Introduction to Intelligence
Layman's Perspective: IQ is often seen as a general measure of intelligence
rather than a specific test score.
Precise Definitions: Intelligence is defined in multiple ways, focusing on
adaptability, learning ability, and abstract thinking.
Key Definitions of Intelligence
1. Adaptability & Adjustment
o Intelligence is the ability to reorganize behavior to respond effectively to new
problems.
o A highly intelligent person can modify their behavior extensively based on
changing conditions.
2. Ability to Learn
o Intelligence determines how educable an individual is.
o The more intelligent a person, the more efficiently they can learn and expand
their experiences.
3. Abstract Thinking
o Intelligence involves using concepts and symbols effectively.
o Problem-solving through verbal and numerical reasoning is a key aspect.
Scholarly Definitions
Dockrell (1970): Intelligence = ability; what a person can do at a given moment.
Binet: Ability to judge well, comprehend well, and reason well.
Vernon: "All-round thinking capacity" or "mental efficiency."
Helm: Ability to grasp key elements of a situation and respond appropriately.
Piaget: Intelligence is the ability to adapt to one's physical and social
environment.
Wechsler: Intelligence is the global capacity to act purposefully, think rationally,
and deal effectively with the environment.
Theories of Intelligence
Thorndike's Multifactor Theory
o Intelligence consists of numerous separate abilities (atomistic approach).
o Any mental act involves multiple elements working together.
Spearman's Two-Factor Theory
o Intelligence is primarily determined by a general factor (g).
o Intellectual activity depends on this common mental energy.
Thurstone’s Group Factor Theory
o Intelligence consists of primary mental abilities, each forming a functional
unit.
o Groups of related cognitive skills define intelligence rather than a single
general factor.
Thomson’s Sampling Theory
o Intelligence arises from independent cognitive factors interacting.
o Correlation between different intelligence tests results from shared
underlying abilities.
Modern Perspective
Intelligence is not limited to traditional IQ tests but includes various cognitive,
social, and adaptive abilities.
Social intelligence has gained importance due to its role in interpersonal
relationships and workplace success.
Ongoing debates exist regarding whether intelligence is a single general ability or a
combination of multiple specialized skills.
Alfred Binet (1857–1911)
Known for: Developing the first intelligence test (Binet-Simon Scale).
Key Contributions:
Commissioned by the French government (1904) to identify children needing
special education.
Developed the Binet-Simon Intelligence Scale (1905) with Théodore Simon.
Introduced the concept of Mental Age – a child's intellectual ability compared to the
average performance of children in different age groups.
Did not believe intelligence was fixed – emphasized that intelligence could improve
with education and environment.
Legacy:
His test was later revised by Lewis Terman (1916) at Stanford University, creating
the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Test, which introduced the IQ (Intelligence Quotient)
formula: IQ=(Mental Age/Chronological Age)×100
His work laid the foundation for modern intelligence testing.
David Wechsler (1896–1981)
Known for: Developing the most widely used modern intelligence tests (Wechsler
Scales).
Key Contributions:
Rejected Binet’s single IQ score – believed intelligence is multifaceted and should
be assessed across different domains.
Developed the Wechsler-Bellevue Intelligence Scale (1939), later revised into:
1. WAIS (Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale) – For adults.
2. WISC (Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children) – For children (6–16 years).
3. WPPSI (Wechsler Preschool and Primary Scale of Intelligence) – For young
children (2.5–7 years).
Introduced the concept of Deviation IQ – IQ is not based on mental age but how a
person’s score compares to the average of their age group.
Divided intelligence into Verbal IQ and Performance IQ to assess different cognitive
skills.
Legacy:
Wechsler's tests are still widely used today for IQ assessments, learning
disability evaluations, and neuropsychological testing.
Spearman’s Two-Factor Theory of Intelligence
Overview:
Proposed by Charles Spearman (1904)
Suggests that intelligence consists of two factors:
o General Intelligence (g)
o Specific Abilities (s)
Key Concepts:
1. General Intelligence (g-factor)
o A single, underlying mental ability that influences performance on all cognitive
tasks.
o Measured through IQ tests and standardized assessments.
o Individuals with a high "g" perform well across a variety of tasks.
o Explains why people who excel in one area tend to perform well in others.
2. Specific Abilities (s-factor)
o Represents skills specific to particular tasks (e.g., math ability, verbal
reasoning, memory).
o Each task requires a combination of g + s (e.g., solving a math problem needs
general intelligence + specific mathematical skills).
o Accounts for individual variations in strengths and weaknesses.
Experimental Evidence:
Factor Analysis: A statistical method Spearman used to find correlations
between different cognitive tasks.
Found a strong correlation among diverse intellectual activities, supporting the
existence of g-factor.
However, the existence of specific factors (s-factors) explained why people
excelled in particular fields.
Strengths of Spearman’s Theory:
✅ Scientific Approach – Used factor analysis, making it one of the first statistical
models of intelligence.
✅ Supported by Research – Many IQ tests still rely on Spearman’s concept of "g".
✅ Explains Overlapping Abilities – Justifies why students good at one subject often
excel in others.
Criticisms of Spearman’s Theory:
❌ Oversimplification – Reduces intelligence to a single number, ignoring other
cognitive processes.
❌ Ignores Creativity & Social Intelligence – Focuses on cognitive intelligence but not
interpersonal or emotional intelligence.
❌ Thurstone’s Challenge – Argued that intelligence is made up of multiple independent
abilities rather than just one general factor.
Thorndike’s Multifactor Theory of Intelligence
Overview:
Proposed by Edward Thorndike (1920s)
Rejects the idea of a single "g-factor" and emphasizes multiple, independent
mental abilities.
Intelligence is based on a large number of interconnected elements rather than
one overarching ability.
Key Concepts:
1. Intelligence as a Network of Abilities
o Every mental activity consists of a combination of many smaller abilities.
o No single general intelligence but rather a collection of independent skills.
2. Types of Intelligence (Thorndike’s Classification)
o Social Intelligence – Ability to understand and interact with people effectively
(e.g., leadership, communication).
o Concrete Intelligence – Ability to work with objects and tools (e.g., mechanics,
engineering, trades).
o Abstract Intelligence – Ability to understand symbols, language, and
mathematics (e.g., problem-solving, verbal and numerical reasoning).
Strengths of Thorndike’s Theory:
✅ Acknowledges Different Types of Intelligence – Recognizes that intelligence is not
just about problem-solving but includes social and practical skills.
✅ More Holistic Approach – Unlike Spearman, Thorndike acknowledges that intelligence
is domain-specific rather than a single ability.
✅ Early Recognition of Social Intelligence – Laid the foundation for later theories like
Emotional Intelligence (EQ).
Criticisms of Thorndike’s Theory:
❌ Lack of a Unifying Factor – Critics argue that intelligence does have a central
component (Spearman’s g-factor).
❌ Difficult to Measure – Unlike Spearman’s model, which could be tested with IQ tests,
Thorndike’s theory is harder to quantify.
❌ Overlaps with Other Theories – Later theories like Howard Gardner’s Multiple
Intelligences refined Thorndike’s ideas.
