Lecture IV 9
Lecture IV: Second Quantisation
We have seen how the elementary excitations of the quantum chain can be presented
in terms of new elementary quasi-particles by the ladder operator formalism. Can this
approach be generalised to accommodate other many-body systems? The answer is provided
by the method of second quantisation — an essential tool for the development of interacting
many-body field theories. The first part of this section is devoted largely to formalism —
the second part to applications aimed at developing fluency.
Reference: see Feynman’s book on “Statistical Mechanics”
⊲ Notations and Definitions
Consider a single-particle Schrodinger equation:
Ĥ|ψλ i = ǫλ |ψλ i
How can one construct a many-body wavefunction?
Particle indistinguishability demands symmetrisation:
ελ nλ nλ
ε4
ε3 0 0
ε2 1 1
ε1 1 2
ε0 1 3
Fermions Bosons
e.g. two-particle wavefunction for fermions i.e. particle 1 in state 1, particle 2...
state 1 particle 1
1 z}|{ z}|{
ψF (x1 , x2 ) ≡ √ ( ψ1 ( x1 )ψ2 (x2 ) − ψ2 (x1 )ψ1 (x2 ))
2
In Dirac notation:
1
|1, 2iF ≡ √ (|ψ1 i ⊗ |ψ2 i − |ψ2 i ⊗ |ψ1 i)
2
⊲ General normalised, symmetrised, N-particle wavefunction
of bosons (ζ = +1) or fermions (ζ = −1)
1 X
|λ1 , λ2 , . . . λN i ≡ p Q∞ ζ P |ψλP1 i ⊗ |ψλP2 i . . . ⊗ |ψλPN i
N! λ=0 nλ ! P
• nλ — no. of particles in state λ
(for fermions, Pauli exclusion: nλ = 0, 1, i.e. |λ1 , λ2 , . . . λN i is a Slater determinant)
Lecture Notes October 2005
Lecture IV 10
P
• P: Summation over N! permutations of {λ1 , . . . λN }
required by particle indistinguishability
• Parity P — no. of transpositions of two elements which brings permutation
(P1 , P2 , · · · PN ) back to ordered sequence (1, 2, · · · N)
Evidently, “first quantised” representation looks clumsy!
motivates alternative representation...
⊲ Second quantisation
Define vacuum state: |Ωi, and set of field operators aλ and adjoints a†λ — no hats!
N
1 Y
aλ |Ωi = 0, pQ∞ a†λi |Ωi = |λ1 , λ2 , . . . λN i
λ=0 nλ ! i=1
cf. bosonic ladder operators for phonons N.B. ambiguity of ordering?
Field operators fulfil commutation relations for bosons (fermions)
h i h i h i
aλ , a†µ = δλµ , aλ , aµ = a†λ , a†µ =0
−ζ −ζ −ζ
where [Â, B̂]−ζ ≡ ÂB̂ − ζ B̂ Â is the commutator (anti-commutator)
• Operator a†λ creates particle in state λ, and aλ annihilates it
• Commutation relations imply Pauli exclusion for fermions: a†λ a†λ = 0
• Any N-particle wavefunction can be generated by application of set of
N operators to a unique vacuum state
e.g. |1, 2i = a†2 a†1 |Ωi
• Symmetry of wavefunction under particle interchange maintained by
commutation relations of field operators
e.g. |1, 2i = a†2 a†1 |Ωi = ζa†1 a†2 |Ωi
(So, providing one maintains a consistent ordering convention,
the nature of that convention doesn’t matter)
⊲ Fock space: Defining FN to be ‘linear span’ of all N-particle states |λ1 , λ2 , · · · λN i
Fock space F is defined as ‘direct sum’ ⊕∞ N =0 FN
• General state |φi of the Fock space is linear combination of states
with any number of particles
• Note that the vacuum state |Ωi (sometimes written as |0i) is distinct from zero!
Lecture Notes October 2005
Lecture IV 11
a a a
... F2 F1 F0 0
a+ a+
⊲ Change of basis:
a†λ̃ |Ωi a†λ |Ωi
P z}|{ X z}|{
Using the resolution of identity 1 ≡ λ |λihλ|, we have |λ̃i = |λi hλ|λ̃i
λ
X X
i.e. a†λ̃ = hλ|λ̃ia†λ , and aλ̃ = hλ̃|λiaλ
λ λ
E.g. Fourier representation: aλ ≡ ak , aλ̃ ≡ a(x)
√
eikx / L Z L
X z }| { 1
a(x) = hx|ki ak , ak = √ dx e−ikx a(x)
k
L 0
⊲ Occupation number operator: n̂λ = a†λ aλ measures no. of particles in state λ
e.g. (bosons)
1 + a†λ aλ
z}|{
† † n †
aλ aλ (aλ ) |Ωi = aλ aλ a†λ (a†λ )n−1 |Ωi = (a†λ )n |Ωi + (a†λ )2 aλ (a†λ )n−1 |Ωi = · · · = n(a†λ )n |Ωi
Exercise: check for fermions
Lecture Notes October 2005
