INDUSTRIAL DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION OF CO2 CAPTURE,

DEHYDRATION, AND COMPRESSION FACILITIES

Ahmed Aboudheir
HTC Purenergy
Regina, SK, Canada

Gavin McIntyre
Bryan Research & Engineering
Bryan, Texas

ABSTRACT
On an industrial scale process, a comprehensive engineering design and optimization study was
conducted for CO2 capture, dehydration, and compression facilities based on flue gases from natural
gas and coal fired power plants. The HTC designer solvent was utilized in this chemical absorption
process to achieve CO2 recovery targets from 80 to 90%. The captured and conditioned CO2, with
more than 99 mol% purity, was compressed to 150 barg and sent out at the boundary limit for
enhanced oil recovery applications. The main design and engineering factors affecting the CO2
capture, dehydration, and compression processes have been highlighted in this paper. The study
provides a feasible engineering design and acceptable production cost taking into consideration all the
technical, economic, and plant location factors. The study shows that it is advantageous to use the HTC
designer solvent over the conventional monoethanolamine (MEA) solvent mainly due to its lower
steam consumption, solvent losses, circulation rate, and cooling water requirements. Based on the
objective function, the assumed industrial constraints, and the plant location factor, the production cost
is estimated to be about 49 US$/ton CO2 for the 90% CO2 recovery of 4.0 mol% CO2 content in the
flue gas of a natural gas combined cycle power plant. However, a substantial reduction in the
production cost was reported for higher CO2 contents in the flue gas of a coal power plant. For a
similar CO2 production capacity of 3307 ton per day from a 12 mol% CO2 content in flue gas of a coal
fired power plant, the production cost is about US$ 30/ton CO2. This substantial reduction in the
production cost is mainly because of the higher CO2 contents in the flue gas.

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 INDUSTRIAL DESIGN AND OPTIMIZATION OF CO2 CAPTURE,
DEHYDRATION, AND COMPRESSION FACILITIES

INTRODUCTION
The removal of carbon dioxide, CO2, from gaseous mixtures by means of liquid absorbents will
continue to be one of the leading industrial applications in the field of gas absorption for many decades
to come from both industrial and environmental points of view. The removal of CO2 by liquid
absorbents is widely implemented in the field of gas processing, chemical production, and coal
gasification. Today, many power plants also start considering the post-combustion option to meet the
environmental regulation and to produce CO2 for enhanced oil recovery applications. Some major
industrial processes that require CO2 removal to achieve specific cleanup targets are presented in Table
I. As can be seen from this table, the cleanup target, which is the allowable extent of CO2 in the treated
gas to meet product specifications or environmental regulations, varies from process to process. For
example, the cleanup target for CO2 is 1% by volume for pipeline gas. However, for ammonia and
LNG manufacture, CO2 must be reduced to 16 ppm and 50 ppm, respectively. For power plant flue
gases, it is acceptable to set the cleanup target to less than 0.5% for NGCC Power Plants and less than
1.5% for Coal Power Plants, from an environmental and economical points of view.
From an environmental point of view, Figure 1 illustrates actual data of fuel consumption in
2005 and an estimation of energy demand of different fuel types for years to come, from 2010 to 2030.
It can be seen that the world energy demand will gradually increase at rates of 10 – 15 % every 10
years. This increase will raise the CO2 emissions without doubt to about 50% by 2030 in comparison
with the current level of CO2 emissions. The industrial countries (North America, Western Europe and
OECD Pacific) contribute in this jump of emission by 70% comparing to the rest of World and about
more than 60% of these emissions will come from power generation and industrial sectors [1].

Table I - CO2 removal application in major industrial processes

Process Common cleanup targets

Hydrogen Manufacture < 0.1% CO2
Ammonia Manufacture < 16 ppm CO2
Natural Gas Purification:
Pipeline Gas < 1% CO2
LNG Feedstock < 50 ppm CO2
Synthesis Gas for Chemical (H2/CO) < 500 ppm CO2
Coal Gasification ~ 500 ppm CO2
Ethylene Manufacture (steam cracker gas treating) ~ 1 ppm CO2
Power Plants:
NGCC Power Plant < 0.5 % CO2
Coal Fired Power Plant < 1.5% CO2

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 6000

World energy demand shares, Mtoe

5000

4000

3000

2000

1000

0
2000 2005 2010 2015 2020 2025 2030 2035

Oil Coal Gas Nrenewable

Figure 1 - World Energy Demand Shares by Fuel Types [1]

Greenhouse gas emissions, including CO2, should be limited, as recommended at the Kyoto
Conference, Japan, in December 1997, and Bali Conference, Indonesia, in December 2007 [2]. Despite
the strong recommendations and plans in these conferences, there are hardly any investments in the
CO2 capture facilities by the industrial sectors toward meeting these cleanup targets mainly because of
the high production cost of CO2 from flue gases. One of the methods to reduce the CO2 capture cost is
to design an energy efficient gas absorption process. Based on the findings of a recent conceptual
engineering study, HTC Purenergy estimated the production cost to be US$ 49/ ton CO2 (US$ 54/
tonne CO2) for the 90% CO2 recovery of 4 mol% CO2 content in the flue gas of NGCC, as documented
elsewhere [3]. In this work, a substantial reduction in the production cost was reported for higher CO2
contents in the flue gas of coal power plant.

SCOPE OF WORK AND CONSTRAINTS

The overall scope of work for this study is to provide an energy efficient CO2 capture plant
design from a coal power plant to produce 3307 ton per day. The plant shall include flue gas pre-
conditioning and post-capture conditioning including compression.
The design of the facility is based on the specified flue gas conditions, CO2 product
specifications, and constrains. The flue gas conditions utilized in the design is presented in Table II.
The bulk removal of CO2 is recommended to capture 90% of the CO2 from the flue gas of this coal
fired power plant.
The main CO2 product specifications are specified as follows:
Recommended design level of oxygen content in the product stream is 50 ppm.
Target for water content is < 10 ppm and -50°F dew point. This specification is required
after the compression facilities and before the pipeline transfers the product to the client.
Maximum nitrogen content in the CO2 product is 2%.
Minimum CO2 product pressure at the compressor inlet is 3 psig.

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 Table II - Flue Gas Specifications from a coal power plant.

Item Value
Flue gas rate 528 MMSCFD
Temperature 180°F
Pressure 14.145 psia
N2 63.47 mol%
CO2 12 mol%
H2O 18.5 mol%
O2 6 mol%
SO2 120 ppm
NO 179 ppm
NO2 7 ppm
Particulate < 0.02 gr / SCF

PLANT DESIGN
The technology utilized by HTC Purenergy is based on the bulk removal of CO 2 by liquid
chemical absorbents from flue gas streams. This is a suitable process technique for treating high-
volume gas streams containing carbon dioxide at low pressure produced from utility power plants. The
formulated solvent recommended for the CO2 absorption process is a mixed amine solvent consisting
mainly of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, which are available commercially. The mixture
concentration and the amine ratios are proprietary information.

Inputs and Constraints:

The main design and operation constraints of the plant can be presented as follows:
Flow rate of the flue gas (slipstream) to design the plant is 456 lb/s (207 kg/s) at 180°F and
14.145 psia. This flow rate is calculated to produce 3307 ton per day (3000 metric tonne per
day) of CO2 at a 90% CO2 recovery.
Minimum CO2 product pressure at the compressor inlet is 3 psig.
Low-pressure steam for reboiler is assumed to be available at 302°F (150°C) and 58 psia (4
bar). The return pressure of the condensate is assumed at 102 psia (7 bar).
Low-pressure steam for reclaimer is assumed to be available at 392°F (200°C) and 102 psia
(7 bar). The return condensates can be routed to a low-pressure condensate collection
system.
Cooling water is assumed to be available at 80°F and maximum allowable return
temperature is 105°F.
Plant is designed to meet product specification as outlined in the scope of work.
Plant is designed to minimize harmful emissions to air.
Plant is designed to produce minimum liquid and solid discharges.

Using the ProMax® process simulation software from Bryan Research & Engineering, all of
the CO2 Capture equipment units are designed for 90% CO2 recovery using a mixed amine solvent

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with additional capacity in the pumps and heat exchanger areas. This design provides excess capacity
in order to accommodate any future utilization of new solvents, new packing, new operating
conditions, change in the CO2 content, new cleanup targets, and/or any new optimization parameters.
In addition, the following factors were considered in the design:
Pump overall efficiency: 65%
Pump pressure differential, delivery pressure, or dynamic head are assumed
Number of ideal stages in the SO2/cooler section in the absorption column: 3
Number of ideal stages in the solvent section in the absorption column: 3
Number of ideal stages in the washing section in the absorption column: 2
Number of ideal stages in the stripping column including reflux and reboiler: 10
The height of each stage: 6 to 9 ft depending on the packing type.

Process Description and Process Flow Diagram

Figure 2 presents a simplified process flow diagram representing the configuration of the
proposed CO2 Capture Plant. Inlet Gas Blower (K-101) is designed to boost the flue gas from
atmospheric pressure to about 1.5 psig. This is required to overcome the pressure drop of the absorber
column and at the same time to maintain the back pressure on the power plant equipment.
The absorber column (C-101) is comprised of an inlet gas SO2/cooling section, absorption
section, the off-gas washing section, and a flue gas vent stack. The top two sections will be packed by
random packing or high efficiency structured packing. The purpose of the off-gas washing section is to
recover solvent entrained in water vapors from the absorber section and to cool the off-gas at a
temperature to help maintain a water balance across the plant. Each section is separated by a chimney
tray that allows gas to pass up through to the next section but ensures liquid separation.
Flue gas from the blower enters the bottom inlet gas scrubber section of C-101 below stage 1.
Water/Chemical drawn from the bottom of the column is circulated via the pump (P-101) through the
flue gas water cooler (E-101) and back to the column where it is distributed above the third stage. The
flue gas in contact with the scrubber water is cooled down before entering the absorber section through
the chimney tray. The blowdown/Bleed stream is transferred for further treatment and utilization. The
SO2 treatment process selected for this project is the Ammonium Sulfate FGD system, which has the
capability to reduce flue gas SO2 concentrations to below 10 ppm. Ammonia reagent will be required
for the process. The process can utilize anhydrous ammonia, aqueous ammonia or a waste ammonia
source. The conceptual system has been developed to produce a liquid ammonium sulfate product
which can be marketed for direct application or further processing.
As the feed gas passes up from the bottom of the absorber section, lean amine enters the top of
the absorber solvent section and is distributed over the packing material. The lean amine in counter
flow comes in contact with the gas and absorbs the CO2 out of the flue gas stream leaving the
remaining gas to pass through the top chimney tray and into the absorber off-gas wash section. In order
to avoid significant solvent losses, the top wash section is used to cool the off-gas and recover
entrained chemical solvent as well as condense water vapors to maintain a plant water balance. The
wash water is circulated from the wash section via pump P-106 through exchanger E-106 and back to
the top wash section.
The CO2 rich amine is collected at the bottom of the absorber section and pumped via P-102
through a lean/rich exchanger (E-102) to near the top of the regenerator column. This column is also

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packed with random or high efficiency structured packing. The reboiler (E-104) located near the
bottom and connected to the stripper provides the heat necessary to strip out the CO2 from the
chemical solvent. Stripping steam produced from the reboiler passes upward through the stripper
column. As the rich amine descends in counter flow, CO2 is stripped out of the chemical solvent, in
effect, reversing the solvent absorption reaction. The stripped lean amine accumulates in the bottom of
the stripper column and reboiler where it exits to the lean/rich exchanger in order to utilize the lean
amine heat from the regeneration process to preheat the rich amine prior to entering the stripper
column, and at the same time, reduce the cooling load on the lean amine.
From the top of the stripper column, CO2 product, water vapor, and entrained amine enter the
reflux condenser (E-105) where the majority of the liquid is condensed, accumulated in the reflux
drum (C-104) and pumped back to the top of the stripper column reflux section via pump P-104 with
excess sent back to the absorber section as makeup water. The final CO2 product is delivered to the
compression section where it is dried and compressed through a multi-stage compressor.
A reclaimer (E-107) is used for regenerating the chemical solvent that is degrading due to a
buildup of heat stable salts (HSS) and other impurities in the amine solution. Heat and caustic solution
injection are the prime process ingredients for regeneration of the solvent. With a slip stream of less
than 2% lean amine into the reclaimer delivered by P-103, as illustrated in the process flow diagram,
the introduction of heat and caustic releases the solvent in the vapor phase from the degradation
product back into the stripper, leaving behind a non-regenerable sludge at the bottom of the reclaimer,
which can be collected, measured, analyzed, and disposed of.
From the lean/rich exchanger the lean amine is pumped via P-103 to the lean amine cooler E-
103 where it is cooled down before entering back into the absorber column. A 5 to 10% slipstream of
lean amine is passed through a carbon filter package unit (V-101) to remove degradation products prior
to returning to the absorber column. V-101 is comprised of a mechanical cartridge filter to remove rust
and other debris followed by a carbon drum containing activated carbon and finally another
mechanical cartridge filter to remove entrained carbon in the stream. A solvent surge/storage tank (D-
001) and solvent charge pump (P-002) are used for solvent makeup to the system, provide storage, and
provide surge capacity to ensure system volume is maintained.
To meet the CO2 pipeline specification in terms of pressure and water content, a TEG
dehydration process was integrated within the compression facility. The CO2 product stream is
compressed from 1.7 bar to 150 bar and air cooling is utilized to cool the CO2 stream between
compressor stages. To meet the water specification of about 4 lb/MMSCF water content, it is required
to use a dehydration process. It is recommended to install the dehydration system between compressor
stages at pressure > 520 psia. This will reduce the size of the equipment and to make the dehydration
process more efficient. If a water content of less than 4 lb/MMSCF is required, other options for
dehydration can be implemented by using a stand alone molecular sieve system or TEG/molecular
sieve combined system. The first option requires larger adsorption beds. In the second option, the TEG
system is followed by a smaller diameter molecular sieve in order to meet the cleanup target of < 10
ppm of water content. The costs of these two options are comparable.

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 Off-Gas
Make-Up Water

Cooling Cooling
Water E-105 Water
Return E-106 Stripper Return
Absorber Wash Condenser
Water Cooler

FC
To CO2
3
Compression
Cooling LC V-101 Cooling
Water Supply Carbon Filter Water
Washer Section (C-6)
Package Supply

Condensate from
CO2 Compression
P-107
C-104 (B-2)
Cooling
Reflux
P-106 Water
Drum
Absorber Wash E-103 Return
Pump Lean Solvent LC
Cooler

Absorption Section P-103

Lean Solvent
Return Pump

Cooling Water Purge

Water
Supply V-102
Filter
E-102
Lean\Rich
Exchanger
P-104
Reflux Pump

SO2 /Cooling Section

K-101
1
Flue Gas V-103 C-102
C-101 P-102 FC
I.D. FAN Rich Solvent Filter Solvent E-104 4
Absorber Pump Stripper Stripper
LC Reboiler STM
LS
From Battery Limit

Make-Up
Water

Cooling
Water E-107 5
Return
E-101 Reclaimer Reclaim Steam
Flue Gas Cooler
Heat Exchanger
From Battery Limit

V-002
V-001 Cooling D-001 Additive
Water
Feed Pump
Chemical Feed Supply Solvent Storage Package
Pump Package Tank

Waste Water
Treatment
P-002 6 Condensate
D-003 Solvent Makeup Return
Pump
P-003
Solvent Sump
D-004
Wastewater
P-101 Neutralization
Pump
D-002
Condensate
To Battery Limit
Flue Gas Cooler Tank
Tank Solvent Sump
CIR. Pump

P-004
Condensate
Pump

Figure 2 - HTC Simplified Process Flow Diagram for the CO2 Capture Plant.

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 Environment
The CO2 capture plant was designed to produce minimum liquid and solid discharge, as well
as, to minimize harmful emissions to air.

Air Emissions
Air emissions primarily originate from the absorber tower and the TEG dehydration unit, if
used. These emissions will primarily consist of gases and contaminants originating from the power
plant and amine system solvent evaporation and carryover.
NOx is comprised of about 95% NO and 5% NO2. NO2 is water soluble and is removed in the
absorber column. NO as expected is passed through the column without being removed by the solvent
with a rate of 10.38 lbmol/h, which is the same amount originally in the flue gas.
Flue gas from coal fuel is inherently high in SO2, and as a result pre-treatment is necessary to
remove the majority of the SO2 to ensure that the solvent does not degrade. Any SO2 entering the
absorber will react with amine to form a sulfate salt. In this reaction, some amine is consumed, and the
reaction product is removed by the reclaimer as sludge.
All amines are manufactured from ammonia. Although it is a stable product, some ammonia
dissociation is possible. Table III shows ammonia in the absorber exit gas based on equilibrium
calculations. Dissociation of amine to ammonia may occur when the amine is degraded. If the amine is
properly maintained, its degradation rate should be small and its impact on ammonia generation should
be small. In the off gas, the ammonia quantified at a rate of 0.178 lbmol/h (3 lb/h) and concentration of
about 4 ppm., which is less than the 25 ppm reported from conventional amine processes. From this
table, it can also be seen that the solvent loss due to carryover and evaporation is 0.028 lbmol/h (1.7
lb/hr) and 0.618 ppm. The rest of the emissions are mainly nitrogen about 82%, oxygen about 7.8%,
and water vapor about 8.6%. The emissions to air from the TEG and molecular sieve dehydration
processes are negligible.

Table III - Absorber Off Gas Constituents

Off Gas
item lbmol/h mol% ppm
N2 36805.797 82.11963% 821196.256
CO2 648.651 1.44724% 14472.443
H2O 3874.553 8.64475% 86447.478
O2 3479.325 7.76293% 77629.309
SO2 0.416 0.00093% 9.290
NO 10.380 0.02316% 231.590
NO2 0.406 0.00091% 9.052
NH3 0.178 0.00040% 3.964
HTC Solvent 0.028 0.00006% 0.618
Total 44819.732 100.0%

Liquid waste
Liquid amine solvents of any concentration are not to be disposed of at the sewer or any bodies
of water. All internal condensates from the reflux drum and compressor intercoolers and after coolers
are recycled to the solvent system as the makeup water for the solvent dilution. This reduces the raw

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water make up requirement for the plant. This water is sent to a holding neutralization tank where pH
adjustment is made before recycle.

Solid Discharges
The solid wastes from the CO2 capture plant are:
Spent carbon bed – this is an “exempt” waste that can be disposed of in land fills or
recycled.
Sludge from reclaimer – these are heat stable salts such as sulfates, chlorides, nitrates as
well as metal oxides and other degradation/corrosion products. Similar to standard amine
systems, the sludge stream requires disposal in an industrial waste disposal facility.
The carbon filter is regenerated by steam once or twice and then disposed of in a landfill.
Mechanical filters are reusable types and do not require routine disposal.

Production Cost.
The indicative estimate for the direct cost was prepared based on price information received
from similar projects. This is an order of magnitude estimate with an accuracy range of ± 40%. The
total estimated capital cost is about US$ 165 million. This indicative cost includes equipment cost (SO2
treatment unit, CO2 capture facility, dehydration unit, and compression facility), home office,
construction management, commissioning and start up costs, raw material and solvent initial fill,
contingency and risk allowance. The total annual operating cost is estimated at about US$ 25 million.
The majority of the operating costs are based on the consumption of utilities including steam,
electricity, and cooling water. Other costs include chemical consumption, insurance and taxes, and
labour associated with the operation and maintenance along with overhead. With the use of the
formulated solvent, steam costs represent 40% of the total operating costs compared to conventional
MEA steam costs of 70-80% of total operating costs. The other two large items in the operating cost
are the electricity, representing 20% of the operating cost, and the maintenance cost, representing 15%
of the operating cost. The cooling water costs represent less than 5% of the cost depending on the
source of cooling.
Based on the capital cost, operating cost, and the required production capacity, the estimated
production cost is US$ 30/ton CO2 (US$ 33/metric tonne CO2). This cost includes the cost of the SO2
treatment, CO2 capture, dehydration, and compression costs. These amounts may be substantially
reduced if Government/Industry contributions are made to the project, which effectively reduce the
CAPEX costs and/or subsidizing the utilities cost such as the steam and electricity.

Results and Conclusions

Based on these inputs, constrains, cleanup targets, and assumptions; the main design
findings are:
Diameter of the absorber column is 32.8 ft.
Diameter of the regenerator column is 19.7 ft.
Columns heights are ranging from 100 to 130 ft depending on the packing type used.
Plant estimated layout is about 250ft x 250ft area.

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 The energy efficiency of a CO2 capture plant depends primarily on the performance of the
solvent and how well the plant configuration (flow sheet) is optimized. In earlier flue gas amine plant
designs, MEA was the primary solvent used and its concentrations were limited to 20 wt% to minimize
equipment corrosion. However, this lower concentration has resulted in higher steam consumption
because steam is needed to boil off the diluting water in the reboiler. Recent development in
controlling corrosion and degradation has allowed the industry to increase the solvent concentration to
about 30 wt% thus decreasing the steam demand. The use of a split flow configuration has an impact in
lowering the steam consumption. A recent DOE study [4] shows the steam consumption for an
existing CO2 plant using 18 wt% MEA (Kerr McGee Process) is 3.45 lb of steam per lb of CO2 for
amine regeneration. A modern process that uses 30 wt% MEA is expected to use 1.67 lb of steam per
lb of CO2 using a split flow configuration for amine regeneration.
The HTC formulated solvent has a lower steam usage than the conventional MEA solvent.
Based on the material and energy balances for the plant designed in this study, the reboiler steam rate
is about 406,800 lb/h at 302°F and 43.5 psig by using the proposed formulated solvent on a standard
flow sheet, without implementing any split flow configurations. Based on this the reboiler steam
consumption is estimated at about 1.47 lb steam/ lb CO2, which is much less than the reported steam
for MEA solvent.
The Nitrogen content in the product stream is about 116 ppm, which is less than the specified
spec of 2%. The oxygen content is about 20.4 ppm, which is less than the specified spec of 50 ppm in
the scope of work. The water content before the compression is about 2.8 mol%, which is within the
industrial range for the amine capture process type. A substantial amount of this water content will be
removed within the first few stages of compression using knock-out drums during the cooling process
between the compression stages. At about 520 psig pressure and 120oF, within the 8-stage
compression/cooling system, the CO2 product will be routed to a TEG dehydration process which will
reduce the water content to about 4 lb per MMSCF. This is sufficient water content to prevent hydrate
formation and corrosion during the transportation of CO2 product at about 2,700 psig. The target of
less than 10 ppm can be achieved by using a stand alone molecular sieve system or TEG/molecular
sieve combined system. The first option requires larger adsorption beds. In the second option, the TEG
system is followed by smaller diameter molecular sieves in order to meet the cleanup target of < 10
ppm of water content. The costs of these two options are comparable.

Table IV presents the main findings for CO2 capture from the referenced coal plant and a
NGCC power plant, each designed to produce about 3307 ton per day (3,000 TPD metric).. To produce
the same capacity of CO2, it can be seen that only one train with smaller column diameters is required
in case of the coal power plant and two trains with larger column diameters are required in case of the
NGCC Power Plant. This is mainly due to processing a larger flue gas with lower CO2 content in the
NGCC power plant than the coal power plant case. Subsequently, a substantial reduction in the capital
and production cost was reported for higher CO2 content in the flue gas of the coal power plant.
Based on the capital cost, operating cost, and the required production capacity, the estimated
production cost is about 49 US$/ton CO2 of 4.0 mol% CO2 content in the flue gas of NGCC power
plant. For a similar CO2 production capacity of 3307 ton per day from a 12 mol% CO2 content in flue
gas of a coal fired power plant, the production cost is estimated at about US$ 30/ton CO2. This
substantial reduction in the production cost is mainly because of the higher CO2 contents in the flue
gas of the coal power plant.

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 Table IV - CO2 Capture plant parameters to produce 3307 ton per day from flue gas of two
different Sources, Coal Power Plant and NGCC Power Plant.

Parameter Coal Power Plant, NGCC Power Plant [3]

This work
CO2 Production Capacity, ton per day 3307 3307
CO2 recovery, % 90 90
CO2 concentration in flue gas, mol% 12 4
Number of trains 1 2
Flue gas rate, 528 MMSCFD 920 MMSCFD
Absorber diameter, ft 32.8 39.4
Regenerator diameter, ft 19.7 19.7
Capital Cost, million US$ 165 227
Operating cost, million US$ 25 51
Production cost, US$/ton 30 49

References

1. OPEC, World Oil Outlook 2007, Vienna, Austria, 2007. [Link]

2. Unoted Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change, [Link]
3. Ahmed Aboudheir; Koorosh Asghari, Raphael Idem, Don Gelowitz, and Paitoon
Tontiwachwuthikul. Design and Engineering Factors Affecting CO2 Capture and EOR
Applications. The 7th International Conference and Exhibition on Chemistry in Industry,
CHEMINDIX-2007, Manama, Kingdom of Bahrain, March 26-28, 2007.
4. U.S. Department of Energy, [Link]

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