15 BODY FLUIDS
AND CIRCULATION
Different groups of animals have developed various methods for the transport of substances within
their bodies. Simple organisms, such as sponges and coelenterates, facilitate the exchange of
materials by circulating water from their surroundings through their body cavities. In more complex
organisms, specialized fluids are used to transport these substances. Blood, a widely utilized body
fluid in higher organisms, including humans, plays a central role in this process. Another fluid,
lymph, also contributes to the transport of specific substances.
Blood
Blood is a special connective tissue consisting of a fluid matrix, plasma, and formed elements.
Plasma
Plasma is a straw-colored, viscous fluid that makes up about 55% of blood. It consists predominantly
of water (90–92%) and proteins (6–8%). The major proteins found in plasma are fibrinogen,
globulins, and albumins.
Fibrinogen: Essential for blood clotting or coagulation.
Globulins: Primarily involved in the body's defense mechanisms.
Albumins: Help maintain osmotic balance.
In addition to proteins, plasma contains small amounts of minerals such as Na ⁺, Ca² ⁺, Mg² ⁺,
HCO₃⁻, Cl⁻, and others. It also carries nutrients like glucose, amino acids, and lipids, which are
constantly in transit throughout the body.
Plasma contains factors necessary for blood coagulation in an inactive state. When these clotting
factors are removed, the remaining fluid is known as serum.
Formed Elements
Erythrocytes, leucocytes, and platelets are collectively known as formed elements, and they make up
nearly 45% of the blood.
1. Erythrocytes (Red Blood Cells, RBCs):
o Most abundant cells in blood.
o A healthy adult man has 5 million to 5.5 million RBCs per cubic millimeter of blood.
o Formed in the red bone marrow.
o Biconcave shape, lack a nucleus in most mammals.
o Contain Haemoglobin (iron-containing protein) that gives RBCs their red color.
o Haemoglobin helps transport respiratory gases.
o Lifespan: 120 days; destroyed in the spleen (RBC graveyard).
o A healthy individual has 12-16 grams of Haemoglobin per 100 ml of blood.
2. Leucocytes (White Blood Cells, WBCs):
o Colorless due to the lack of Haemoglobin.
o Nucleated cells, present in lower numbers (6,000-8,000 per cubic millimeter of blood).
o Short-lived.
o Two main categories:
Granulocytes:
Neutrophils (60-65% of total WBCs): Phagocytic, destroy foreign
organisms.
Eosinophils (2-3%): Resist infections, involved in allergic reactions.
Basophils (0.5-1%): Secrete histamine, serotonin, and heparin, involved in
inflammation.
Agranulocytes:
Lymphocytes (20-25%): Two types – B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes,
responsible for immune responses.
Monocytes (6-8%): Phagocytic, destroy foreign organisms.
3. Platelets (Thrombocytes):
o Cell fragments derived from megakaryocytes in the bone marrow.
o Blood contains 150,000-350,000 platelets per cubic millimeter.
o Release substances involved in blood coagulation (clotting).
o Low platelet count leads to clotting disorders, resulting in excessive blood loss.
ABO grouping
1. Basis of ABO Grouping:
o ABO blood grouping is determined by the presence or absence of two surface antigens (A
and B) on red blood cells (RBCs).
o The plasma of individuals contains two natural antibodies produced in response to these
antigens.
2. Blood Group Distribution:
o The presence or absence of A and B antigens and the corresponding antibodies in the plasma
define the four blood groups: A, B, AB, and O.
o Blood Group A: Has A antigens on RBCs and anti-B antibodies in plasma.
o Blood Group B: Has B antigens on RBCs and anti-A antibodies in plasma.
o Blood Group AB: Has both A and B antigens on RBCs and no anti-A or anti-B antibodies in
plasma.
o Blood Group O: Has no A or B antigens on RBCs and both anti-A and anti-B antibodies in
plasma.
3. Blood Transfusion Compatibility:
o During blood transfusion, it is crucial to match the donor's and recipient's blood types to
prevent the destruction of RBCs.
o O Group Blood: Can be donated to individuals of any blood group, making them "universal
donors."
o AB Group Blood: Can accept blood from all other blood groups, making them "universal
recipients."
Rh grouping
The Rh antigen is a protein found on the surface of RBCs, similar to one present in Rhesus monkeys, hence
the name "Rh."
Nearly 80% of humans have the Rh antigen and are classified as Rh positive (Rh+ve).
Individuals lacking the Rh antigen are classified as Rh negative (Rh-ve).
Rh Compatibility in Blood Transfusion:
If an Rh-ve person is exposed to Rh+ve blood, their immune system will produce specific antibodies against
the Rh antigens.
Therefore, it is crucial to match the Rh factor in blood transfusions to prevent immune reactions.
Rh Incompatibility in Pregnancy:
First Pregnancy: During the first pregnancy, the Rh+ve blood of the foetus does not mix with the Rh-ve
blood of the mother because the placenta separates the two blood circulations.
Exposure during Delivery: During delivery, small amounts of Rh+ve blood from the foetus may enter the
mother's circulation, prompting her immune system to produce antibodies against the Rh antigen.
Subsequent Pregnancies: If the mother becomes pregnant again with an Rh+ve baby, her Rh antibodies can
cross the placenta and attack the foetal RBCs, leading to the destruction of red blood cells in the foetus.
Erythroblastosis Foetalis
This condition, caused by the destruction of foetal RBCs due to Rh incompatibility, can be fatal for the foetus
or cause severe anaemia and jaundice in the newborn.
Prevention: Administering anti-Rh antibodies to the mother immediately after the delivery of the first Rh+ve
child can prevent the formation of Rh antibodies, thus protecting subsequent pregnancies.
