nse onof Heat and moisture in the atmosphere Weather is about energy. Heating from the Sum isthe fundamental energy input into the atmosphere cand this provides the impetus for the creation of air motion, This energy combines with the plentiful ‘moisture in the Earth's atmosphere to create weather systems. Understanding the behaviour and distribution of heat and moisture in the atmosphere is the key to understanding weather systems and ‘can be achieved by coupling ground-based and space-based (satelite) observations. 1.1 UNDERSTANDING THE ATMOSPHERE: A VISUAL APPROACH The changing behaviour movement and moisture of air around us is influenced by the characteris- tics of the atmosphere above us, in addition to the characteristics of the land and sea around us, ‘Weather is an expression of the movement of air and moisture in three dimensions yet our use of ‘weather maps. and most satelite images, encourages us to think of the atmosphere in two dimensions. In order to understand most weather processes we also need to consider the vertical dimension. The science of meteorology may seem remote to our experience of weather on the ground, However, understanding the atmosphere above us is easier than it may at first appear because: + the behaviour of the atmosphere follows certain basic'rules’ Responses to stimuli such as heat and moisture changes can thus be predicted, although precise outcomes from even the most sophisticated models are unrealistic because the atmosphere displays a significant degree of random (‘chaotic’) behaviour + we can understand changes in the atmosphere by watching cloudscapes, either directly or by means of satelite imagery. The changing form and amount of cloud provides a language’ that can be read by an observer in order to understand weather: DEFINING THE SCIENCES OF METEOROLOGY, CLIMATOLOGY AND WEATHER Meteorology can be described as the science of the atmosphere. Changes in pattems of heat, moisture and mation in three-dimensional space can be described and accounted for by physical laws. However, the basic principles can often be expressed in simple (non-mathematical) terms because moat advances in atmospheric science are based on careful observation This is the approach taken here and the first two chapters provide this visual perspective on understanding meteorological processes. Weather is the state of the atmosphere as experienced at a given time in a single location, usually con the surface of the Earth. It is the product of meteorological processes acting at any one time and includes such variables as temperature, rainfall, wind speed and the type and amount of cloud. As with meteorology, careful visual observation is the key to identifying and understanding weather situations and this is the main theme of Chapters 3 and 4,Understanding Weather Climate is the state of the atmosphere expressed aver a longer time period, comprising both the nerages and extremes of weather Unt about the mid-twentieth century climate was regarded as being sufficiently constant to encourage the use of 30-year averages to represent the longer term conditions The variation of climatic averages ove" time is now widely acknowledged and this can provide a useful perspective on climatic change. The focus of Chapters 5 and 6 ts, respectively the climatic patterns of ‘the mid:-atitudes and the tropics. OBSERVATIONS FROM ABOVE: SATELLITE REMOTE SENSING The Earth is now regularly observed from a plethora of spice haved pl gain a unique perspective on the weather: Earth Observation science is about remote sensing from above and observing objects of interest from a great distance. By using advanced space and computer- based technologies we are able to gain unprecedented insights into how our planet works Meteorological satellites, essentially platforms that carry a payload of instruments. are broadly grouped into two aries’ depending on their orbital path and altitude. They circunnnavigate the Earth either by passing Over the polar regions (i, near-polar orbits) at relatively low altitudes (eg. 870km) or are positioned directly above the equator in geostationary orbits at very high altitudes (e.g. 36000km) (Box 1.1), Remote sensing instruments carried on board satelite platforms operate in different ways depending ‘on whether they are passive’ or'active' systems. This book focuses on weather images constructed from nies BOND spate WE LIN, Box I.| Weather satellites and sensors Most of the images used in this book originate from Europe's Meteosat series of satellites and the Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer (AVHRR) carried on the National Oceanic and ‘Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) Polar Orbiting Environmental Satelite (POES) platiorms Meteosat platforms are geostationary and geosynchronous: they occupy apparently ‘fixed’ positions above the equator (rom an Earth-bound perspective) because their speed and direction are synchronized with that of the Earth’s rotation (NOAA's Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite (GOES) system is similar). At around 36000km, the field-of-view (FOV) allows full Earth-disc imaging although the spatial resolution is degraded away from the equator because of Earth's curvature, This ‘ixed orbit is appropriate for acquiring data for weather observations as the Earth is moritored continually and the large area (synoptic) coverage is ideal for tracking entire weather systems. A more advanced. second generation Meteosat (MSG) was launched in 2002. The AVHRR is carried in a near-polar, Sun-synchronous orbit circling the Earth approximately 14 times daily crossing the equator at the same local time so that solar illumination is constant and near-global coverage is achieved every 24 hours. ‘Space-borne sensors measure only selected radiances that have left the Earth system. This is only possible because the atmosphere is transparent to certain wavelengths of energy represented by the ‘atmospheric windows’ (see Figure 44 and Box 45) — but there is one exception The water vapour! channels record emissions in a region of strong absorption (see Figure 2.!4(d) and Section 45).conditions. se a useful pattems of ce we can “sing from computer: *e broadly she Earth 1,870km) ides (2g. depending ted from and the vic and Rforms. tixed! sd and ational (Foy) quator eather sideal 3) was “nately stant s only bythe pour 5). see gun IPOs sense? amc REED EoD ESE eon? EPR Pr PEO reer Peer ERR EE solar energy is not involved. Satelite images are representations of the real world constructed from measurements of the brightness, or intensity of electromagnetic energy measured by Geviees remote from the actual scene. Because itis unnecessary, and undesirable, to observe all wavelengths of energy leaving the atmosphere, only carefully solected clusters of signals are measured, These wavelength bands or channels have been chosen because they reveal useful information about the phenomena of interest demonstrated by the different types of weather images used throughout this beok (Box I.) 1.2. THE THREE-DIMENSIONAL ATMOSPHERE DEFINING THE COMPOSITION OF THE ATMOSPHERE The Earth's atmosphere is a shallow ‘envelope’ of well-mixed gases that provides an essential shield from harmful components of incoming radiation and heips to sustain a habitable environment for living organisms, Most of the mass of the atmosphere is made up of gives that are thoroughly mixed (up to 80km) and occur in constant proportions: 78.1% nitrogen (Nz), 20.19% exygen (Oz) and 0.9% argon (A0).In addition, a range of gases can have a variable concentration over time but are geographically well mixed (Table I.1).There is also one highly variable and essential gas ~ water vapour This usually makes up about 04% of the volume of the total atmosphere. Water vapour ~ alorig with those gaces denoted by an asterisk (*) in Table I. ~ constitute the ‘greenhouse gases’, which together generate the greenhouse effect, defined in Box |. Aerosols are solid and liquid particles, such as dust salt and sulphates, suspended in the atmosphere. ‘These constituents originate from natural sources, for example, sulphates from volcanic eruptions, or ‘through human activities such as the burning of sulphurrich coal, Unlike the fixed and greenhouse ga8e5, aerosOls are not ahways resident in the atmosphere for long - they tend to be washed out in rain after a few days. As 2 result, they raraly become evenly distributed over the Earth’s surface. By changing the way In which light « scattered in the atmosphere, aerosols have an important influence ‘on the climate system, including radiation balanta and the sky’s appearance (Chapter 4), DEFINING LAYERS OF THE ATMOSPHERE AND AIR PRESSURE The gas that has the greatest vanabilty over space and time is water vapour It is mostly concentrated within |2-15km of the Earth's surface and it is here that weather systems and douds are created, Table 1.1 Average concentration of varcble gases in the atmosphere Gas Parts per million Carbon dioxide* co, 370 Methane? chy, Ww Nitrous oxide NO 03 Ozone* Os 04 Aerosols various 01 Chlerofluorocarbons* crs 0.0001 Note: “denates greenhouse gases Source: After Thompson (1998) suaydsousye ays uy 2angsiour putenone kag me OU Understanding Weather 120 Thermosphere _~ Environmental lapse rate 100: 80 = Mesopause & zo & = = Stratopause 0 2» -- = Topcpause ‘Troposphere 100 -80 -60 -40 -20 0 20 Temperature (°C) Figure 1.1. Idemiiying the main lyers of the atmosphere according to the vertical profile of temperature, develop and decay ~ in the region known as the troposphere. Understanding weather depends on understanding what is happening in this moisture-rich zone, particularly the process of condensation that gives rise to clouds and rainfall This is also where the highest density of gases occurs ~ half the mass of the atmosphere is found in the lowest 5 km. Density of air affects air pressure. The total air pressure exerted by all the gases acting under gravity on the Earth’s surface (at sea level) averages around 1013 milibars. One milibar ~ the standard Unit of air pressure measurement — is equal to a force of ]00Newtonsm™2 This is sufficient to support about 70min or 30inches of mercury in a tube (a barometer). The average air pressure at around Skm above ground level is close to 500 mbar: While air pressure measured on the surface changes significantly over time and space, variations measured abave 5km are smaller The mast important change in the column of air above any location is not that of air pressure but ‘that of temperature. Temperature can either increase or decrease with height and it is upon this distinction that the layers of the atmosphere are defined (Figure 1.1). The troposphere is the initial layer through which temperature usually decreases with height. Within this layer the interactions between atmospheric heat, moisture and motion create local and global weather conditions. This coherent system is driven by solar energy (Section 1.3) Above about |2km the temperature, having progressively dropped, remains fairly constant providing 2’cap'to the troposphere defined as the tropopause. Above is the stratosphere, a region of stability that is without the extensive cloud cover or water vapour found below. Figure |.! justrates the rise in ‘temperature in the stratosphere resulting from the very high ozone concentrations between 25 and 30km. Ozone strongly absorbs solar radiation and essentially ‘blocks’ (attenuates) incoming (and outgoing) radiances It is also found in the troposphere, but at lower concentrations; this distinction is fundamental to understanding the function and effects of this gas (Pox 1.2)depends on indensation 5 ~ half the ting under ve standard ufficient to pressure at the surface vessure but, upon this 5 the initial nteractions litions. This it providing Vol tity sthe rise in zen 25 and sming (and istinction is | Ozone is essential for life on Earth. Depletion of ozone in the stratosphere is sometimes falsely | thought of as a contributor to global warming. Although ozone is a greenhouse gas (so depletion ‘would actually lead to a slight overall cooling) itis a separate environmental issue. Stratospheric ozone forms by the interaction of short-wave (ultra-volet, us) radiation with oxygen molecules. Ozone, naturally occurring gas consisting of three atoms of oxygen. is formed 2s ultra-violet energy splits oxygen molecules. The resulting single oxygen ators react with more conygen to form ozone: O, + uvelight + O+0 0)+0 30, This ‘use’ of ultra-violet radiation in the stratosphere usually prevents much ofit from reaching the Earth's surface. Ozone jis also formed near the Earth's surface from reactions between sunlight and various pollutants, especially nitrogen oxides from vehicle exhausts, It is easily transported to rural environments and is harmful to plant life and to human respiration. Increasing road transport means that tropospherie ozone (a greenhouse gas) is increasing in concentration inde- pendently from ozone in the stratosphere. By the late 1990s, as litle as one-third of the natural concentration of ozone was being observed in spring (Smithson et ol, 2002), Ozone depletion peaks every spring because the reactions that break ozone down are most efficient at low temperatures in the presence of sunlight. Much of ‘the depletion is due to the mfease of chlorine atoms into the stratosphere by human activity through the invention of the stable compounds chlorofiuorocarbons in the 1920s. Chlorine atoms react with ozone, breaking it down to oxygen and chiorine mono» | 0; +0 > O,+C10 Production of chlorofluorocarbons is now banned by treaty and the rate of ozone depletion is already slowing (Fischer and Staehelin, 2003), Ozone depletion may be capable of successful long- term management but we remain comenitted to several decades of heightened ultra-violet radiation and to an increased risk of skin cancer This illustrates the problems caused by the lang atmospheric lifetime of gases. Kinetic energy released in the formation of Q; leads 10 warming of the stratosphere around the ozone layer resulting in the rise in temperature shown in Figure 1.1, Above the stratosphere, temperature once again drops with height within the mesosphere. Temperature increases again in the upper thermosphere owing to the absorption of ultra-violet radiation by malecular oxygen. 1.3. ENERGY IN THE ATMOSPHERE RADIATION FROM THE SUN The Sun is the primary source of energy in the atmosphere, The surface of the Earth and the atmosphere are heated by solar radiation — this is predominantly short-wave radiation, sinceUnderstanding Weather Reflected Incoming Outgoing: solar radiation 342 salar radiation longewave 4107 Wm-2 [Link] “2 radiation (235 Wm 2 Reflect by clouds and 4 40 aumoephere Emited by Atmospheric atmosphere “165 vino \ on — 87\, atmosphere gases Pee QO 2 Reflected by a ee surface tmaa | radiation = 22 Sta a Lom ansstd ins Cop SE satheg iy surface transpiration by surface “~~ Figure 1.2 The average disvibution of shortwave ond long-wave radiauon in the otmasphere (fim Kieh! ond irenberth, 1992), ‘wavelength of radiation emitted from any surface is inversely related to the temperature of the surface, (Chapter 4). Cn reaching the upper boundary of the atmosphere, a significant proportion of solar ‘energy is absorbed by stratospheric ozone (Box I.2) but most of the energy that is no attenuated reaches the troposphere, As the air is denser at lower levels, considerable interference occurs as the ‘ransmitted energy interacts with atmospheric constituents and is absorbed, scattered and reflected (Figure |.2).These processes mostly affect shorter wavelengths of energy: longer wavelengths tend to have an unintecrupted journey. Just under 50% of the downweling radiation actually reaches the Earth's surface ether by direct radiation (>2796) or by diffuse radiation (scattering) the rest is reflected, mostly by clouds (around 20%) Or is absorbed by the atmosphere. /\t the Earth's eurface, most of this radiation is absorbed and corwerted into heat energy — especialy by water: the rest (<9%) is reflected back into the atmosphere (Figure {2}. ALBEDO. ‘The Earth's surface temperature is predominantly determined by the amount of short-wave radiation absorbed, The amount absorbed is proportional to the amount reflected ~ a ratio expressed by the albedo value, the proportion of incoming radiation reflected by a surface (Box 4.4).The albedo of a surface depends on its physical and chemical properties. Highly absorptive surfaces have low albedo values (@.g, water), retain energy and, consequently, warm: surfaess such as cloud-tops. ice and snow have high albedo values, and remain cold because they are strongly reflective. As much of this reflected energy is'ost to space, it is no longer available for warming the Earth, hence the cooling effect of clouds. Global variations in albedo can be identfied in visible satellite images because the brightness (whiteness) cor dullness (greyness or blackness) of features depends on their reflectivity (Box I.3; Figure 1.3). Clouds mostly appear bright in visible images because their tops are highly reflective. Below the clouds the less, reflective land surfaces appear dull the oceans reflect least energy and usually appear black Albedo of low loud can be as high as 07 to 09, though high cloud such as cirrus has a much lower albedo. st dh he se Fig olagewave adiation 15 Wm? of solar enuate s the flected tend to y direct 16 20%) mertec wre 1.2) wdiatlon the do of albedo 4 snow flected! duds, tenes) Clouds he less oflow eae ere ‘epresert. a top-down view of the weather that is familia, but by no means the same a5 the view from below, Space-based sensars detect energy scattered and reflected from cloud-tops and from the Earth's surface through gaps between the clouds. Clouds are ‘frontiine reflectors and appear bright (white to light grey) in images: thicker clouds (e.g, cumulus) at any height, appear brighter than thinner clouds (eg, cirrus), Earth's surfaces, excluding ice and snow. generally vefiect far less energy and appear cull or dark, especially water, which absorbs most incident energy and appears black Figure 1.3 is a visible (VIS) image acquired from Meteosat using a very broad wavelength band that detects wavelengths between 04 and I.1 jm and includes reflected visible light energy and reflected near infrared wavelengths (ie, beyond 0.75 ym) transmitted out to space through an atmospheric window (Figure 4.3, Box 4.5).An advantage of stetching into the near infraredis that atmospheric scattering is reduced as wavelengths lengthen so the outgoing signal is enhanced and image ppeat brighter: Figure 1.3. Meteosat wsiple wo; for 12.00 23 May 2003, Clouds appear ight because they have & high albedo ang che ocean appears dark becarse of the low albedo, Land ereas have an intermediate and rather vorbis tane (according 10 local vacations in alpeder the high albedo of deserts i leary shown by the Sahara) exoydsoue ou a1 esmsjous purUnderstanding Weather LONG-WAVE RADIATION FROM THE EARTH'S SURFACE The heating al the surface of the Earth derived from solar radiation ‘sin turn, last to the atmosohere as long-wave (outgoing) radiation. Only about 5% of this energy loss passes directly out of the almosphere to space. Just a8 solar radiation is absorbed by ozone and various aerosols, 80 long-wave radiation is absorbed by the greenhouse gases (Box I.4). Their absorption of energy helps te vetain heat energy in the atmosphere; indeed, the resulting greenhouse effect raises surface temperature by about 33-34 deg.C. It can be seert therefore that the greenhause effact is a natUral phenomenon that is vital to life ~ without this trapped heat the planet would be a very cold place (around ~18°C) The greenhouse effect can be demanstnaied by link. between yaiter vapour Coukhs a len perature; water vapour is the one greenhouse gas that can change its local concentration quick), This, is why cloudy nights are usualy miler than clear nights because water vapour in the cloud absorbs and emits long-wave energy that warms the lower Woposphere, Hot deserts are often cold at night because there is litle water vapour in the atmosphere here to absorb the heat released through terrestrial long-wave) radiation, Box 1.4 The greenhouse effect and greenhouse gases, The concentration of greenhouse gases (Table |.) has increased as a result of a range of human activities. For example, following the Industrial Revolution, emissions from the widespread use of fossil fuels (oil coal and gas) have contributed to changing the composition of the atmosphere. Since 1750, the amount of carbon dioxide has increased by 31% and, as this gas plays a critical role in ‘tapping’ energy, more gas is now present to absorb more energy, thus enhancing the. greenhouse effect. Many scientists believe this to be a major cause of global warming (Drake, 2000). Currently the Earth’s surface temperature is around +15°C. It is predicted ta rive by between as little as 1.4 deg. C and as much as 5.8 deg C by 2100 (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), 2001). Scientific uncertainty exists because feedback processes operate, As warmer air holds more water vapour, further warming means that additional water vapour will be available to enhance the greenhouse effect — a positive feedback, However increasing amounts of thick cloud could have & cooling effect (negative feedback) by blocking incoming radiation and offsetting some of the original warming (but see Box 4.6), THE BALANCE OF RADIATION ON THE GROUND AND SURFACE TEMPERATURE The relationship between short-wave and Jong-wave radiation is the fundamental influence on surface temperature. This can be expressed in terms of net radiation: net radiation = short-wave ~ long-wave radiation Positive values of net radiation inclcate that more radiation is being received than lost by the surface at a particular time, The Earths surface receives far more short-wave radiation than it loses as long- wave. The resuiting positive net radiation would imply a warming ~ in theory of about 250 ceg.C per day! (Thompsan, 1998) This does not occur because the atmosphere itself has a negative radiation ac th de & Se. Th the rac Sur eli, her eq dats pre and Fi net asa Just dailythermostat — provides the atmosphere with energy: is the driving force for the atmospheric system, indluding global winds, cloud and rainfal The surface and atmosphere together have a net radiation value close to zero ~ this balance between incoming and outgoing radiation maintains a generally constant temperature in the atmo- sphere. Of course, his balance is disturbed by any enhancement to the greenhouse effect above the ‘natural’ pre-Industrial value. HEATING OF AIR AND CONVECTION iT surface receives more raciant energy than is‘lost (positive net radiation) air becomes heated from below As heat always travels from a hotter to a cooler environment it is eonducted (transmitted) away from the ground but oniy for a short distance (just centimetres). Once the lowest layer of air has been heated, the buoyant, upward motions of convection currents distribute the heat more widely, convection being the buoyant, upward motion in iquids or gases that are heated from below. In the atmosphere, a bubble of warm, buoyant air near the ground is called a ‘thermal’ As rising thermals cool, their density increases and the rising current of air wil stop when itis no longer more buoyant than as surroundings. As heating continues, so the convection current will strengthen and deepen and thermais will reach a greater height. 2 useful principle in understanding cloud development. Convection is the main process of heat transfer into the atmosphere during the daytime. THE INFLUENCE OF LATITUDE AND THE SEASONS Seasonal changes in temperature are caused by the changing elevation of the Sun above the horizon. The tit of the Earth's axis of rotation leads to the Sun being overhead at the Tropic of Capricorn on 21 December and over the Tropic of Cancer on 22 June — the two solstices. In southern Britain, the Sun is only 16° above the horizon at midday in December (Smithson et al, 2002). The strength of the low Sun is therefore weakened by the increased distance of the atmosphere through which the radiation passes (increasing scattering) and by the greater surface area intercepted by the solar beam, At each solstice the Sun shines continuously at the polar regions of one [Link] present, the Sun is actually closest to Earth on 3 January and furthest away on 4 july because the Earth has an elliptical orbit around the Sun. Although this might be expected to lead to milder winters and cooler summers in the northern hemisphere, this effect is counterbalanced by the greater land-mass in thi hemisphere and by differing heat circulation, ‘The Sun is over the equator at the Equinoxes (21 March and 22 September), Other factors being equal, receipt of solar radiation at these times should be equal in both hemispheres. However. these dates are not exactly 6 months epart - the summer haif-year in the northern hemisphere is, at present. S days longer than that of the southem hemisphere. Again, this isa function of orbital cycles and is subject to gradual change over many thousands of years (Barry and Chorley, 1998). Figure 1.4 shows the effect of latitude on average annual net radiation, The cooling effect of negative Het radlation at gh latitudes is enhanced by the high albedo (reflectivity) of the poles, which occurs a5 a result of ce and snow cover THE INFLUENCE OF TIME OF DAY Just as the temperature of the seasons is controlled by the Sun's angular relationship with the Earth, daily (diurnal) temperature changes can also be related to the Sun angle since this determines theUnderstanding Weather Absorbed solar radiation Planetary albedo Outgoing ~* long-wave 10 radiation Latitude 0 80 16000 32D 0.90 0.60 0.30 wm? Alvedo Figure 1.4 The effect of astude on average annual rackaton ond ofbedo Temperature Radiation oon 06h 12h 18h 28h Time Figure 1.5 The variaton of incoming and ousgaing radiation ond temercture for typical lou fee doy {ocal radiation balance. The variation between radiation balance and surface temperature for a typical cloud-free day is shown in Figure 1.5. If skies remain clear of cloud, the amount of incoming radia- tion reaching the surface is clearly @ function of Sun angle. Long-wave radiation is continuously emit- ted from the Earth’s surface but it increases foliowing daytime heating. Net radiation is negative0.30 » fora typical ming radia- sously emit- ie negative It is usually about half an hour after sunrise that a balance is reached when net radiation is zero — the Sun has to rise above the horizon by a small angle before the solar radiation gained balances the long-wave loss, Similarly, net radiation reaches zero shortly before sunset as the diminishing incoming radiation is temporarily in balance with outgoing radiation. While net radiation influences ground temperature, air temperature will respond to variations in ground temperature through conduction, turbulence and convection. As distance above ground increases, the diurnal range in temperature and the rate of temperature change both decrease. Temperature exiremes are concentrated at the surface that is open to the atmosphere ~ it can be the surface of tarmac or soil, the top of a crop or the tree canopy This surface, where energy is absorbed by dey and released to the atmosphere at night, is called the active surface 1.4. RATES OF WARMING AT THE SURFACE OF THE EARTH HEAT CAPACITY The speed at which a surface can warm is determined by the heat capacity (or specific heat) of that surface. It is defined as the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of a given mass by | dog. C. Water has 2 relatively high value (1.0calg~! per °C), five times that of ry soil. Water is, relatively transparent to solar radiation, meaning that heat energy ‘rom the solar radiation is spread widely whereas on land it is concentrated at the surface, Because air is a poor conductor of heat, the lowest heat capacities occur over soils that contain a large amount of airThe effects of heating by day and cooling by night are then concentrated in a much narrower zone at the surface, with little conduction of heat ta lower levels. This is the reason why sandy soils (in which the soil particles are separated by a large amount of air) warm up quickly in spring but are also conducive to severe cooling at night. Air and ground frost is a hazard for much of the year in the mid-latitudes where the soil is sandy. If the surface is dry, the heat capacity is reduced, increasing the rate of cooling at night THE INFLUENCE OF LAND AND SEA The heat capacity of the sea is about ten-times that of the land. This is because the upper layers of water are transparent to solar energy and, as the sea is in constant motion, the heat is distributed across a considerable depth, Up to 20% reaches a depth of 9m and, in summer,a slight energy receipt may be recorded down to 40m (Barry and Chorley, 1998). Unlike the marked diurnal change seen on land (often 6-10 deg C), sea surface temperatures (SST) change little between night and day, varying by just half a degree in shallow, off-shore waters. In deep water temperature changes are negligible. The thermal state of land and sea surfaces can be detected from space (Box | 5). Satellite sensors can be ‘tuned! to respond to crnitted long-wave radiation transmitted up through a cloud-free sky. Figure 1.6 i a thermal infrared image of the same scene shown in the visible version (Figure 1.3). Night and day scenes can be recorded because thermal infrared sensors work independently of sunlight. Innages reveal brightness temperatures, not the actual temperature of surfaces (sce Box 4.3). Infrared images demonstrate clearly cortrasts in day and night temperatures. The scenes across northwest Europe (Figures 1.7 and |.8) reveal these contrasts and highlight the daytime heating of land, especially on relatively cloud-free daysUnderstanding Weather 1.5 EFFECTS OF TEMPERATURE CHANGES - STABILITY AND INSTABILITY Having reviewed the factors that influence heating of different parts of the Farth’s surface, it is now appropriate to consider the effect of these temperature changes on the air above. Temperature is an imporiant influence on cloud pattems, location and characteristics. STABLE AND UNSTABLE AIR Air temperalure has a variable and bvegular pallor of change willy height, unlike air pressure that decreases more steadily Temperature variations lead to fundamentally different states in tne atsoosphere: stability and instability (Box 1.6). Detailed expianation of these concepts can sometimes appear rather complicated but itis possible to gain a good understanding from a non-mathematical step-by-step aparoach to account for changes in the sky that can be observed by the keen sky-watcher Figure 9 shows typical cloud types associated with stable and unstable air While stable air encourages cloud te spread horizontally in a sheet-like form, Unstable air encourages vertical growth resulting in a more broken cloud distribution, Note that it is not accurate to assotiate stable air with 2 lack of cloud, or a lack of activity in the troposphere. All clouds are formed from the condensation of water vapour into cloud droplets (or the sublimation of supercooled vapour to ice crystals). The source of the water vapour is the evaporation of water from the surface of the Earth or by the transpiration of moisture from plants. Box 1.5 Thermal infrared images These images make the invisible visible because they represent heat escaping into space (eg, Figure 1.6) Sensors record the intensity (brightness) of long-wave infrared energy emitted from the Earth-atmosphere [Link] images often appear ‘brighter than visbie images of the same scene because longer wavelengths experience little scattering (less interference) in the atmosphere. tn night images, high, cold cloud-tops appear very bright, cool land below appears dull and relatively warmer oceans appear black. in daytime images, warmer land appears dul relative to the cooler (brighter) oceans (Figure 1.6). The grey-tone coding is explained in Chapter 4 (Box 4.1), Meteosat employs two thermal channels (2 and 3) that detect infrarad radiances escaping to space (Figure 4.3). Channel 3 measures emissions at wavelengths between 10.2 and 12.5 jum that ave transmitted through an important atmospheric window: Channel 2 records shorter emitted infrared wavelengths peaking around 6:7 yen: this is the water vapour channel actually located within an atmospheric absorption zone (Figure |.6(b)). NOAA's AVHRR system (eg, Figure 1.72) Figure |.8(@)) employs two channels te detect these emissions (equivalent to Meteosat's broad-band Channel 3) between wavelengths 10,3 and 11.34m (Channel 4) and i 1.5 and 125m (Channel 5). Figut image dork‘ace, it is now erature is an air pressure es in the it's possiste t for changes le stable air tical grows able air with sroplets (or vapour is pf moisture to space emitted 5 of the in the ars appear lained in song to went located 4, Figure neossts | 1.5 and | (a) ) Figure 1.6 Meteosat imagery {12.00h 2: September 2003), (0) thermal infared image: (b) watersvopour image, Image (b) demonstrates how much water vapour exists in the atmosphere, Bright areas ore moisture-ich, dark areas are water vapour holes’ indicating very dry oe Clouds can be identified in both images asaydsoune ayp uy eungsiow pu’Understanding Weather ib) Figure 1.7. Northwest Europe on a hot diay (2) daytime surface temperature os inferred by NOAA AVHRR thermal infrared imegery. 12:37 h 3 August 1990: (b) surface synoptic chart for 12:00 Ural 2003. his was the day ofthe bighest temperature recrded in the Bish hie The controst between the warmth of the lac creas (black) and the cold cloudLtops (white) on the cold front abprocching Scotind is shown, The sensor measures only thermal emissions fio? the highest cloud ayer: since eloudioh temperatures are inversely elated to height, higher, colder cloucs appear brighter (ighter tore) than warmer, lower clouds (sce Chapter 4).The Sea surface oppears colder (lighter) than the fan as this wes recorded at mickoy Iles. 37.1°C at Cheltenham, Glouce Figure ©) sue relive oud in sure ParsR tte clearly Figure 1.8 Nonh (0) surface synoptic cher Europe at night: () NOAA AVHRR thermal infrared image for 02:40h 25 july 1990: far 1200 25 jay [Link] sareine image shows grey cloucs over the North Sec ielcating warm, ond hence relouvaly low oldu, cloud tops. The cloud to the west of Britain is associated with deep cloud an @ cold front with lower loud top temperatures, Where skias are clear the sensor is able to detect differences being a night-time image, the land is cook in surfove ternperat than the sea {although the urban heat lands of Paris and Landon appeor cask) aaaydsouae aya uy aunasjous pura ; 1 Box 1.6 Definitions of stable and unstable air . | Stable air exists when a parcel of airs less buoyant than the surrounding air: vertical movement. | is discouraged unless the air is forced to rise (absclute stability} Unstable air exists when a parcel of air ig more buoyant than the surrounding air ~ including the air above (absolute instability); the lighter’ air will tend to rise until a height is reached where all the air has the same degree of buoyancy. Understanding Weather The buoyancy of air is controlled by temperature, hence the importance of temperature variations through the atmosphere. | ) Figure 1.9 Cloucscopes of (a) stable air (st ratocumuhis):(b) unstable abr (cunts).movement = indluding hed where mperature CONDENSATION Condensation occurs when the amount of water vapour exceeds the capacity of air to hold it this may happen simply with the addition of extra water vapour if,for example, air passes over a large body of water The extent to which air can hold water vapour is related to its temperature. For any particular temperature, there is an upper limit beyond which further water vapour cannot be held this mit decreases as airs cooled. Any further addition of vapour results in the air becoming saturated and condensation of cloud droplets taking place. The temperature at which a sample of air becomes saturated is called the dewpoint temperature. This is 2 critical variable in weather forecasting because it indicates the temperature at which cloud formation will start. In order to calculate the dewpoint temperature we need to express the actual measured amount of water vapour in the air a6 a proportion of the maximum amount that the air can hold at that temperature. This value, expressed as a percentage, is relative humidity (see Chapter 2) TEMPERATURE FLUCTUATIONS, CONDENSATION AND CLOUD FORMATION Condensation and cloud formation respond closely to changes in air temperature. If you were to rise afew hundred metres through the air with a thermometer; the temperature profile could be recorded (Figure |.10). This is the environmental lapse rate ~ the cooling (lapse) rate of the ain Any ‘warming, with height is referred to as a negative lapse rate. For example, assuming a sunny cloud-ree day, the morning Sun heats the ground, promoting a certain rate of cooling (lapse rate) with height. Because this warming weakens with height, the environmental lapse rate (cooling rate) at midday will be greater than that observed earlier in the day — the ground will have warmed more than the air some kilometres above. What wil be the effect of having created this layer of warm air close to the surface? Since the density of gases is inversely related to temperature, ths layer will become buoyant and wil try to rise. Bubbles of air will start to liftoff the ground ~ thermals. As they rise they will be forced to expand because they are passing into a layer of lower atmospheric pressure. A balloon released into the ‘open air demonstrates this: the air inside expands as it drifts upwards through the low pressure atmosphere ~ and then bang! Reduced air pressure forces the air molecules within the bubble to work (use energy) to occupy a greater volume of air The bubble of air wil cool progressively as it rises, This is called adiabatic cooling (arising from adiabatic expansion}; in other words, the cooling and expansion occur without any direct input of energy into or out of the bubble — the change was an indirect consequence of the energy used up in being forced to expand. This cooling is related to the distance the bubble rises. It can therefore be expressed as the dry adiabatic lapse rate (see Box I.7), the temperature of a moving bubble of air (not the surroundings). A moving bubble of air can therefore have an independent temperature to its surroundings, a vital distinction in meteorology. The greater the warmth of the bubble compared with its environment determines the buoyancy of the bubble — this , termod! the Convective Available Potential Energy ((AV'L). The dry adhabatic lapse rate (DALR) is a constant — rising unsaturated air bubbles will cool at a rate of 0.98°C per 100m, as shown in Figure |.10, Clouds will only develop if rising bubbles of air coo! sufficiently to become saturated and this will depend on how high they [Link] is determined by the density of the bubble in comparison with its surroundings at the same height and can easly be determined by comparing temperatures. Bubbies of warm air tend to rise, and continue to rise, because they are less dense and more buoyant than the surrounding air that cools at a much faster raterin these circumstances the air is described as unstable. auoydsoune yp ut oumsiou pur 29HUnderstanding Weather (bubble temperature) (Atk temperature) bubble of at ALR ELR’ ‘row cokder than 7 surroundings: sinks bubble is warmer than surroundings => riges through buoyancy Height above grourd Temperature: Figure 1.10 Tre variation of ar temperature measured abewe the Ect’ sutoce (dhe enanmente lapse rate (ELR)) The temperature of a sno bubble of arising through the atrrenphiere Sana by the cry onlabaric lapse rate (DALR) The shaded area between the line Gnd the curve represen the temperature dference batween the bubble and ts surrcundings. a meosure ofthe energy aval for carvectve uplift — convective avilable potential energy (CAPE) In the exampie given (Figure 1.10), the environment hegins to get warmer at around 500m. The bubble becomes cooler than its surroundings ebove 700m and, as itis now denser and less buoyant, it wil tend to descend. This ‘capping’ process. by the layer of stable air inhibits any further upward movement of the thermal, This situation results in a lemperature inversion: this is when air temperature decreases with height (above 00m in Figure 1.10). CONDENSATION OF RISING AIR ‘Air always contains water vapour and can become saturated either by cooling or by the addition of more water vapour, Over the sea, air can gain moisture as seawater evaporates into it. Qver land itis more commonly saturated by cooling, often associated with the rising bubbles of air in an unstable environment. If the dewpoint of air shown in Figure 1.1 is 10°C, rising thermals are cooled to this dewpoint temperature at 400m (shiown by the DALR fine). Small shreds of cloud will soon start to condense here. The bubbles of rising air will still be buoyant and unstable and will thus continue to rise. ‘Condensation involves a change of state from gas to liquid. This results in energy being released into the surroundings 3s the molecules are rearranged. This energy release is called latent heat Condensation leads to a release of latent heat, while the opposite change of state — evaporation ~ results in energy being absorbed from the surroundings, creating a cooling effect. The warming associated with condensation counteracts some of the original caoling accompanying dry adiabatic [Link] bubble is no longer cooling at the DALR (098°C per 100m) but at the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALR) of around 0.65°C per |[Link] SALR depends on the amount of water vapour available for condensation. As warmer air releases more latent heat into the atmosphere, the SALR is ‘ower at higher temperatures (represerned by the slight curve in Figure 1.11). Condensation has an effect on air stability — it increases instability! Once condensation occurs (above 400m in Figure |.1), the bubble of air becomes warmer and remains unstable and buoyant with enough energy to rise even higher in the atmosphere, spreading doud development, up to 1000, Condensation is therefore an important source of heat energy in the global climate. especially Fig rate int for cha ou VAL Fig. sot tem radi 13peso rato (ELR). ‘se ute (DALR). We and its xy (CAPE). 4 500m, The less buoyant, “ther upward is when air addition of ver land it is 1 an unstable poled to this -00n start to. tinue to rise “eleased into stent heat aporation ~ he warming try adiabatic ‘od acinbatic ale vapour the SALR is ition occurs, Ind buoyant ‘ent up to 2 especially 4000 8 §& Height above ground im) 8 6 10 4 Temperature (°C) Figure 1.11 The effect of saturation on the temperature of a rising bubble of air ~ the saturated adiabatic lapse rate (SALA), in the tropics where the SALR is relatively [Link] vast amounts of condensation in tropical cyclones, for example, provide spectacular injections of energy into the weather systems. To summarize these interrelated processes, the main concepts encountered in studying temperature changes in the atmosphere are reviewed in Box .[Link] distinction between stable and unstable air is, crucial in distinguishing different cloud and weather types. VARIATIONS OF INSTABILITY OVER TIME AND SPACE Figure 1.12 shows how environmental lapse rates typically change on a sunny day in response to surface heating and how the stability of air has changed over this time. ‘The O7:00h ELR temperature curve in Figure |.12 shows a typical surface inversion of temperature typical of a clear night. Nocturnal cooling begins at ground level, because of terrestrial radiation, and later spreads upwards into lower layers of aic Now the ground is relatively cool, ai will not nse freely because it will have a greater density than the air above, creating a layer of stable air. By 1300h the surface temperature has reached 20°C, but the air above will have warmed much less, ‘owing to the slow rate of heat transfer through ait As 2 result, the temperature difference with height (environmental lapse rate) will have increased and the air will now be unstable. The ELR often lies between the SALR and the DALR: ie, the environment cools at between 06°C and |,0°C per 100m, The air will then be stable if it is unsaturated (bubble would be cooling at 1°C. per 100m and thus become cooler than the surroundings) but unstable if it was saturated (bubble cooing al only 06"C per 100m end thus become warmer). The instubilly is then said to be con ditional upon the moisture content of the air ~ this is conditional instability. Conditional instability is common in the rnid-latitudes. In the early part of the ascent of an air bubble, where the airis unsaturated, free convection will not be triggered because the air will be stable (Figure 1.3), Air bubbles are often forced to rise through this stable layer because of passage over high ground or by uplift at fronts In these situations, rising air bubbles may be lifted and cooled to dewpoint temperature. The release of latent heat and consequent cooling at the SAL may enable the ” ausydsoune ou ui oangsiour pue3 | : Box 1.7 A summary of lapse rates and instability e The changing temperature of air above the ground is a fundamental variable determining conden : sation and cloud formation. This can be identified according to condensation and lapse rates: 3 Environmental lapse rate The cooling rate of the air in general above one point. | 5 LR) ‘Average value 0.65°C per 100m: Dry adiabatic lapse rate ‘The cooling rate of a bubble of air rising through the F (DALR) atmosphere. A constant value: 0.98°C per |00rm. 4 Dewpoint temperature The temperature below which air will become saturated, resulting in condensation ‘Saturated adiabatic lapse rate The cooling rate of a bubble of rising air that has been (SALR) cooled to (or below) its dewpoint temperature. The release of latent heat offsets some of the origina! cooling ~ average value 0.6°C per 100m. “The combination of these lapse rates gives us the temperature of any rising bubble of air and that of its surroundings Ifit is warmer it will continue to rise: if it is cooler it will descend. Unstable air The upward motion of thermals is encouraged because the surroundings are cooier than the rising bubbles of air Stable air ‘Any upward motion (apart from any forced upiit is ds- couraged because the ELR is too smal to allow thermals | to rise (<0.98°C per 100m in unsaturated air: <0,65°C per 100m in saturated air). Cloud may develop but will | spread horizontally rather than vertically (though some | forced uplift often occurs). | Fig iss Temperature inversion A rise in air temperature with height (ELR is usually | un: considered to be negative to represent this warming with height). Leads to very stable air being created. Can be observed either at the surface (such as on a clear right) ‘or higher up (where there is widespread descent of air). | Th ass are tha bubble of air to become unstable ifit now becomes warmer than its surroundings in Figure 1.13 this Gor is achieved at 500m and convective cloud will form above this level, the Convective instability occurs when a deep layer of rising air ig moist at its base but orier tery towards the top. As the moist air is likely to become saturated before the drier air above, it will cool c at a slower rate, producing an overall increase (steepering) of the ELR conining conden- ve rates ve one point. through the 100m. vill become hat has been perature, The the original Fair and that L ged because rubles of air uplift) is is. ‘ow thermals sins <065°C slop but well rough some. R is usually ‘arming with ted. Can be clear night) cent of air) gure 1.13 this ase but drier xe it will cool | I (070%) e Height above ground (m) 1007000 2 r900n) ‘Temperature (°C) Figure 1.12. Varctions in environmental lapse rates over 0 cloucfree day showing the effect of changing surface temperoture on the stabil ofthe or above 1200 1000 800 Unstable air (convection) 600 400 Height above ground (m} Stable ai (uplit has to be forced) 6 10 14 ‘Temperature (°C) Figure 1.13 Conditionot instability — the air is stable up to 500m. Between 400 and 500m any rising bubble of oir fs stable but soturcted ond cools ot the SALR ond « layer cloud wal form. Between 500 and 1000m the ai is unstable, being warmer thar the surroundings the grey shading represents the convective evciable potential energy 1.6 FROM CLOUD DROPLETS TO RAINDROPS The change from cloud droplets to raindrops depends on the condensation of water vapour and is associated with a dramatic inerease in droplet size: with diameters around |~2mm, most raindrops are over (00 times larger than cloud droplets. Up until the early twentieth century it was thought that cloud droplets grew unt! they fell to Earth as raindrops. New theories of raindrep formation, confirmed by observation, have replaced this notion and there is now an improved understanding of the initial condensation process. Condensation rarely takes place spontaneously at the dewpoint temperature ~ condensation nuclei are also needed. Condensation nuclei are suspended particles (aerosols) offering surfaces upon which the process of condensation occurs. Their distribution is highly variable; high concentrations occur in stable air with aUnderstanding Weather are washed out by rain. The particles originate from natural sources (@g, dust liquid and solid pollutants). The idea that condensation occurs be seen when dew forms on blades of grass after a light winds, locally they sea salt) and human activities (285 against surfaces rather than in free, pure air can ; cold night: other surfaces such as spiders’ webs may also have water droplets on thern THE GROWTH OF RAINDROPS “There are two widely accepted theories to account for the rapid development of raindrops The mest snicely applicable 's the Bergeron-Findeisen process, suggested by the Norsegian meteoralogst Bergeron iy 1933. and confirmed by the German, indeisert.1 few year later “Across much of the world clouds grow sufficiently high to enter areas where the temperature is below the freezing point of water ~ in other words, they rise above the ‘freezing leve'. Bergeron realized thet these clouds would contain a mixture af water droplets and ice crystals. ince water does not instantly freeze at O°C, i may remain in liquid form even when the surroundings 2re well below freezing (je. in a'supercooled state). Ice crystals and supercooled water droplets often coexist, but because they respond in different ways to the saturation process, air that is saturated with respect to water will be supersaturated with respect to ice. Saturation occurs mare readily around ice crystals and it follows that water droplets then sither evaporate o freeze onto the surfaces of adjacent ce [Link] end result is that ice crystals grow at the expense of water droplets As ice crystals grow. they start to fall and start to ‘zap’ adjacent water droplets and ice crystals, leading to further growth and faster descent. As the crystals grow they develop into snowflakes. “The combination of ice crystals and water droplets occurs frequently in clouds in many parts of the ‘world. Faling ice crystals develop into snowdlakes as they fal These melt into raindrops if the surface ‘temperature is more than about +4°C. Clouds above the mid-latitudes commonly have temperatures between —10 and ~35°C and it is within this range that the combination of water droplets and ice crystals is conducive to the Bergeron-Findelsen process. Langmuir’s chain reaction theory explains rainfal in the absence of any freezing process. was noted in the rrid-twentieth century that rain in the tropics fell from warm, ice-free clouds because they were not high enough to resch the freezing level an explanation other than the Bargeron-Findeisen process was needed. and this involves the callision and coalescence process. Water droplets collide and coalesce (‘bump' and'clump’ together) as a result of atmospheric turbulence and convection. A\chain reaction occurs beceuse,as these larger droplets reach a critical radius of 3 mim, they become unstable and break up, forming lots of smaller droplets that continue to collide and thus grow to large droplets by this chain reaction process. 1.7. FORMS OF PRECIPITATION Precipitation is the name given to all forms of water and ice reaching the Earth’s surface from the atmosphere cither by falling ‘torn clouds or by direct deposition (Table 1.2) Different precipitation types occur because of different. methods of upiift in the atmosphere (Table 1.3), Precipitation can develop in (therrnally) stable air by forced uplift. This can be due to either convergence or orographic uplift over high ground, uplift that is typically slow but widespread, Free Jift occurs in unstable air ~ this can be much faster but is usually less persistent than forced uplift. Precipitation [Link] from convectional uplift in unstable air is a shower (a brief spell of precipitation arising from non-cumulus clouds ~ ie..in stable air — is termed ‘intermittent precipitation’ if lasts for Jess than one hour and should not be referred to as a shower). Tab Tye Fale Stee Hail impe "Fon well as th ‘gains wart warn hold ensur Th wind lo0r vesut: Th high from Ter wind wher interation occurs grass after a 2sThe most eteorologist nperature is V. Bergeron water does well below coexist, but "respect to ice crystals diacent ice sstals grow, ver growth carts of the he surface peratures ats and ice sess It was ause they Findeisen - droplets onvection. y become to large from the re (lable to either ad Free ed uplift ipitation lasts for Type of precipitation Source Raval ‘Water droplets formed rom the growth of cloud dropiets snow Ice crystals formed from the ageregation of ce crystal in loud Steet ‘A micure of rain and snow, often partly melted snowflakes Hail Solid usually spherical Imps of ce produced in unstable sir; usualy composed of concentric shes ofice deposited after repeated uplift through ice crystals in cumuliform cloud. Often occurs when surface temperatures are high Dew Direct deposition of water droplets on the ground surface due to condensation Table 1.3. A summary of diferent types of precipitation according to the method of uplift Method of uplift Cause Speed Orographic upiit Passage of air aver high ground Variable Convergence (rental) uplift Large scale horizontal convergence of air between Gradual adjacent ar asses Convective uplift Froe uplit of uayant air when the atmosphere & unstable Potentally fast 1.8) THE FOHN EFFECT - A LOCAL INFLUENCE UPON CLOUD AND RAINFALL The fohn effect is the name given to a warm, often cry wind that descends from high ground. tis an important influence on the distribution of cloud, rainfall and temperature around hills and mountains. fohn'isthe general name of the phenomenon but itis known by a wide array of local names, the most ‘well known being the Chinook of North America. When air cescends,it warms because of adiabatic compression (the reverse af adiabatic expansion) as the larger, denser air mass above ‘presses’ it down. When this happens over land, the warming air gains little moisture from the underlying surface and remains, or quiclly becomes, unsaturated, The ‘warming rate of unsaturated air is given by the dry adiabatic lapse rate of 1°C per 100m (that is, a ‘warming at this rate while the air descends). As air continues to descend, it dries out as its moisture holeing capacity increases, giving rise to the rain-shadow phenomenon as the higher temperatures ensure that cloud droplets evaporate, often ieaving a clear sky (Figure |.14). ‘The fohn effect is most typically associated with situations when air becomes saturated ascending windward slopes, leading to a recluction in the cooling rate irom the DALR to the SALR (Q.65°C: per 100m). Once over the hill air will mostly warm up at the faster DALR, as explained above, and the result is a higher temperature on the lee side af the high eround (Figure 1.15). Uhe 18hn eflect also occurs in fine weather in the absence of saturation. When air is very stable in high pressure situations, fow-level air may be blocked by hills, Consequently, only air that originates from summit height reaches the ee-side and is therefore only subject to adiabatic warming, Temperatures can vise by as much as 20 deg [Link] the lee of major mountain ranges where the fhn wind can be strong and gusty, such as over the Racky Mountains of North America (Quaile, 2001) vuhere the wind is called a Chinook (iterally’snow-eater’ in native American Indian language). Changes in temperature and moisture can be felt over 100km downwind. » auoydsoune ayp ul aunasiou pur 2Understanding Weather Figure 1.14 Beeoks in the cov sharlow creo, The photograph wo to the lee of Exmoor in southwest England as of the photogrop is bieaking upto reveal blue sky with afte ci 1s overhec, ai tonal cloud ““orographig “> recpaton Stratus hil fog) SO ‘Coping at DALE, Sea Figure 1.15. the development of « fbn wind ond associated rainshacdw conditions. nd des token looking west, towards the high ground; altostratus over the hls (in the centre Stratocumotss ane sralus —_ breaking up to lee of summit Rain-shadow zone Beenie Fohn wind Sea st Ta alr rac fro+ atany one time and place, bin winds are a by-produtt ofthe general wind direction. Ifthe wind direction changes by 180° the distribution of weather conditions either side of the mountain range 1s reversed, For example, if 2 westerly wind blows across Scotland, a location such as ‘Aberdeen on the east coast may enjoy the fohn effect If the wind direction changes to an easterly, places on the west coast such as Fort Wiliam and Oban will have these conditions (Roy, 1997); + shallow hills rising at least 50m above surrounding land can generate noticeable féhn conditions, although not so dramatic 25 the effect experienced to the lee of larger mountains (Stone, 1983); + globally. the frequency of the fahn phenornenon is difficult to establish but itis estimated that it occurs on about 50 days per year: this is based on data from the European Alps. The highest frequency and magnitude of the f@hn wind occur in stable conditions when mountains (rather than convection) are responsible for forcing air upwards. Warm polewarc-moving dirs more likely to be stable and this explains, for example, why the northern rather than the southern side of the Alps is affected. SUMMARY The Sun provides the energy that drives the atmosphere and the global climate system. In the lower atmosphere, air temperatures are determined locally by the balance between incoming and outgoing radiation (le. net radiation), and by the Earth’s surface properties because the atmosphere warms ‘fom below. Air is either in a stable or unstable state depending on its temperature gradient (profile). The upward movement of a parcel of air is associated with a change in temperature as its volume changes in response to the varying mass of air above. Ifit warms and expands, becoming more buoyant than the surrounding air an unstable state is established! if ‘volumetricalh? and Temp! a uraled afd is Ural: to hold any ‘moisture, and air tends to cool as iL ascends, often Decor = ha more vapour. Precipitation takes place if sustained condensation occurs; this can happen in either stable or unstable air If air descends, it tends to warm and thus its capacty to ‘hold water in a vapour State increases. All this activity is strongly influenced by topography and differential warming of the Earth's surfaces. Understanding the processes discussed in this chapter bagins by observing the sky, and particularly a ‘the clouds, But, before examining the ‘view from below’, the next chapter investigates the trans- formation of heat into motion and the development of weathier systems REFERENCES AND GENERAL READING ce Barry, [Link] Chorley. R. 1998: Aimosphere, weather and climate. 7th edition. London: Routledge. Bey Drake, F. 2000; Global warming — the sclence of climate change, London: Arnold, Sea Fischer, A. and Staehelin, |. 2003: The Antarctic ozone hole: 1996-2002. World Meteorological Orgonisation Bulletin 52, 264-69, euaydsoune 943 ul sansjou pueaa Understanding Weather Intergovernmertal Panel on Climate Change 200): Climate change 2001: the scientific basis Contribution of working group | to the Thid Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Pane! on Clirnate Change. Houghton, |T, Ding, ¥, Griggs, DJ, Noguer, M. van der Linden, PJ. Dai, X. Maskall, K. and Johnson, C.A, Cambridge: Cambridge University Pross, 881 pp. iiehl, |. and Trenberth, K. 1997: Earth's annual mean global energy budget. Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 78, 197-208. Quaile, E1L 2001: Back to basics; hn and chinook winds. Weather 56, |4 1-45, Roy, M. 1997: Highland andl Island ScoUlindd. In Whicker; D. and Mayes, j (eds) Regent crates of the British isles. London: Routledge, 228-53, Smithson, RA, Addison, [Link] Atkinson, K, 2002: Fundamentals of the physical environment. 3rd edition London: Routledge, Stone, |. 1983: Circulation type and the spatial distribution of precipitation over central, easter and southern England, Weather 38, 173-77 and 200-208. Thompson, R, 1998: Atmosphere processes and systems. London: Roulledge. 2 TI we At en ob ses at Ont sure c sense Hone range INFLE Any g greate 20km mover 1000 height Air gravity, the tre This prand he American ‘nates of the 3rd edition, eastern and 2 The dynamic atmosphere — energy, motion and the creation of weather systems ‘Atmospheric energy provides the key to understanding patterns of weather and climate: we notice this energy when we sense a sea breeze or a gale. The catalyst for ait motion and the source of this ‘energy is the temperature variation across the surface of the Earth, boosted by additional energy obtained from such pracesses os condensation, as noted in Chopter 1 In this chapter we examine how energy is transformed into kinetic energy (wind) through variations in air pressure creating patterns of global winds. The discussion then focuses on how regional patterns of alr motion ond temperature lead to the development of weather systems (areas of high and low pressure) and how they are shown on weather maps. | ENERGY IN THE ATMOSPHERE ~ THE GLOBAL MOVEMENT OF AIR On both local and global scales, air has a tendency to move to where air pressure is lower: Air pres- sure can exert a force on air molecules and this can control air motion. This was ilustrated in a vertical sense in Chapter | by the tendency of a small air bubble to rise because of contrasting buoyancy. Horizontal changes of air pressure are far more variable than vertical changes and give rise to a wide range of air mations, The intial trigger at the global scale can be identified as temperature variations INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE VARIATIONS ON AIR PRESSURE AND MOTION Any gas expands as itis warmed: the atmosphere is warmest at low latitudes, where it spreads to a greater height. The deoth of the troposphere varies from about 8km in the polar regions to 18 or even 2Dkm at the tropics. How does this vertical ‘stretching’ affect air pressure! Before any horizontal movement ol air occur’, the air pressure recorded at the Earth’s surface would be uniform, roughly 1000 mbar: Because the atmosphere is shallower atthe poles. air pressure decreases more rapicly with height (Figure 2.1), Air pressure ig a function of the mass of air above a given location, acting under the influence of gravity Figure 2.| iluetrates how a horizontal gradient of air pressure arises fram the varying depth of the troposphere: A and B are at the same height but have a difference in air pressure of 200mbar This pressure gradient will be present at all heights apart from at the surface (at this stage). aUnderstanding Weather = 200mbar 400mbar eOOmbar 800mbar = 1000mvar Pole Lattude Equator Figure 2.1 influence of 9 pressure giactent inthe upper tropasphere due to heating at tow tatiudes. FORCES ACTING ON MOVING AIR ‘The force induced by the horizontal variation in ait pressure above Lhe surface is caused by Lhe gradient of air pressure and is therefore called the pressure gradient force (Figure 2.2). In reality, as soon as air starts to move it subject to another force ~ the Coriolis force. The actual path taken by an air molecule as it moves is initially the sur of these forces. The Coriolis force results in a deflection of moving, air (when viewed from Earth) to the right of the direction provoked by the pressure gradient force in the northem hemisphere and to the left in the southem hemisphere, This is because we view air motion nat from a stationary position but from a rotating surface, We observe the path of air moving as it twists around the Earth’ axis of rotation, moving in relation to aur position (Box 2.1), The size of the deflection (the Coriolis parameter) is greater at the poles because the Earth’ surface there is at ight angles to the axis of rotation. Conversely, itis zero on the equator because horizontal motion there is parallel to the axis of ratation, The size of the force is also praportional to the velooity of the air Box 2.1 Demonstrating the Coriolis force To visualize the Coriolis force we need to recreate the anticlockwisé rotation of the northern hemisphere, An easy approximation is to rotate a sheet of paper anticlockwise, marking the centre of rotation as the North Pole. If the paper is steadily rotated with one hand, use your other hand and attempt to draw a straight line towards the pole — in other words, representing air movement acting under the influence of the pressure gradient force, If you only press lightly allowing ‘the paper to tw, you should find that you have drawn a curve to the right instead of a stright lin. THE OBSERVED DIRECTION OF WIND. ‘The two forces that act upon moving air are summarized in Figure 2.2, As air starts to move in response to the pressure gradient force itis subject to an increasing Coriolis deflection as velacity increases. The result is a westerly airflow (ie. air moving eastwards). in the southern hemisphere an intial southward (poleward) flow is deflected to the left ~ this also creates a westerly airflow through that hemisphere. The resulting wind, created at equilibriurn between the two forces, is the geastrophic wind. Centtrepetal acceleration, a third force that represents changes of airflow direction, acts towards the direction of curvature of the contour jnies or isobars shown on weather maps, The curved airflow that is the product of all these forces is the gradient wind. INFLUENCES UPON SURFACE WINDS Once horizontal motion begins, air is redistributed horizontally and ai pressure measured at different locations on the ground will vary Surface winds are generated in response to this but there are two Figur impe press Su rough one ‘force seat atthe press Pat iss other freq isnov 22 We hi This ¢ exten the ter this di about and mi The matior and conditused by the 22), In reality, val path taken 2 the right of to the left in ion bust from 5 of rotation, 2 the Earth’s itor because ‘portional to northern wing the our other enting air allowing aight ine in response reases, The southward emisphere, ind awards the tirflow that at different are two. Presu ge foe \ Sn corte | enone Figure 2.2. Wind crecton n the upper atmosphere of the northem hemisphere. important factors to consider: the role af friction on wind direction and the development of surface pressure centres. Surface winds are slowed down by frietion. This is especially noticeable over land, which, being rougher than the sea surface, provides more friction. This affects the surface wind direction because ‘one of the contributory fortes — the Coriolis effect — is proportional to the velocity of air, The Coriolis force is therefore weakened at the surface by about 30% over land and by about 15% over the open 22. It follows that, while upper level winds blow parallel to the contour lines showing pressure levels, at the surface they blow across isobars of surface air pressure at an angle of 10-20° towards the low pressure centre (illustrated in Figure 2.8). Patterns of air pressure at the surface are often different to those of the mid- to upper-troposphere, It is simplest to think of separate (but celated) patterns of air pressure, one at the surface and the other in the mid- to upper-troposphere. The pressure patterns at these two heights are those most frequently used in weather forecasting. The influence of the troposphere on global winds and weather is now discussed below. 2.2. THE CIRCULATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE - THE UPPER WESTERLY WINDS FORMATION We have already seen how the winds above the surface blow from west to east in both hernispheres This dominant airflow is known as the upper westerlies, which blow from about 500m upwards, extending from the sub-trapics to within about 15° of the poles. The driving force for this motion is the temperature contrast within each hemisphere. Because of the coldness of the Antarctic land-mnass, this difference is much greater in the southern hemisphere (SH), about 60 deg. C compared with about 30 deg C in the northern hemisphere (NH). The upper westerlies are consequently stronger and more deminant in the southern hemisphere and are impeded by fewer lanc-rnasses. The gradient of temperature across each hemisphere is rarely uniform. This is because of the for- mation of alr masses. These are large expanses of air having consistent characteristics of ternperature and moisture. Where air masses meet thera may be a sudden change (or discontinuity) of these conditions. The rapid temperature change here is an important source of energy for the atmosphere aw auoydsoune suueukpBee Understanding Weather in two related ways * itis translated into a local speeding up of alow, especially towards the top of the troposphere where jet streams are identified. These are narrow currents {100-400/en wide) of fast-moving air that encircle both hemispheres. In the troposphere there are two main jet streams in each, ‘hemisphere - the polar front je, which divides polar and tropical air masses. and the sub-tropical westerly jet at aout 30°: the discontinuity of temperature between different air masses disturbs the relationship between temperature and pressure across each hemisphere. Isotherms (joining places of equal temperiture) may nol run panilcl with iobars Goininy places oF equal ar pressime) Feynpeyature (and hence, the thickness of the twapaspheré above) will now vary along an isobar: This means that the wind will now blow at an angle to the isotherms, blowing either warm air polewards (warm advection) or cool air equatorwards (cold acvection). This is clearly a situation that wll ‘throw the temperature pattern into an unsteady state; this is termed a baroclinic condition, ‘one that provides energy for the creation of depressions in the mid-atitudes WAVES IN THE UPPER WESTERLIES ‘The upper westerlies in general — and jet streams in particular — have an important influence upon surface weather patterns by determining the direction of airflow at many levels. They rarely encircle each hemisphere in a concentric pattem. The airfiow usually shows clements of a waving motion, termed either long waves or Rossby waves, after the American meteorologist Cari-CGustay Rossby, iho identified their role in the atmosphere in 1939 (Box 2.2) The larger the waves, the more air migrates between north and south. Figure 2.3(a) shows a situation in which the waves were small and the westeriies kept to a fairly consisient latitude, known Box 2.2 Understanding patterns of airflow; the upper atmosphere, progression and blocking Airflow in the upper atmosphere is usually shown on maps in terms of the height at which the air pressure reaches a particular value. These are called ‘constant pressure’ charts; for example, a “500 mbar’ chart shows contour lines represanting the height ak which the air pressure is SOQ mbar The Units are decametres: atypical height in the mid latitudes is around 500 dm, or Skm above the ground ‘A low height ingicates that the atmospheric pressure is low in that ares through the depth of the troposphere and this is wally associated with cold air The charts are fundamental to understanding ‘the behaviour of the atmosphere because the wind at that height runs parallel to the contour lines (On average we see a poleward decrease in the height of the 500 mbar level, this reduction is larger in a progressive weather situation (Figure 2.3{a); associated with a large pressure gradient across latitudes) and there iste longitudinal variation in the height. This means that the westerfes follow a direct path from west to east with litte meandering through Rossby waves. A mere sinuous airflow shape is shown in a blocked airflow type (Figure 2.3{b)) when the 500mbar height also varies with longitude; poleward extensions of high pressure (greater heights) are upper ridges in the Rossby waves and equatarware extensions of low pressure (smaller heights) are upper troughs. In Figure 2.3(b) a ridge can be seen over the northeast Atlantic and a trough exists over mainland Europe. The arrows show the generalized direction of motion at around 5 kim height. asay know Th inde: mont We in the the di trougt upper heavy Upt the jer upper term¢ cut of Omeg Table ‘Synop Progres Blocker-oposphere fast-moving rms in each sub-tropical -elationship #5 of equal omperature This means polewards an that will ‘condition, lence upon srely encircle ving motion, sstav Rossby, (@) shows a ‘ude, known. ch the air ample, a bar The egound. thatthe rstanding arlines vis larger at across follow sinuous ight also ridges upper ists over eight. QE NY Figure 2.3 The controstng upper av cxeulation patters on 500 mbar smoptic charts (se text abve for ‘explanation of writs: (0) a progressive weather stwation (10 January 1993}: (b) a blocked weather situation (i Jonuary (997) (the surface weather map and satelite imege for Us date are shown n Figure 58} a5 @ progressive weather pattern. The opposite case, in which the waves are well ceveloped, is known a5 a blocked weather patter (Figure 2.3(0)). The variation between progressive and blocked weather situations is expressed in terms of the index cycle (Table 2.1). This varies in 2 semi-regular pattern, each state possibly lasting for several months, This will fect the distribution of rainfall and temperature over large parts of the hemisphere. ‘When blocking is well devaloped, micttatitude air plunges equatorward in large troughs and poleward in the adjacent ridges. Tris meridional (north-south) migration of airs an important means of distorting ‘the distribution of temperature (ard weather in general) in each hemisphere. This is ilustrated by the troug' in Figure 2.3(0). In such a trough, cold air from higher latitudes plunges southwards cooling the upper troposphere over Europe. The air here becornes more unstable, encouraging the formation of heavy showers. Upper troughs have a tendency to propagate coal, unsettled weather. Upper ridges tend to divert the jet stream and thus promote settled (though not necessarily warm) weather A well developed upper ridge causes the jet stream to inscribe a shape similar to the Greek letter omaga (Q), hence the term Omega block. The most extreme situation is for the airflow around large troughs to become ut off from that of the upper westerlies as a whole producing cut-off lows; Figure 2.3(b) shows an ‘Omega block over the Northeast Atlantic and a cut-off low over mainland Europe. Table 2.1 Charactenstics of midiatitude weather in blocked and progressive weather types ‘Synoptic type Index cycle stage ‘Cause Effects on weather Progressive High Large latitudinal Increased dominance and temperature gradients strength of westerly winds storier in rihlatitudes Blocked Low Smaller latitudinal Weaker, more variable waper temperature gradients airflow, vacable surface wind directions and weather a” eeydsousse sureukpUnderstanding Weather THE IMPORTANCE Of THE UPPER WESTERLIES The upper westerles are important to understanding the weather and climate of much of each hemisphere because they: + dominate the wind circulation across the majority of each hemisphere, especially in the upper tropospheret + are an important means of recistributing heat from low to high latitudes: + influence the route taken by surface high and fow pressure systems. This is determined by the size, location and movement of the Ressby waves embedded in the uppar westerties. Regional and local patterns of Lempcrature and rainfall can therefore be related to the upper westeriies The link between the upper westerlies and the patterns of airflow and air pressure found at the surface is digcussed below. 2.3. SURFACE WINDS AND PRESSURE BANDS The pattern of winds and pressure that we actually experience at the Earth’ surface is modified by the effects of rising and falling currents of air These are associated with — and interact with — bands of high and low air pressure, These variations of air pressure are superimposed upon the theoretical poleward reduction in air pressure found in the upper troposphere (Section 2.1}. The effects of this vertical motion on air pressure and winds in different latitudes can now be examined. TROPICAL AND SUB-TROPICAL WINDS The link between the heating of the surface and air motion is mast clearly demonstrated within the tropics. The tropics can be defined as those paris of the world that lle within the latitudes that experience an overhead sun for some of the year —ie., between the Tropies of Capricorn and Cancer Uplit of warm airs focused on the meteorological equator — the latitude that has the sun overhead at any particular time of year This rsing air dlsporses (diverges) to north and south a3 encounters the ‘vopopause (Figure 2.4). Divergence in the upper atmosphere is then counterbalanced by convergence of air close to the surface, to replace the air that hay risen, Comersely, the upper level ait starts t0 cool as it migrates towards each pole and consequently descends back to the surfice at the sub-tropics, around 30°19. The resuit is two cells of circulating air on either side of the metdorological equator: This, 'sthe thermally driven Hadley cell, named after George Hadley who first identified this feature in 1735, Equatorial uplift does not occur uniformly but is concentrated in clusters or cells of convective cloud, clearly visible in geostationary satelite wmages (Figure 2.5) The focus of convection at the meteorological equator, where surface air converges and starts to rise, s called the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (iTCZ). Because air is rising and then dispersing horizontally from this latitude, air pressure measured from the surface here will be relatively Tova forming the equatorial low pressure zone, The rate of reduction in air pressure with height will be slower than at higher latitudes because of the vertical stretching of the atmosphere (the ITCZ is thus a zone of high pressure in the upper-troposphere). Away (faa the ITCZ, under the descending air of the sub-tropics, high pressure is created by the accumulation of air in the upper atmosphere. This gently descending alr becomes warmed and dries he surface, resulting in very (ow amounts of cloud and the world’s maximum the cout as it falls towar receipt of solar radiation (Figure |). Its here that we find the large sub-tropical deserts, such Sahara. The juxtaposition of low pressure over the tropies and high pressure over she sub-tropics | creates a pattern of prevailing winds ~ the Northeast Trade Winds of the northem hemisphere and | the Southeast Trade Winds of the southern hernisphese. Fen inc Hade coh Figure Figure 2 Chose to rmichanit. POLAR In the ct This mo liom themuch of each we the upper ined by the ies. Regional or westerles + found at the codified by the with — bands he theoretical effects of this ed within the tatitudes thal vand Canc sun overhead ounters the convergence | sans to cool + substropics, equator, This turein (73 f convective Sand starts ag and then bbe relatively 1 hacight wl We NCL s ated by the dand dries | = maximum such as the sub-tropics sphere and | i Polar cell Sui Flow High pressure (sinking aie) — a Polar oasterlies DIVERGENCE release ea Tatiude depress 60" Low pressure (rising air) Feneloat y¢” "ia arene ——, 6 Low possre (indirect) od Micatiude westries 30° High prossure (sinking aie) — Swapea ng he - : : —| pivercence cell Northeast Trades Low pressure (sing nt) — Hez. ~ CONVERGENCE Southeast Trades ‘Subtropical Woh” Mid-latitude westerhies s iis Taide daprassions Qe Figure 2.4 Honzonta! cnc vertical ovement of ai ot cffrent latices. Figure 2.5 Globel clmate zones shown on a composite inftored image for 06:00h (GMT) 5 October 2002. Close to the autumy equinox, the cloud! band associated with the inter-Trapice) Convergence Zone (ITCZ) and the mic-ictnude depressions of both hemispheres are symmnetricely distnbuted about the equator POLAR WINDS In the column of air above each of the poles, air is cooling and thus descending towards the surface. air at the surface migrates away This movement starts to create a polar celll of air mation in whi from the poles, accumulating dense air having created a surface high pressure area. Its later forced a eueudsowae 21ureukD outUnderstanding Weather to rise in the weather systems of the mic-atitudes, motion which can be visualized as contributing to anather complete cell (Figure. 24). The cell is smaller than the Hadley call because of the shallower depth of the troposphere at the poles. In this cold environment, itis a low-energy cell and resulting winds are often light and incoherent: the designation of the surface airflow as the polar easteriies Is ‘easier 10 appreciate when viewed in the coritext of the mid-atitude winds. MID-LATITUDE WINDS Hid-atitude winds are extensive in each hemisphere and are an important influence upon weather and dlimate across a wide range af lautudes. Their movement is determinecl by two fnclors | vertically by the descending branch of the Hadley cell over the sub-tropics: 2 horizontally by the behaviour of the upper westerlies, subject also to the influence of surface orography and temperature. Vertical motion ‘To complete a series of interconnecting cells, there must be a band of rising air to counterbalance the descending air of the sub-tropics. tn reality, mid-latitude airflow is largely controlled by horizontal motions, but itis helpful firs to visualize a rising branch of air centred on the zone of temperature contrast in the mid-latituces that created the polar jet stream. The warmer air mass on the equatorward side of this boundary will ise relative to the colder air mass, This helps create a zone of rising air and the development of a zone of low pressure between about $0 and €0°NVS. This can be thought of as completing an indinact vertical cel, the Ferrel cell (see Figure 2.4). Although the process is similar to that at the ITCZ, less energy is involved and this energy is obtained from convergence of the ait masses rather than convection, It also occurs over a more variable area of each hemisphere because of the important effects of horizontal mation. Horizontal motion Horizantal evation in the mid-tatitutes is controlled by the upper westerfies. in Box 22 the horizontal motion of the upper westerlies was depiciad by the index cycle and Rossby waves, The orientation of the polar front jet stream identifies the route to be taken by surface low pressure areas. To identify the actual pattern of surface windsin more det, we can now examine how a low pressure system is created. 2.4 DEVELOPMENT OF A LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM IN THE MID-LATITUDES Mid-latitude law pressure systems (depressions) can develop over a /arge part of the Earth's surface away from the tropics, sub-tropics and polar regions, They are the main source of strong winds and persistant rain in much of the mid-latitudes. They form and develop where (horizontal) temperature contrasts are strong, their path dictated by the upper westerlias for several days, and then they decay as they lose energy. THE IDENTIFICATION OF LOW PRESSURE SYSTEMS AND FRONTS The basis of our understanding of these weather systems is the Polar Front theory, developed by @ group of Norwegian meteorologists led by Vilhelm Bjerknes in the early decades of the twentieth century (Thorpe, 2002) who created the so-called'Bergen model’ of depression formation. This wes the first time that the word front’ was used, a term originating from the fronts’ of opposing armies in | the First World War: Simple maps of air pressure, temperature and general weather revealed that lines of cle thed Sat obser instan when FOR) Theve hemis or soi ot pe euceer (baro: and OF same of high The si ocean The Figure mmid-tr effect {north Figureas contributing to ¢ of the shallower # cell and resulting polar easterlies ts sce upon weather > factors: ence of surface sunterbalance the ‘ed by horizontal > of temperature sir mass on the create a zone of INS. This can be od this energy is 13 over a more ton, 2 the horizontal 1® orientation of 3. To identify the stem is created Earth’s surface “ong winds and ti) temperature Sew ley decay eveloped by a the twentieth on. This was 2sing armies in vale that lines of oud and rain were often found at the boundary between warm and cold air masses. This led to the definition of a front — the bounclary line between air of polar and tropical origin, Satelite and radar imagery have confirmed the main ideas within this early model, a tribute to the observational skills of the Norwegians who developed it without our present-day technologies for instant global telecommunications and imagery. More modem advances are included in this chapter when they have led to significant changes to our understanding of the processes FORMATION OF LOW PRESSURE SYSTEMS There are two fevaured iocations for the development of low pressure systems in the northern hemisphere; over the North Pacific around the Aleutian Isiands and over the North Atlantic around, or south of, Iceland. Unlike the sub-tropical high pressure systems, these low pressure systems are not permanent features; these areas represent common routes for the track and development of a succession of separate depressions, These areas are characterized by sighificant temperature gradients (baroclinic zones), not just within the atmosphere, but across the ocean surface zs well, where polar and tropical waters meet. Other parts of the northem hemisphere at a similar latitude do not generate depressions to the same extent because of the influence of land. In winter, the cooling of land encourages the formation of high pressure while in summer low pressure may develop over land in response to surface heating, The situation is different in the southem hemisphere because of the more continuous distribution of ‘ocean leading to the development of a move uniform band of low pressure. The pattem of the upper westerlies is an important influence on the development of depressions Figure 2.6 shows how upper ridges and troughs influence the exchange of air between the surface and tmid-troposphere, The upper flow is slower at low latitudes because of the weakening of the Coriolis effect, It therefore accelerates as it moves from low to high latitudes between the trough and ridge (oortheastwards). This can be visualized as a spreading out or horizontal divergence of the upper level ——~ Surface isobars <=> Rossby waves at 500 mb Vertical motions CONV Convergence DIV Divergence Figure 2.6 interaction between upper ond susjoce flow around « Rossby weave, asUnderstanding Weather Location of surface fronts Figure 2.7 A cross-section Unough the flontal zones of a developing micHatinde depress. air fing up air from directly below to"fil the gap’ (or, more precisely, responding to the reduced air pressure). Upper-level divergence therefore encourages uplift and cytlogenesis It is counterbalanced by upper corwergence (and hence descent) of air flowing from ridges to troughs. How does air pressure start to fall? ‘Air pressure is related to changes in the mass of the atmosphere above a location. Changes in air pressure measured at ground level are controlled by the balance between the divergence of ar in the upper atmosphere and the convergence of air at lower levels. Figure 26 illustrates a situation where divergence is followed by convergence ~ie., the mass of air starts to fall fist. hence air pressure falls Pressure will continue to fall while divergence of air provides the stimulus for air to converge and nse, Air pressure will only rise again if the divergence is less than the convergence of air, though uplift and civergence can also be stimulated by heating of the air, IDENTIFYING FRONTS IN A DEVELOPING LOW PRESSURE SYSTEM In vertical cross-section, a front is the surface boundary between cold polar and warmer tropical alc masses located where a frontal zone reaches the ground (Figure 27) Convergence forces the warmer air mass to rise as a result of a lower density relative to the colder air Air that is forced to rise is ako forced to cool. Continued uplift may coal the air to below dewpoint ‘temaperaturt resulting in a line of cloud, and often ater rain, along the line of the front. Once a low pressure area has started to form, the converging winds de not blow straight towards the front but circulate in a spiral patter, This is because the wind direction at the surface respons to the new centre of law pressiue, round wbich air wil circulate in an anticlocwise direction. The resulting circular moticn (as viewed frorn above) will now start to move different parts of the frort and henge the different air masses, Figure 2.8(a-d) shows the ‘ife-cycle’ of a typical depression. Depressions may lose energy if the original thermal contrast weakens, Diminished energy for uplift will reduce uplift in the system, weak ening divergence (output of ar) in the uppertroposphere. If convergence at the surface (input of air) now exceeds divergence, air pressure rises and the depression starts to lose identity. Figure 2.8(a) shows the original front as 2 simple linear boundary; ifthe Colder air mass is advancing the boundary is termed 3 cold front (cold air is replacing warm). If this motion is resisted in one cold air mass warm air inwaios A.