Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

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Building and Environment

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Defect-based building condition assessment

Faisal Faqih *, Tarek Zayed
Department of Building & Real Estate, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hong Kong

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Building defects accelerates the deterioration of building condition leading to more frequent repairs with
Building condition assessment increased operating and maintenance costs up to 4% or more of total construction cost per annum. Building
Analytic network process condition assessments are carried out in order to identify defects and evaluate health status of building. However,
Fuzzy set theory
existing assessment models are subjective, time consuming and tedious. To address the need for more objective
Evidential reasoning
Building information modeling
and expeditious condition assessment this paper proposes a novel defect-based condition assessment model for
existing concrete buildings considering both building physical and environmental condition. In order to deduce
weighting coefficients for building defects Analytic Network Process (ANP) was used while severity of building
defects is assessed using a grading scale. To incorporate uncertainty in judgement of inspection personnel, fuzzy
membership functions were used to ascertain degree of belief in assessment. Evidential reasoning algorithm was
used to aggregate and integrate different types of defects and to compute the overall condition assessment of
building. This model is limited to concrete buildings only. The proposed model is implemented on BIM platform
for exchange of information and better documentation during inspection. Proposed model was tested on a case
study building and results were promising with organized inspection data management on a common BIM
platform with potential to expedite inspection process while managing large amount of inspection data on
handheld tablet.

1. Introduction defects accurately and with adequate objectivity to obtain an accurate

building condition assessment. According to Bernat and Gil [4], appro­
Degradation of building is inevitable due to detrimental actions from priate building inspection and a maintenance plan are required for
improper use, external factors such as weather, wear and tear and safety of building during its service life. Condition assessment of
inadequate maintenance. It is important to understand different types of building occurs at component level [5] and further each component
defects which influences the overall condition of the building. Through ratings are aggregated and rolled up to arrive at building condition
periodic building condition assessment, it is possible to intervene at the assessment. Building deterioration has negative consequences from an
early stage of building degradation. According to CIB-W086 Building economic and environmental point of view. There is a growing necessity
Pathology [1] report, building defects accelerates the deterioration of to extend the service life of existing buildings from economic and sus­
building condition resulting in more frequent repairs with increased tainability point of view [6,7].
operating costs up to 4% or more of total construction cost per annum in Visual inspection complimented with non-destructive technology
addition to social and environmental costs. Identifying building defects will help to reduce subjectivity and human errors during inspection and
accurately through structured condition assessment before they become also reduce mistakes in overall assessment of the building [8]. Due to
worse will help reducing the need for maintenance and repair of complex inter-dependency between building components governed by
building components which can help to extend the service life of existing intended design, the condition may vary from one individual component
buildings [2]. to another [9]. The deterioration of a building reduces its ability to
Condition assessment of buildings is typically physical inspection perform its intended function [10], while environmental deterioration
and diagnosis of health of building. Building condition assessment is influences the comfort and health of building occupants [11]. Existing
generally conducted to assess the current state of a building and estimate building condition assessment models are time consuming and lack
the extent of its deterioration [3]. It is important to interpret building objectivity, hence there is a need for development of better assessment

* Corresponding author.
E-mail addresses: [email protected] (F. Faqih), [email protected] (T. Zayed).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.buildenv.2020.107575
Received 17 September 2020; Received in revised form 16 December 2020; Accepted 28 December 2020
Available online 4 January 2021
0360-1323/© 2021 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

models supported by objective diagnosis providing expeditious assess­ know different defects that influence the building condition in order to
ments [12,13]. In addition, managing large amount of building inspec­ assess the correct building diagnosis during building inspection [8].
tion data using conventional tools such as spreadsheets or hard paper Minor defects can become serious defects if they are not promptly
copies is inefficient, tedious and sometimes error prone. To address the rectified, which can lead to failure that is more difficult to remedy [27].
need for a comprehensive building condition assessment, this paper It is also possible that one type of defect can cause another type of
presents a novel defect-based condition assessment model for existing building defect. Several studies have noted most common defects in
buildings considering both building physical and environmental condi­ concrete buildings are spalling of plaster finishes, seepage of rainwater,
tion in same model. cracks in structural members, non-structural cracks in plasters and tiles,
and faulty finishes [28–35].
2. Research objectives Visual Inspection of spalling of concrete, cracks, extensive defor­
mation, leakage and dampness in the building is still one of the easiest
To address the gaps in existing building condition assessments, this and most reliable methods of assessing the condition of building [36].
study presents a defect-based building condition assessment model for Visual inspection is one of the quickest and cheapest non-destructive
integrated physical and environment assessment of existing buildings. inspection techniques, however, it is also very subjective and highly
The primary objective of this study are as follows: dependent on the competency and experience of inspection personnel.
The tapping hammer test is used to detect the spalled de-bonded con­
• Design a defect-based integrated building condition assessment crete or tiles on walls. Defects can be identified by listening to the ‘void’
model to assess physical and environmental building defects using sound created when tapping the hammer [36]. The hammer tapping test
different non-destructive technologies. is a comparatively cheaper alternative to other NDT tests. Cracks are
• Develop a software program which can be used on field in a portable often the most common building defects visible which can be measured
windows tablet for centralized data input and management of using simple crack width scale [37]. The moisture meter is used to
building inspection data. measure the water content of building elements, such as roofs, drywalls,
• Test and implement proposed defect-based condition assessment plaster, timber, tiles. Often, walls and ceilings have water seepage,
model on a case study. which affects the building element causing dampness and peeling off of
paint or plaster. Drywalls, wood, plaster and painting are easily
3. Research background damaged by moisture. A standard guide for the evaluation of the
moisture condition of concrete, gypsum, or other floor slabs using
Building stakeholders conduct condition assessment to identify the electronic moisture meter can be found in ASTM F2659:2015 [69].
current state of the building. Effective condition assessment is therefore
vital to ensure the safety and sustainability of existing buildings. Con­ 3.2. Environmental defects of buildings
dition assessment reports are often used for decision making and budget
allocation for maintenance, repair and rehabilitation for existing Environmental factors are not defined as defects as certain level of
buildings [12]. After reviewing literature about existing assessment concentration is almost always present in the environment, only when
models [14–20,74], the authors have not found a comprehensive they exceed the safe limit and affect human comfort, they can be
building condition assessment model that considers both physical as considered as environmental defects as their concentration exceeds the
well as environment of the building together. The aim of this study is to desired level analogous to physical defects. Good indoor environment
develop a defect-based condition assessment model considering both quality ensures the comfort, well-being and health of building users.
physical and environmental defects to provide a comprehensive condi­ Four main categories of environmental factors which influence the
tion assessment of building that can help building stakeholders in de­ environmental condition of the building are indoor air quality (IAQ),
cision making for repair, maintenance and rehabilitation. Existing thermal environment, acoustics, and lighting [8]. People spend a large
physical building inspections are generally conducted by visual obser­ part of their lives inside buildings hence there is a large influence of
vation, which can lead to subjective results dependant on experience, indoor environment quality on health and well-being of building occu­
training and perception of the inspection personnel [3,12,21–23]. The pants [38]. Poor indoor air quality may also become cause of sickness,
limitation of existing condition assessment models is that they do not discomfort, and low productivity at workplace [39]. Table 1 shows
assess the comprehensive safety of the building, which will require more environmental factors namely Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), thermal envi­
in-depth inspection [13,21,24]. Building condition and its indoor envi­ ronment, acoustics, and lighting that influence environmental condition
ronment changes over time. It is important to evaluate building by of the building.
measuring substantial changes in its condition that could impact Both physical and environmental condition is considered to be
building performance as well as to assess maintenance requirements important to evaluate comprehensive building condition. Although a
[25]. The safety and health of building user is affected by malfunction of wide variety of building defects affect building condition, however for
building elements and adverse indoor environment. simplicity of this study common defects were selected such as structural
Building defect can be defined as “a fault, or deviation from the cracks, spalling of concrete, corrosion of steel and water seepage. These
intended level of performance of a building or its parts” as per ISO defects are very common in concrete buildings and affect the safety,
15686–1:2000(E) [73]. Building defects generally are inevitable and function and appearance of building. Similarly, for environmental con­
occur in different forms with various severity irrespective of building dition assessment following factors were selected temperature & hu­
age [26,71]. Physical condition of a space inside the building can be midity that affects thermal condition; light intensity; noise level that
characterized by physical building defects, while environmental condi­ affects acoustics; carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,
tion of a space inside the building is characterized by environmental formaldehyde and volatile organic compounds that affects the indoor air
factors that influence them. quality.
Different types of detectors and monitors are available for indoor air
3.1. Physical defects of buildings quality measurement. Many handheld instruments cover almost all
types of gas detection for indoor air quality, such as carbon dioxide,
Building user safety, comfort, convenience and health are affected by carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide, particulate matter PM2.5 and
a malfunction of any element, component, or part of a building. ozone. A luminance meter is used to measure the intensity of light in
Generally, the design of building governs the inter-relationship between terms of Lux. A thermometer is used to measure the temperature, while a
individual building elements with entire building. It is important to relative humidity meter is used to measure relative humidity in

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 F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

percentage. Generally, handheld instruments can measure both

temperature and humidity. Noise is measured using a sound level

ASHRAE 62.1 [68], World Health

meter in decibels.

ASHRAE Handbook [39,66]

Organization [38,56]; 4. Background of research methods
IAQMG HKSAR [72],

ASHRAE 62.1 [68],

[39,61,64,65,72];
ASHRAE 55 [67],
BS EN 12464–1 ,

IAQMG HKSAR
4.1. Fuzzy set theory
[8,39,57–61]

[62,63,70]
References

Fuzzy logic was first introduced by Lofti Zadeh [40] and the
term fuzzy refers to information that are not clear or are vague.
Many real-world problems require to have results based on objec­

Sensitive and irritation symptom, Nuisance odour,

tive manner however, human judgement based on the information
Affects respiratory system, Chronic respiratory
Carbon monoxide meter Impaired vision and coordination; Headaches;
Affects respiratory system, Coughing, Allergic

Nitrogen dioxide meter Eye, nose, and throat irritation. Respiratory

available which are often inaccurate, incomplete or have uncer­

Difficulty in breathing, sweating, tiredness,

Dizziness; Nausea at high concentration

tainty makes decision making more complex. Hence the concept of

Formaldehyde detector Affects respiratory system, watery eyes

fuzzy logic provides a very valuable flexibility for reasoning similar

Environmental defects affecting Detection Instruments or Health effect on building occupants

to human reasoning in many ways while considering uncertainties

and inaccuracies of the situation. Lofti Zadeh introduced the
concept of membership function that characterize fuzziness i.e. all
infections, affects lungs

the information in a fuzzy set whether the elements in the fuzzy set

Acoustic Discomfort
Thermal Discomfort
increased heart rate

Visual Discomfort

are discrete or whether they are continuous and they represent the
degree of truth in a fuzzy logic system [41]. A classical set is a
Carcinogenic

collection of distinct objects with crisp values and they contain

disease
effects

objects that satisfy exact membership properties. Hence a classical

set can be defined as the set with certain defined boundaries
without uncertainty, while fuzzy set can be defined as a set with
Relative Humidity Meter
Carbon dioxide meter

vague boundaries due to uncertainty in its properties. We can un­

Particulate monitor

Sound Level Meter

derstand fuzzy sets in the context of set membership which allows

Luminance Meter
Ozone monitor

partial membership which means that it contains elements that are

Thermometer
VOC monitor
Equipment

varying degrees of membership in the set. The membership func­

tion symbolizes the mathematical representation of membership in
a set which is represented as shown below.
μA (x) ∈ [0, 1] (1)
High/Low light intensity

High/Low temperature

where μA (x) = degree of membership of element x in a fuzzy set A.

High/Low humidity
High Concentration

High Concentration

High Concentration

High Concentration

High Concentration

High Concentration

High Concentration

Consequently μA (x) is a value on the unit interval that measures

Human comfort

the degree to which element x belongs to fuzzy set A i.e. μA (x) =

degree to which x ∈ A [42].
High Noise

To deduce useful information from vague situations, the un­

certain information in a universe set is transformed into fuzzy sets.
All information contained in a fuzzy set is described by its mem­
Internal or external unwanted sound
Paint, Solvents and aerosol products

bership function. Since the output is desired to be single crisp

Flue gas of burning stove, diesel car

Flue gas of burning stove, diesel car

Factors affecting environmental condition of buildings and environmental defects.

Pressed wood products, Paint and

Weather conditions/Ventilation/
By-product of human exhalation

number, the fuzzy set after evaluation needs to be defuzzified. The

Dust, copiers, printers, cigarette

Refrigerators, Air conditioners,

conversion of a fuzzy quantity to a precise quantity is called

exhaust, cigarette smoking

exhaust, cigarette smoking

defuzzification similar to the conversion of a precise quantity to a

Copiers, Laser printers

fuzzy quantity is called as fuzzification. Several methods are

available for defuzzification of fuzzy output functions. The
Room lighting

weighted average method is the most commonly used in defuzzi­

fication because it is considered to be one of the most computa­
Particulates Matter (RSPM) smoking
Source

tionally efficient methods [42]. Fuzzy membership functions were

HVAC
Glues

utilized in proposed model since physical and environmental con­

dition are two different types of assessment with fuzzy attributes.
Environmental condition

Nitrogen dioxide (NO2)

Carbon monoxide (CO)

Formaldehyde (HCHO)
Respirable Suspended
Carbon dioxide (CO2)

Total volatile organic

compounds (TVOC)

4.2. Analytical network process (ANP)

Artificial Lighting
Factors Affecting

Temperature

Analytic Network Process (ANP) is a method for Multi criteria

Ozone (O3)

Humidity

decision making methods (MCDM) developed by Thomas Saaty

Noise

that can provide a comprehensive structure to integrate measure­

ments for tangible criteria and derive priorities for intangible
criteria for better decision making [43,44]. ANP accounts for in­
Indoor Air Quality

terdependencies and interactions between elements and alterna­

tives with optional hierarchical structure [45,46]. Generally users
of multiple criteria decision making methods simplify the complex
Categories

Acoustics
Thermal
Lighting

problem into hierarchy structures composed of goal, criteria, and

(IAQ)
Table 1

alternatives; however, multi-level hierarchy decisions may signif­

icantly differ from those decisions obtained from a network [47].

3
F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

The first step in ANP is to define set of hierarchies or network fol­ itself until limiting super matrix is achieved, giving final priorities are
lowed by pairwise comparison which can be based on questionnaire attained. The pairwise comparison matrix is composed of elements
survey response from industry experts. Using pairwise comparison from displayed on a numerical scale and decision makers give element values
the experts, unweighted pairwise matrix is formed. Next step is to based on their experiences and expertise. When evaluating relative
calculate weighted super matrix to incorporate interdependencies importance between different assessment criteria and degrees of severity
among the elements. Weighted super matrix is further multiplied with of building defects inspection personnel often make judgement based on

Fig. 1. Methodology adopted for proposed model.

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F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

their experience, expertise and intuition. Multi criteria decision making developed that can run proposed model inside Rivet software and utilize
methods (MCDM) can be helpful in decision making especially when BIM model for exchange of information, for better documentation and
information available in building condition assessment are incomplete displaying condition assessment results in graphical format. The data
and uncertain due to inherent human judgement. used in this research was obtained from questionnaire survey, previous
research, building inspection data and environmental condition data.
4.3. Evidential reasoning Finally, this study is concluded with suggestions and future scope of
research.
During visual inspection of buildings often human judgements are
characterized by varying degrees of uncertainty, inaccuracy, and 6. Development of defect based conditon assesement model
incomplete information. To address this and yield adequate assessments
evidential reasoning can be helpful. Evidential reasoning is based upon The proposed model utilizes three theories namely, Fuzzy sets,
Dempster-Shafer theory of evidence [48–50] also called Analytical Network Process (ANP) and Evidential reasoning. To develop
Dempster-Shafer theory or evidence theory, is prominently used to this integrated model that can combine physical and environmental
handle uncertainty in information. This theory was first proposed by condition into a single rating system, a hierarchy of assessment criteria
Dempster and then further developed by Shafer. Essential task during was developed with two major branches physical condition and envi­
condition assessment is to deduce explanations for a set of observation. ronmental condition. Physical condition of existing buildings is affected
These observations can be initial symptoms of building defects. The by four major factors i.e. Safety, Significance/Importance, Function, and
symptoms observed can be considered as evidence for a particular defect Appearance of element/components in the building. These four factors
and thus evidence theory can be used for diagnosis [51]. were chosen as assessment criteria as it is independent with type of
The evidential reasoning approach uses an expanded decision ma­ building and applicable to all kinds of building. However, this model is
trix, in which every attribute of alternative is described by a distributed primarily focussed on concrete buildings as common defects related to
assessment using a belief structure. To represent the assessment of an concrete are only considered. Environmental condition is affected by
alternative against a criterion, belief structure is used as a distributed four major factors i.e. Indoor Air Quality (IAQ), Thermal, Lighting &
assessment using belief degrees. The evaluation of an alternative on a Acoustics. A new condition scale is used to assesses the severity of de­
criterion can be measured by exact data or uncertain data. To represent fects while ANP is used to determine the relative weights between
uncertainty belief structure is utilized. If evaluation can be assessed different defects. This model follows Fuzzy evaluation process composed
precisely without any doubt, then decision matrix can be termed as of fuzzification, aggregation and defuzzification. Using this model every
special case of belief decision matrix [52]. type of space in a building can be assessed for its physical and envi­
In case these is absence of data availability for assessment, such case ronmental condition based on the severity of their defects and then
can be represented by belief structure that has sum of total belief degrees aggregated to determine overall condition assessment of the building.
as zero. In case of partial data availability for assessment, the sum of Building components can be grouped according to their function
total belief degrees in the distributed assessment for that attribute will within different systems such as Structural, Mechanical, Electrical and
be between 0% and 100%. While precise data can be termed as special Plumbing which together forms the core physical assets of the building.
cases of belief structures when all degrees of belief in each belief A well-constructed hierarchy that incorporates upstream and down­
structure are either 1 or 0 provided that the sum of degree of belief in stream relationships will facilitate to focus on the tangible physical as­
each belief structure is 1. Evidential reasoning algorithm for assignment sets depending on the function of component from highest level to
of degrees of belief to different element and aggregate the outcome were lowest level. Building stakeholders can use this hierarchy coupled with
referred from Yang & Xu [52,53]. condition data that can be used as a framework for decision-making for
higher up in the organization.
5. Research methodology
6.1. Relative weights
The methodology adopted for development of proposed defect-based
building condition assessment model is shown in Fig. 1. Proposed model In order to understand relative importance of different factors
is comprised of two types of assessment; physical condition assessment influencing the building condition, a questionnaire survey method was
and environmental condition assessment. Physical building defects and chosen. To determine pairwise comparison between different criteria a
environmental factors that influence the condition of the building are questionnaire survey was conducted among industry experts. Using
determined. A questionnaire survey was carried out to evaluate pairwise expert judgement of industry professionals from facility management,
comparison of physical and environmental defects. This pairwise com­ building services, health and safety field, pairwise comparison was
parison was further used to compute relative weights of defects using framed. Based on pairwise comparison ANP network model is formu­
Analytical Network Process (ANP) incorporating interdependence of lated with hierarchy of defects for assessment. Questionnaire survey was
defects. To incorporate uncertainty in judgement of inspection distributed among industry professionals to determine the relative
personnel, fuzzy set theory and evidential reasoning algorithm were weights between different type of defects and their criteria. Out of total
used. Fuzzy membership functions were developed using defect survey respondents 50% were having expertise in facility management,
thresholds for both physical defects and environmental thresholds, 25% experts were from Health and Safety field, 10% were from building
derived from guidelines and codes of practices. Using condition grading services and 15% were other building professionals. Seventy-five
scale and environmental instrument readings with their corresponding percent survey respondents were based in Hong Kong and 25% were
fuzzy membership functions appropriate degree of belief is calculated to based out of Hong Kong. The professional experience of survey re­
assess severity of defects. Degree of belief calculated from fuzzy mem­ spondents with 0–15 years were 30%, respondents with 15–20 years
bership function and relative weights derived from ANP were used as were 30%, respondents with 20–25 years were 25% and 15% re­
input in evidential reasoning algorithm based on Dempster-Shafer (D-S) spondents were having professional experience of over 25 years. Fig. 2
theory to compute integrated condition assessment comprised of phys­ shows questionnaire survey respondent’s expertise, location and years
ical and environmental condition of each room. The final condition of experience.
rating is represented as a crisp value calculated by the weighted average Both online and paper-based survey was conducted to generate
defuzzification method. The proposed model developed was tested on a pairwise comparison from expert opinions using Saaty’s Scale. Using
building as a case study. To implement the proposed defect-based con­ pairwise comparison from questionnaire survey response from industry
dition assessment model on a case study building, a plugin software is experts, pairwise comparison matrix is developed. This pairwise matrix

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F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

6.2. Defect threshold

Based on literature different factors were identified which affects the

condition of concrete building. Although a wide variety of defects affect
building condition, however for simplicity of assessment common de­
fects were selected such as structural cracks, delamination/spalling of
concrete, corrosion of steel and water leakage/seepage. These defects
affect the safety, function and appearance of building. Similarly, for
environmental condition assessment following factors were selected
temperature & humidity that affects thermal condition; light intensity;
noise level that affects acoustics; carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, ni­
trogen dioxide, formaldehyde and volatile organic compounds that af­
fects the indoor air quality. Defect thresholds were determined from
codes of practice and guidelines. These thresholds may differ and can be
changed according to codes of practice and guidance updates. Physical
building defects are inspected as per proposed defect-based condition
assessment model using visual observation in conjunction with hand­
held non-destructive instruments such as moisture meter, crack width
scale and infrared thermal cameras while environmental condition
measured using instruments such as, thermometer, sound meter, light
meter and air quality meters.

6.3. Fuzzy membership function

Fuzzy membership functions were utilized to incorporate uncer­

tainty in assessment as well as provide a common assessment platform
since physical and environmental condition are two different types of
assessment. Condition grading scale were defined as fuzzy sets. Severity
of defects were deduced from literature to define fuzzy membership
functions. Only triangular distribution was used for each linguistic
grade. The severity of defect was distributed over the condition grading
scale and fuzzy membership functions were created for all defects for
assessment. Fuzzy membership functions adopted for this study are as
shown in Fig. 4.

6.4. Condition grading scale

A grading scale compares the condition of different building com­

ponents. Grading scales can be represented alphabetically or as a nu­
merical score. A new grading scale to compare the severity of defects and
Fig. 2. Survey respondent’s expertise, location and years of experience. to assesses the condition of different building components was devel­
oped. This condition grading scale is represented linguistically with
is evaluated using fuzzy AHP to obtain fuzzified weights. Fuzzified corresponding numerical score. Proposed grading scale is in terms of
Saaty’s scale was used for fuzzy AHP calculations. The weights are number ranging from 0 to 10 and corresponding linguistic description
defuzzifed to get crisp values in the form of Eigen vectors which will be for easy understanding. Proposed grading scale is shown in Table 2.
further used to generate super matrix for ANP calculations.
ANP analysis was used to determine relative weightage to be 6.5. Integrated condition assessment model
accounted for different category of defects affecting physical and envi­
ronmental condition of the building. To reduce uncertainty in judge­ ANP network model is created with hierarchy of defects for assess­
ment made by experts in pairwise comparison due to inherent ment. Questionnaire survey was distributed among industry pro­
subjectivity and sometimes imprecise decision making in questionnaire fessionals to determine the relative weights between different type of
survey, fuzzy evaluation was used. A new methodology was imple­ defects and their criteria. Both online and paper-based survey was
mented in this study to determine the weightage of individual factors conducted to generate pairwise comparison from expert opinions using
using Fuzzy evaluation of Eigen vectors, which are to be used for Saaty’s Scale. Using pairwise comparison from questionnaire survey
developing super matrix for further ANP analysis. An excel sheet was response from industry experts pairwise comparison matrix is devel­
used to evaluate this pairwise matrix using fuzzy theory by converting oped. An excel sheet was used to evaluate this pairwise matrix using
pairwise matrix in to fuzzified pairwise matrix using fuzzified Saaty fuzzy theory by converting pairwise matrix in to fuzzified pairwise
Scale. Crisp relative weights were calculated by defuzzification. Relative matrix using fuzzified Saaty Scale. Crisp relative weights were calcu­
weights of each cluster matrix of different criteria and defects were lated by defuzzification. Consistency index and the consistency ratio
calculated. Using Eigen vector of calculated matrix, a super matrix was were calculated using to check the consistency of the pairwise com­
generated for further evaluation. Limit super matrix was reached to parison of each matrix respectively.
determine the final relative weights which would be used for further Relative weights of each cluster matrix of different criteria and de­
calculation. fects were calculated. Using Eigen vector of calculated matrix, a super
Fig. 3 shows building defects and corresponding relative weights matrix was generated for further evaluation. Limit super matrix was
computed and adopted for this study. reached to determine the final relative weights which would be used for
further calculation. A rating scale to compares the severity of defects to

6
F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

Fig. 3. Building defects and their relative weights shown in brackets.

assesses the condition of different building components was developed.

∑
N ∑
N
This rating scale is represented linguistically with corresponding nu­ mH,i = 1 − mn,i = 1 − ωi βn,i
merical score. n=1 n=1 (3)
where n = 1, …, N
Evidential reasoning was used to account for the uncertainty
accompanied with judgement while making decision to convert the
and mn,i = basic probability mass representing the degree to which the
visible symptoms of building defects to condition grading scales.
assessor evaluates defect from grading scale of 1–10. mH,i = remaining
Physical building defects were observed by visual observation in
probability mass unassigned to any individual grade after all the N =
conjunction with handheld non-destructive instruments such as mois­
10 grades have been considered. ωi is the respective weight of defect
ture meter and infrared thermal cameras while environmental condition
calculated from ANP.
was observed using instruments such as, thermometer, sound meter,
Leftover unassigned degrees of belief were redistributed over the
light meter and air quality meters.
condition scale after aggregating all of the defects recursively. The same
For assignment of degrees of belief to different element and aggre­
above steps were applied for each defect group of each component to
gate the outcome, evidential reasoning algorithm from Yang & Xu [52,
determine the condition of space/room. The final step was to aggregate
53] were referred. The degree of belief was extracted from fuzzy
all the individual conditions to determine the overall condition.
membership functions to assign to each detected defect over rating scale
Then probability masses mn,I(i) and mH,I(i) can be deduced by
with corresponding relative weights earlier deduced from ANP. The
combining the basic probability masses mn,j and mH,j for all n = 1,………,
degrees of beliefs of each of the defects were multiplied by their corre­
N and j = 1, ……., i.
sponding weights to get the basic probability assignments as shown in
Hence the recursive evidential reasoning algorithm can be summa­
equation (2) while the remaining probability mass that remained
rized as follows
unassigned to any of the condition scales was calculated as shown in
( )
equation (3). mn,I(i) = KI(i+1) mn,I(i) mn,i+1 + mn,I(i) mH,i+1 + mH,I(i) mn,i+1
(4)
where n = 1, …, N
mn,i = ωi βn,i where n = 1, …, N (2)
mH,I(i+1) = KI(i+1) mH,I(i) mH,(i+1) (5)

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F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

Fig. 4. Fuzzy Membership functions.

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F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

Table 2 aggregated degree of belief in terms of percentages, the output has to be

Proposed condition grading scale for assessment. defuzzified using the weighted average method of the fuzzy set theory.
Aggregate of combined degree of belief for all components were
defuzzified to compute the overall condition. This overall condition can
be used by building stakeholders to assist them in decision making
process for budget allocation for maintenance and repair.

7. Case study and model implementation

The proposed defect-based condition assessment model was imple­

mented as a case study. For model implementation block Z building in
Hong Kong Polytechnic University campus was selected. To test the
proposed defect-based condition assessment model for this research, an
entire floor was selected of block Z building. This building is divided into
two blocks North and South. The selected floor is situated on level 7.
This floor has 44 rooms in North block and 37 rooms in South block,
majority of the rooms are offices and research lab on this floor. In
addition, there are 5 staircases, 9 lifts blocks, 4 toilet rooms along with
separate electrical rooms and maintenances rooms for building services.

7.1. BIM model development for case study

A BIM model was developed as a part of model testing and valida­

tion. Floor plan drawings were retrieved from facility management of­
fice (FMO) of the university. Using 2D AutoCAD drawings as base, 3D
BIM model was generated in Rivet 2019 software. The floor plan of 7th
floor of Block Z building used as a case study is shown in Fig. 5(a). Fig. 5
(b) shows 3D BIM model generated using CAD drawings. To easily
identify the rooms during inspection each room was color coded and
assigned room number. To assign room numbers at desired location
tagging function was used in Rivet software. Fig. 5(c) shows color coded
room number tagging of BIM model in Rivet.

7.2. Development of BIM based software program

Current practices of using conventional methods of handling data

using spreadsheets or managing hard paper copies for storing inspection
data is inefficient. Transferring building inspection data is time
consuming, tedious and sometimes error prone. To address management
of building inspection data, Building Information Modeling (BIM) is
used and a plugin is developed to integrate the physical & environ­
mental condition assessment with BIM model of facility. To encourage
⎡ ⎤− 1 application of BIM for condition assessment and utilize same BIM model
⎢ ∑
N ∑
N
⎥ environment to manage building inspection data for condition assess­
KI(i+1) = ⎣1 − mt,I(i) mj,(i+1) ⎦ ment, a Windows based GUI was developed. Autodesk Rivet was used to
(6)
t=1 j=1
j∕
=t create BIM model of case study building floor. Rivet was chosen for BIM
where i = 1, ……, L − 1 model development as it provides API (Application Programming
Interface). API gives user ability to extract building data from BIM model
N
and KI(i+1) is a normalizing factor in which
∑
mn,i+1 + mH,i+1 = 1 to another program. Microsoft Visual Studio was used to develop a
n=1 plugin program with window based graphical user interface using C#
also mn,I(i) = mn,1 (n = 1, ………, N) and mH,I(1) = mH,1 language.
It is important to note that attributes in E are numbered arbitrarily The defect based integrated condition assessment model discussed
that means mn,I(L) , (n = 1, ………, N) and mH,I(L) do not depend on the earlier was implemented into a Revit plugin software to interact with
order in which the basic attributes are aggregated. The combined degree BIM models of existing buildings using Revit API. This plugin will act a
of belief βN is given by equation (7). tool during condition assessment process to act as input from user,
extract building data from BIM models, store inspection data and pic­
βN = mn,I(L), where n = 1, …, N (7)
tures, analyze, store and display assessment results in graphical format.
The remaining unassigned degree of belief βH after all the L basic Fig. 6 shows the system architecture of Revit plugin named Integrated
attributes are assessed is given by equation 8. Facility Management (iFM) developed for this study.
∑
N
βH = mH,I(L) = 1 − βN (8) 7.3. iFM graphical user interface (GUI)
n=1

The incompleteness in the assessment is represented by βH and when Entire condition assessment process can be carried out using portable
there is no incompleteness in basic assessment βH = 0. windows tablet installed with iFM plugin in Rivet software and all the
For decision making with crisp values after calculating the inputs can be entered on field followed by quick analysis and result on
the field. Fig. 7(a) shows windows 10 tablet with BIM model. To provide

9
F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

Fig. 5. Conversion of CAD drawing into BIM model for case study.

a user-friendly input tool a window based graphical user interface is or remarks if any. This program helps in centralized data input and
developed similar to any window layout in PC. This window user management of inspection data such as defect severity, images, com­
interface can be used by user to interact with iFM software to enter their ments and instrument readings. This program also helps in management
desired input. GUI interface consist of menus bar with icons for different of building inspection data for both physical defects and environmental
functions. Fig. 7(b) shows the graphical user interface of iFM plugin condition on one single platform.
running within Rivet software. This window-based GUI allows users to
input information of project, physical evaluation of defects, environ­
mental instrument readings, attach photos of defects and add comments

10
F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

Fig. 6. System Architecture for iFM Revit plugin.

7.4. Physical evaluation input 7.5. Environmental measurement input

After checking all the required tools and selection of desired rooms Similar to physical input tab environmental instrument readings can
for inspection next step is to input physical evaluation into the appli­ be used as an input for different readings of IAQ, thermal, lighting and
cation program. Physical defects as per our proposed model can be noise level in the program. Handheld environmental instruments such as
detected by visual inspection complimented with NDT instruments such Air Quality monitoring device for IAQ, temperature and humidity meter
as moisture meter, crack width scale and other handheld instruments. for thermal readings, Lux meter for lighting and sound level meter to
Fig. 7(c) shows tab for physical evaluation input. In this tab after measure the noise can be used. Fig. 7(d) shows tab for environmental
detecting the building defects, severity of defects can be used as an instrument measurement readings input in the program. In this tab the
input. User also has the option to attach a picture of the room with or instrument readings can be used as an input with their respective units
without defects for record. User can also add comments and remarks as shown in the program. Along with instrument readings for a partic­
about any specific observation during the inspection in the program. ular room user also has the option to attach a picture of the room for
This input will be saved in database for future analysis once the user record. User can also add comments and remarks about any specific
clicks save button in menu bar. This input can be retrieved at any time observation during the inspection. This input will be saved in database
based on date of assessment under view facility condition which can be for further analysis once the user clicks save button in menu bar. This
assessed using navigation tree in the program. input can be retrieved at any time based on date of assessment under
view facility condition which can be assessed using navigation tree in
the program.

11
F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

Fig. 7. Screenshot showing different windows of developed software application program for implementation of defect-based condition assessment model.

12
F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

8. Results and discussion algorithm in Fig. 8. Successful implementation of defect-based condition

assessment model as proof of concept has shown potential to provide
To test and validate the proposed defect-based condition assessment better documentation for building inspection process which in turn can
model it is implemented on a case study. After entering all the required reduce time and cost of inspection compared to traditional paper-based
physical evaluation input and environmental instrument readings for all condition assessment.
the desired tagged rooms next step is to analyze and compute the inte­ Building information data for desired space to be assessed along with
grated condition rating of individual tagged rooms and aggregated their respective physical inspection data and IAQ data are fed into the
whole building condition. To compute click Run under Analysis tab of developed application program software. Entire building inspection
iFM plugin GUI. Fig. 7(e) shows graphical presentation of analysis result process can be carried out using portable windows tablet installed with
in the form of bubble diagram plotting the group of tagged rooms where application software developed and all the inputs can be entered on field
x-axis represents physical condition and y-axis environmental condition. using NDT and environmental instruments. Proposed model is thus
Each bubble represents each type of room in the building with separate implemented in the form of an application software which can be run on
colours. User can also view individual condition of a room from view any windows-based tablet during inspection process. After completing
facility condition located in navigation tree. Results are also available in the condition assessment, one of four decisions can be made: no action,
tabular format in the iFM plugin. minor repairs, major repairs, or rehabilitation, based on the severity of
The case study used in this research of entire floor with of university the defects detected.
building was in good condition hence very few defects were detected (e. Defect based condition assessment framework is developed to
g., hairline cracks), there was no major cracks, or any spalling and no address the need for comprehensive and structured approach to perform
water seepage was detected. Similarly, the environmental instrument building inspection. Identifying building defects accurately through
readings were all within permissible limits and in excellent condition. A structured building inspection before they become worse will help
sample calculation is shown for condition assessment based on ER reducing the need for maintenance and repair of building components

Fig. 8. Sample calculation shown for condition assessment based on ER algorithm.

13
F. Faqih and T. Zayed Building and Environment 191 (2021) 107575

which can help to extend the service life of existing buildings. Defect for building condition assessment. One of the major challenges during
based condition assessment will also help to reduce subjectivity, human condition assessment of buildings by visual inspection is uncertainty in
errors during inspection and reduce mistakes in overall assessment of judgement of inspection personnel due to subjective and sometimes
the building. The integrated tool developed as an application program imprecise decision making on site. The proposed defect-based condition
for input from user, stores inspection data, pictures, and comments assessment model can help to incorporate the uncertainty in judgement
during inspection process that can transform the traditional field of of inspection personnel for evaluation, and consequently help building
paper-based building inspection into more efficient and interactive stakeholders in decision making for maintenance, repair and rehabili­
process. tation. This paper proposed a novel defect-based condition assessment
The developed application program which runs within windows model for existing buildings incorporating both building physical and
environment has potential to improve productivity of inspection environmental condition. The proposed assessment model utilized
personnel by digitally entering inspection data for huge number of multiple criteria decision-making methods such as analytic network
building components within large building complex. This program also process (ANP) in order to deduce weighting coefficients for building
provides better documentation and data management for building in­ defects that determines their relative importance. The severity of
spection data that can save time involved in manual data operations and building defects is assessed using a grading scale to ascertain degree of
transfer in traditional paper-based processes. This program developed belief in assessment using fuzzy membership functions. Degree of belief
for implementation of defect-based condition assessment model for and defects weighting coefficients are used in aggregation model based
physical and environmental condition can be used by building stake­ on Evidential Reasoning theory to integrate different types of defects
holders to assist them in decision making process for maintenance, and to compute the overall condition assessment of building. This study
repair and rehabilitation of existing buildings. is limited to selected common building defects that influence the con­
Buildings will deteriorate over time due to ageing, and wear and tear dition of the concrete building hence the model developed is limited to
that will reduce the ability of building elements to perform their concrete buildings only. The framework developed is flexible and can be
intended function [54]. The interest and demand of building inspection expanded to incorporate various different types of building defects in
is increasing due to rapidly deteriorating conditions of building [6,7]. future studies. Taking appropriate remedial action based on accurate
However, high cost of inspection and time consumption to inspect condition assessment of buildings could reduce time and cost required
existing buildings are deterring factors that restricts building owners for major repairs due to propagation of minor defects into major defects.
and facility managers from adopting periodic condition assessment for
decision making in maintenance and repair [55]. Literature review re­
veals that very few countries have implemented periodic building con­ Declaration of competing interest
dition assessment system as a statutory requirement [12,24,28]. Hence
for sustainable management of existing buildings there is a need for cost The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
effective building condition assessment model with reduced subjectivity interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
and expedited processes. There was also lack of comprehensive assess­ the work reported in this paper.
ment model that considers both physical and environmental condition of
the building together [13,21,24]. The model developed in this study fills Acknowledgement
the gap with defect based comprehensive condition assessment of
building considering both physical and environmental condition. Con­ The authors would like to acknowledge and express their sincere
ventional building inspection are generally carried on by visual obser­ gratitude to the Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Grant No. ZE92, for
vation, that can lead to subjective results dependant on experience, supporting this study.
training and perception of the inspection personnel. Defect based model
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