leader, coordinator, contributor).
• Norms – Unwritten rules guiding behavior and interactions.
• Hierarchy – Can be structured (with leadership) or flat (equal roles).
• Composition – Homogeneous (similar members) or heterogeneous (diverse skills).
• Cohesion – The level of trust and bonding among members.
• Task Allocation – Division of work based on skills and expertise.
Dynamics of Work Groups
• Leadership Style – Autocratic, democratic, or laissez-faire leadership.
• Communication – Clear and open interaction enhances productivity.
• Conflict Resolution – Managing disagreements effectively maintains harmony.
• Decision-Making – Can be leader-driven, majority-based, or consensus-based.
• Motivation & Engagement – Increases efficiency and job satisfaction.
• Group Cohesion – Stronger bonds improve teamwork but may lead to groupthink.
• Performance & Productivity – Impacted by teamwork, coordination, and synergy.
Group Cohesiveness And effectiveness.
Group Cohesiveness
Group cohesiveness refers to the strength of relationships, unity, and sense of belonging among
members. A cohesive group works well together, leading to better cooperation and productivity.
Factors Affecting Group Cohesiveness
1. Common Goals – Shared objectives create a sense of purpose.
2. Group Size – Smaller groups tend to be more cohesive.
3. Interpersonal Attraction – Strong personal bonds improve unity.

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4. Leadership Style – Supportive leadership enhances trust.

5. Success & Recognition – Achievements strengthen group loyalty.
6. Communication – Open and transparent interactions build trust.
7. External Threats & Competition – Common challenges unite the group.

2. Group Effectiveness
Effectiveness refers to how well a group achieves its goals while maintaining a positive work
environment. A group can be cohesive but still ineffective if it lacks focus or direction.

Unit 2: Interpersonal Communication

Interpersonal communication refers to the exchange of information, ideas, and emotions between
individuals. It plays a crucial role in personal relationships, workplaces, and counseling settings.
Interpersonal Communication process
➢ First Impression
➢ Experimenting
➢ Intensification
➢ Integration
➢ Bonding
Types of Interpersonal Communication
1. Verbal Communication – Spoken words (e.g., conversations, meetings).
2. Non-Verbal Communication – Body language, gestures, facial expressions.
3. Written Communication – Emails, letters, reports, text messages.
4. Paraverbal Communication – Tone, pitch, speed, volume of speech.
5. Face-to-Face Communication – Direct personal interaction.
6. Electronic Communication – Digital interactions (e.g., emails, video calls).
7. Formal Communication – Professional and structured (e.g., business meetings).
8. Informal Communication – Casual and spontaneous (e.g., friendly chats).

Communication effectiveness Johari window

. Communication Effectiveness

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Effective communication ensures that messages are clearly conveyed, understood, and result in
meaningful interaction.
Key Factors for Effective Communication
1. Clarity – Use simple and precise language.
2. Active Listening – Pay attention and respond appropriately.
3. Feedback – Ensure the message is correctly understood.
4. Empathy – Understand others’ emotions and perspectives.
5. Non-Verbal Cues – Align gestures, facial expressions, and tone with words.
6. Confidence – Be assertive but respectful.
7. Adaptability – Adjust communication style to fit the audience.

Johari
Known to Self Unknown to Self
Window

Open Area – Public information, shared Blind Area – Others see traits that the
Known to
thoughts, and behaviors. Improves individual is unaware of. Feedback
Others
communication and trust. reduces this area.

Hidden Area – Private thoughts, Unknown Area – Untapped potential,

Unknown to emotions, or experiences not shared with hidden talents, or subconscious traits.
Others others. Self-disclosure helps reduce this Exploration and learning help uncover
area. this.

interpersonal awareness
Interpersonal awareness refers to an individual’s ability to understand their own emotions,
behaviors, and impact on others while also recognizing the feelings, perspectives, and reactions of
those around them. It is essential for effective communication, relationships, and teamwork.

Social facilitation, social loafing Interpersonal Trust

Social Facilitation
• The tendency of individuals to perform better on simple tasks and worse on complex tasks
when in the presence of others.
Social Loafing

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• The tendency of individuals to exert less effort in a group than when working alone.

Inter personal Conflicts

Interpersonal conflict occurs when two or more individuals have opposing views, goals, or
interests, leading to disagreement or tension. It can happen in personal, professional, and social
relationships.

1. Types of Interpersonal Conflicts

1. Personal Conflicts – Arise due to differences in personality, values, or emotions.
2. Role Conflicts – Occur when individuals have unclear or conflicting expectations in a
relationship or workplace.
3. Goal Conflicts – Disagreements over different personal or professional objectives.
4. Communication Conflicts – Misunderstandings due to poor communication or
interpretation.
5. Workplace Conflicts – Clashes over responsibilities, resources, or leadership styles.
6. Power Struggles – Conflict due to dominance or control issues in relationships.
3. Conflict Resolution Strategies
1. Active Listening – Understanding the other person’s perspective without interruption.
2. Empathy – Recognizing and respecting emotions and viewpoints.
3. Open Communication – Expressing thoughts and concerns clearly and respectfully.
4. Compromise – Finding a middle ground where both parties agree.
5. Collaboration – Working together to develop a win-win solution.
6. Avoidance – Choosing not to engage in unnecessary conflicts.
7. Mediation – Involving a neutral third party to resolve disputes.
Group Decision Making,
1. Brainstorming
• A free-flowing idea generation method where group members share ideas without
criticism.
• Encourages creativity but needs structure to avoid distractions.
• Example: Marketing teams brainstorming slogans for a new product.

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2. Delphi Technique
• A structured decision-making process where experts provide feedback in multiple rounds
anonymously.
• Reduces personal biases and helps in complex problem-solving.
• Example: Policy-making, business forecasting, and research studies.
3. Electronic Meeting
• Virtual decision-making using online tools like video conferencing, emails, or decision-
making software.
• Allows remote collaboration and faster communication but may lack personal interaction.
• Example: Online board meetings, virtual brainstorming sessions.
4. Fishbowl Technique
• A small group discusses a topic while others observe, then roles switch.
• Encourages deep discussion and active participation.
• Example: Team discussions on workplace policies where some speak and others listen
before swapping roles.
5. Devil’s Advocacy
• One person (or group) deliberately opposes the majority’s viewpoint to test its validity.
• Strengthens decision-making by identifying weaknesses in arguments.
• Example: A legal advisor challenging a company’s investment strategy before final
approval.
6. Majority Rule
• A decision is made based on the vote of more than 50% of the group.
• Quick and democratic but may leave minority opinions unheard.
• Example: A team votes on whether to extend a project deadline.
7. Authority Rule
• A leader or higher authority makes the final decision, with or without group input.
• Efficient for urgent decisions but may reduce group engagement.
• Example: A CEO deciding on company expansion plans.
8. Consensus Decision-Making
• The entire group discusses and agrees on a decision before moving forward.

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• Ensures full support but can be time-consuming.

• Example: A jury reaching a unanimous verdict in court.
Group Synergy
Group synergy refers to the enhanced performance and outcomes achieved when individuals work
together as a team, producing results greater than the sum of individual efforts.

Unit 3: Interpersonal process.

Interpersonal processes refer to the ways individuals interact, communicate, and influence each
other in social and professional settings. These processes shape relationships, teamwork, and group
dynamics.

Understanding Human Behavior, self concept, perception, attention, distraction, attitude,

occupational stress and coping, Impression Management.

Concept Definition Example

The way individuals act, react, and A person’s reaction to criticism may
Human
interact based on emotions, thoughts, depend on their self-esteem and past
Behavior
and social influences. experiences.

An individual's perception of A student who believes they are

Self-Concept themselves, including beliefs, hardworking will act confidently in
values, and identity. exams.

Two people may view the same situation

The process of interpreting sensory
Perception differently—one sees a challenge,
information to understand the world.
another sees an opportunity.

The ability to focus on specific A student concentrating on a lecture

Attention
stimuli while ignoring distractions. despite background noise.

A shift in focus away from the main

Checking the phone during an important
Distraction task due to internal or external
meeting reduces productivity.
stimuli.

A tendency to evaluate things as

A positive attitude toward teamwork
Attitude positive or negative, influencing
improves collaboration.
thoughts, feelings, and actions.

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Concept Definition Example

Work-related stress caused by high

Occupational Heavy workload leading to burnout and
demands, long hours, or workplace
Stress anxiety.
conflicts.

Coping Techniques used to manage stress Meditation, exercise, and time

Strategies and maintain well-being. management to reduce work pressure.

Influencing how others perceive us Dressing professionally and using

Impression
by controlling behavior and confident body language in a job
Management
appearance. interview.

Perception process
➢ Stimuli
➢ Selection of Stimuli
➢ Filling the gap
➢ Proximity
Factors of perception
Characteristics of perceiver
--- of Targets
---- of Situation

Attention Types
➢ Sustained Attention
➢ Alternating Attention
➢ Selective ---
➢ Limited ---
➢ Focused---
Major Causes of occupational Stress
➢ Strict comp politics and protocols
➢ Performance expectation
➢ No occupational direction
➢ Being Overworked
➢ Limited opportunity
➢ Conflict b/w team member

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Coping Strategies
➢ Lower your Expectation
➢ Ask Other to help
➢ Take responsibility for the situation
➢ Engage in problem solving
➢ Maintain emotionally supportive

Unit 4: Memory
Memory is the process by which information is encoded, stored, and retrieved. It plays a crucial
role in learning, decision-making, and daily activities.
Process and Types
Memory Process
Memory functions through three main stages:
1. Encoding – The process of converting information into a form that can be stored.
o Example: Learning a new phone number.
2. Storage – The retention of encoded information over time.
o Example: Remembering a childhood event.
3. Retrieval – Accessing stored information when needed.
o Example: Recalling an answer during an exam.

Types of Memory
Based on Duration
1. Sensory Memory – Retains sensory input for a very short duration.
o Example: Seeing a flash of light and remembering its afterimage.
2. Iconic Memory – A type of sensory memory that stores visual information for a fraction
of a second.
o Example: Remembering an image after looking away.
3. Short-Term Memory (STM) – Holds limited information for 15–30 seconds.
o Example: Memorizing a phone number temporarily.
4. Long-Term Memory (LTM) – Stores information for extended periods, from minutes to
a lifetime.

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o Example: Remembering a historical event.

Based on Consciousness
1. Explicit (Declarative) Memory – Involves conscious recall of facts and events.
o Episodic Memory – Stores personal experiences.
▪ Example: Remembering your first day at school.
o Semantic Memory – Stores general knowledge and facts.
▪ Example: Knowing that Paris is the capital of France.
2. Implicit (Non-Declarative) Memory – Involves unconscious memory of skills and habits.
o Procedural Memory – Stores motor skills and habits.
▪ Example: Driving a car or playing a musical instrument.
o Priming & Conditioning – Past experiences influence future behavior
unconsciously.
▪ Example: Feeling hungry after seeing a food advertisement.

intelligence, Intelligence Quotient, Emotional Intelligence, Emotional Quotient.

Intelligence
• Definition: Intelligence is the ability to learn, understand, and apply knowledge to solve
problems and adapt to new situations.
Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
• Definition: IQ is a numerical measure of a person’s cognitive abilities relative to others.
Emotional Intelligence (EI)
• Definition: The ability to recognize, understand, and manage one’s own emotions and the
emotions of others.
Emotional Quotient (EQ)
• Definition: A numerical measure of emotional intelligence, similar to how IQ measures
cognitive intelligence.

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Module II: Decision Making

Unit 1: Interpersonal Trust
Interpersonal trust refers to the confidence individuals have in others' reliability, integrity, and
intentions in social and professional relationships. It is essential for effective communication,
collaboration, and building strong relationships.
Building trust,
Building trust is essential for healthy relationships, teamwork, and effective communication. It
requires consistency, honesty, and mutual respect.
➢ Be honest and Transparent
➢ Be consistent & Reliable
➢ Show respect & Empathy
➢ Communicate Openly & clearly
➢ Be patient & give time
validating and measuring Interpersonal trust
Validating and Measuring Interpersonal Trust
1. Methods to Measure Interpersonal Trust
• Self-Report Surveys & Questionnaires
o Rotter’s Interpersonal Trust Scale
o Trust Scale (Rempel & Holmes)
o Organizational Trust Inventory (OTI)
• Behavioral Observation
o Monitoring real-life interactions, cooperation, and non-verbal cues
• Experimental Trust Games
o Trust Game (Berg, Dickhaut, & McCabe)
o Public Goods Game
• Physiological Measures
o Brain imaging and oxytocin levels
o Heart rate and eye tracking
2. Validating Trust Measurements
• Reliability Testing – Ensuring consistent results over time
• Construct Validity – Comparing with honesty, cooperation, and relationship quality
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• Cross-Cultural Studies – Testing trust scales across different cultures

• Correlation with Real-World Behavior – Comparing survey responses with actual trust-
based actions

Managing interpersonal trust and Distrust

1. Be Honest and Transparent – Communicate openly and truthfully.
2. Maintain Consistency – Follow through on promises and commitments.
3. Show Empathy and Understanding – Acknowledge others’ emotions and perspectives.
4. Demonstrate Competence – Prove reliability through actions and skills.
5. Encourage Open Communication – Create a safe space for discussions.
6. Admit Mistakes and Take Responsibility – Own up to errors and correct them.
7. Build Long-Term Relationships – Strengthen trust through continued positive
interactions.

Managing Interpersonal Distrust

1. Identify the Root Cause – Understand why distrust exists.
2. Clarify Misunderstandings – Address concerns through honest conversations.
3. Be Consistently Reliable – Rebuild trust by proving dependability.
4. Avoid Secrecy and Deception – Foster openness to prevent suspicion.
5. Encourage Feedback – Allow others to express doubts and concerns.
6. Set Clear Expectations – Define roles and responsibilities to prevent confusion.
7. Give Time for Trust to Rebuild – Trust recovery requires patience and effort.

Unit 2: Group decision making:

Group decision-making is the process where multiple individuals collaborate to analyze problems,
discuss solutions, and make collective choices.
Approaches to decision making
1. Rational Approach
• Logical and systematic evaluation of options.

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• Steps: Identify problem → Gather data → Analyze → Select the best alternative →
Implement and review.
2. Intuitive Approach
• Based on instincts, past experiences, and gut feelings.
• Used when time or data is limited.
3. Behavioral Approach
• Recognizes that emotions, biases, and group dynamics influence decisions.
• Decisions may not always be purely logical.
4. Participative Approach
• Involves team members in decision-making.
• Encourages diverse perspectives and collaboration.
5. Bounded Rationality Approach
• People make "good enough" decisions rather than optimal ones due to time, resources, and
cognitive limits.
6. Incremental Approach
• Decisions are made step by step, with small adjustments over time.
7. Political Approach
• Decisions are influenced by power dynamics, negotiations, and organizational politics.

Additional Approaches
8. Group and Collaborative Decision Making
• Involves teams working together to reach a consensus.
• Enhances creativity, accountability, and diverse input.
• Methods: Brainstorming, Delphi technique, consensus-building.
9. Ethical Decision Making
• Decisions are based on moral values and ethical principles.
• Ensures fairness, transparency, and responsibility.
• Approaches: Utilitarianism (greatest good for most people), Rights-Based, Justice-Based.
10. Creative Decision Making

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• Focuses on generating innovative and unconventional solutions.

• Encourages thinking outside the box and risk-taking.
• Techniques: Brainstorming, lateral thinking, mind mapping.

individual v/s Group decision makes,

Aspect Individual Decision Making Group Decision Making

A single person makes the decision based

A group collectively discusses
Definition on their knowledge, experience, and
and decides on an issue.
judgment.

Slower, due to discussions and

Speed Faster, as only one person is involved.
consensus-building.

Quality of May lack diverse perspectives and Benefits from multiple

Decision creativity. viewpoints and ideas.

Responsibility is shared among

Accountability The individual takes full responsibility.
group members.

Reduces individual bias but may

Bias & Errors Can be influenced by personal biases.
lead to groupthink.

Creativity & Encourages brainstorming and

Limited to the individual's thinking.
Innovation diverse solutions.

Risk is spread across multiple

Higher risk if the decision-maker lacks
Risk Factor members with different
knowledge.
expertise.

Higher acceptance since

Consensus & May face resistance from others if they
members contribute to the
Acceptance disagree.
decision.

group decision making techniques

➢ Brainstorming – Generating multiple ideas freely without criticism.
➢ Delphi Technique – Experts provide anonymous input in multiple rounds to reach a
consensus.
➢ Nominal Group Technique (NGT) – Individuals generate ideas independently, then
discuss and rank them collectively.

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➢ Electronic Meetings – Virtual discussions using technology for anonymous and unbiased
input.
➢ Fishbowl Technique – A small group discusses an issue while others observe and provide
feedback.
➢ Devil’s Advocacy – Assigning someone to challenge ideas critically to find weaknesses.
➢ Dialectical Inquiry – Presenting opposing viewpoints to stimulate debate and refine
decisions.
➢ Majority Rule – Decision is made based on the vote of the majority.
➢ Consensus Decision Making – All members agree on a decision after discussion and
compromise.
➢ Authority Rule – A leader or authority figure makes the final decision after considering
group input

Unit 3: Team Building

Team building is the process of creating, developing, and strengthening a group of individuals to
work collaboratively towards a common goal.
Concept of Teams
A team is a group of individuals working together towards a shared goal, leveraging their
collective skills, knowledge, and efforts to achieve better outcomes than working alone.
Distinguishing team from Groups

Aspect Group Team

A collection of individuals who A cohesive unit working

Definition
interact but work independently. collaboratively toward a shared goal.

Individual goals or loosely A common goal that all members

Goal
connected objectives. work toward collectively.

Low – members work High – members rely on each other’s

Interdependence
independently. contributions.

Roles & Not clearly defined; members may Well-defined roles with
Responsibilities work in parallel. accountability.

Continuous, open, and structured

Communication Limited or need-based interaction.
communication.

Not essential; individuals Essential; members must coordinate

Collaboration
contribute separately. efforts.

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Aspect Group Team

Shared responsibility for success or

Accountability Individual responsibility.
failure.

Collective decision-making with

Decision-Making Often leader-driven or independent.
shared input.

Synergistic effect where the result is

Outcome Sum of individual contributions.
greater than individual efforts.

Types of Teams
• Functional Teams – Members from the same department (e.g., marketing, HR).
• Cross-Functional Teams – Members from different departments collaborating.
• Self-Managed Teams – Operate without direct supervision.
• Virtual Teams – Work remotely using digital communication tools.
• Task Force Teams – Temporary teams solving specific problems.
• Problem-Solving Teams – Focus on workplace issues and improvements.
• Project Teams – Formed for specific projects with deadlines.
• Leadership Teams – Composed of executives and managers.
• Sports Teams – Players working together for competitive goals.
• Creative Teams – Focus on innovation, design, and idea generation.
Dysfunctions of groups and teams
• Absence of Trust – Lack of openness and vulnerability among team members.
• Fear of Conflict – Avoiding discussions or disagreements, leading to poor decision-
making.
• Lack of Commitment – Unclear goals or reluctance to take responsibility.
• Avoidance of Accountability – Members do not hold each other responsible for actions.
• Inattention to Results – Prioritizing personal success over team success.
• Groupthink – Pressure to conform, reducing creativity and critical thinking.
• Poor Communication – Misunderstandings, lack of feedback, and unclear information.
Dynamic of Informal Groups
Types of Informal Groups
1. Friendship Groups – Formed based on personal relationships.
2. Interest Groups – Created around shared hobbies or concerns.
3. Reference Groups – Influence individuals’ values and behaviors.
4. Cliques – Small, close-knit groups with strong bonds.

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5. Support Groups – Provide emotional or professional support.

6. Coalitions – Temporary alliances for a common goal.
Dynamics of Informal Groups
1. Formation Based on Social Needs – Created naturally due to shared interests.
2. Unstructured Leadership – Leadership emerges informally.
3. Strong Group Norms – Develops unwritten rules and expectations.
4. Emotional Bonding – Strong relationships enhance cohesion.
5. Resistance to Change – May oppose policies disrupting their structure.
6. Influence on Productivity – Can either boost or hinder performance.
7. Communication Network – Alternative information flow, sometimes leading to rumors.

Creating Teams
• Define Purpose and Goals – Clearly outline team objectives.
• Select the Right Members – Choose individuals with complementary skills.
• Assign Roles and Responsibilities – Ensure clarity in tasks and duties.
• Establish Team Norms – Set expectations for behavior and communication.
• Develop Trust and Collaboration – Build strong relationships among members.
• Provide Resources and Support – Ensure the team has tools and guidance.
• Encourage Open Communication – Promote transparency and feedback.
• Monitor Performance and Adapt – Assess progress and make improvements.
Making Team successful obstacles to success
Making a Team Successful
1. Clear Goals and Vision – Ensure team members understand the objectives.
2. Effective Communication – Promote open, honest, and regular discussions.
3. Defined Roles and Responsibilities – Assign tasks based on skills and strengths.
4. Trust and Collaboration – Foster mutual respect and teamwork.
5. Strong Leadership – Provide guidance, motivation, and direction.
6. Conflict Resolution – Address disagreements constructively.
7. Continuous Learning and Adaptation – Encourage skill development and flexibility.
8. Recognition and Motivation – Appreciate team efforts and achievements.
Obstacles to Team Success

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1. Lack of Clear Goals – Confusion about objectives reduces productivity.

2. Poor Communication – Misunderstandings and lack of feedback hinder collaboration.
3. Unclear Roles and Responsibilities – Leads to inefficiency and duplication of work.
4. Lack of Trust – Creates tension and reduces cooperation.
5. Conflict and Disagreements – Unresolved issues disrupt teamwork.
6. Ineffective Leadership – Poor guidance leads to confusion and low morale.
7. Resistance to Change – Inflexibility prevents innovation and progress.
8. Lack of Resources and Support – Insufficient tools or training weakens performance.
Training in team Skills developing successful team.
• Communication Skills – Enhancing clarity, active listening, and feedback.
• Collaboration and Cooperation – Encouraging teamwork and shared responsibilities.
• Conflict Resolution – Teaching strategies for handling disagreements constructively.
• Leadership Development – Training members to take initiative and guide others.
• Decision-Making Skills – Improving problem-solving and critical thinking.
• Time Management – Ensuring efficient task prioritization and workflow.
• Adaptability and Flexibility – Preparing for changes and new challenges.
• Trust Building Exercises – Strengthening relationships and mutual respect.
Major Concepts and emerging Trends-Power Politics, Authority, Integration and Control,
Organization Climate, Culture-Cross Cultural contradiction, Organizational effectiveness.
• Power and Politics – Influence within organizations, decision-making, and competition
for resources.
• Authority – Legitimate right to make decisions and direct others.
• Integration and Control – Coordination of departments and regulation of processes for
efficiency.
• Organizational Climate – The overall work environment, including employee perceptions
and morale.
• Culture and Cross-Cultural Contradictions – The shared values, beliefs, and practices
in an organization, with challenges arising from cultural differences in global workplaces.
• Organizational Effectiveness – The ability of an organization to achieve its goals
efficiently and adapt to changes in the environment.

Culture and Cross-Cultural Contradictions

1. Different Communication Styles – Variations in direct vs. indirect communication across
cultures.

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2. Workplace Norms and Etiquette – Differences in hierarchy, time management, and

professionalism.
3. Leadership and Authority Perception – Some cultures value hierarchy, while others
prefer egalitarian leadership.
4. Decision-Making Approaches – Collectivist cultures focus on group consensus, while
individualist cultures emphasize personal autonomy.
5. Attitudes Toward Conflict – Some cultures avoid confrontation, while others see it as a
form of engagement.
6. Diversity and Inclusion Challenges – Struggles with integrating different cultural
perspectives in the workplace.
7. Adaptation to Globalization – Organizations must balance local cultural values with
international business practices.

Module III: Management of Conflict and Counseling

Unit 1: Conflict
Conflict is a disagreement or clash between individuals or groups due to differences in opinions,
goals, values, or interests.
Types
• Intrapersonal Conflict – Conflict within an individual due to internal struggles or
decision-making dilemmas.
• Interpersonal Conflict – Disputes between two or more individuals due to differences in
opinions, values, or personalities.
• Intragroup Conflict – Conflicts occurring within a team or group due to competition, role
ambiguity, or differing viewpoints.
• Intergroup Conflict – Disagreements between different groups, departments, or
organizations over resources, goals, or priorities.
• Task Conflict – Arises from disagreements about work-related tasks, strategies, or
objectives.
• Relationship Conflict – Stems from personal issues, emotional tensions, or personality
clashes.
• Process Conflict – Occurs due to disagreements on how tasks should be completed or
decisions should be made.
• Constructive Conflict – A healthy form of conflict that leads to better ideas, innovation,
and problem-solving.
• Destructive Conflict – A harmful form of conflict that disrupts teamwork, reduces morale,
and decreases productivity.

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conflict process and machinery for conflict Management.

Conflict Process
1. Latent Conflict – Underlying tensions or potential sources of conflict exist but are not
yet visible.
2. Perceived Conflict – Individuals or groups become aware of the conflict.
3. Felt Conflict – Emotional involvement increases, leading to stress, frustration, or
tension.
4. Manifest Conflict – Open confrontation, arguments, or disputes occur.
5. Conflict Resolution or Suppression – The conflict is either resolved through negotiation
or suppressed without resolution.
6. Aftermath of Conflict – The outcome affects future relationships and organizational
dynamics.
Machinery for Conflict Management
1. Negotiation – Parties discuss their differences and reach a mutual agreement.
2. Mediation – A neutral third party helps resolve the conflict.
3. Arbitration – A third party makes a binding decision to settle the dispute.
4. Collaboration – Parties work together to find a win-win solution.
5. Compromise – Each side gives up something to reach a middle ground.
6. Avoidance – Ignoring or delaying the conflict, which may or may not be effective.
7. Accommodation – One party yields to the other to maintain harmony.
8. Structural Changes – Modifying roles, responsibilities, or workflows to prevent future
conflicts.

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