UNIT: BIOMOLECULES LEVEL: STANDARD

LIPIDS

Content Statements:
B1.1.8 Hydrophobic proper1es of lipids
B1.1.9 Forma1on of triglycerides and phospholipids by condensa1on reac1ons
B1.1.10 Difference between saturated, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated faBy acids
B1.1.11 Triglycerides in adipose 1ssues for energy storage and thermal insula1on
B1.1.12 Forma1on of phospholipid bilayers as a consequence of hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions
B1.1.13 Ability of non-polar steroids to pass through the phospholipid bilayer

LIPIDS
Lipids are a class of non-polar organic molecules that serve a variety of func1ons within cells. Unlike other
classes of organic molecules, they are not composed of recurring monomers – although they may possess
discrete subunits. Lipids are commonly composed of hydrocarbons arranged into either chains (fa$y acids)
or fused rings (steroids). All lipids possess hydrophobic proper1es, meaning they will have low solubility in
aqueous solvents (but will dissolve in non-polar solvents). This makes a lipid an effec1ve water-repellent.

TYPES OF LIPIDS
Lipids can be categorised into three groups based on their chemical composi1on and physical proper1es:
• Simple lipids include esters of faBy acids and alcohol (waxes and triglycerides are common examples)
• Compound lipids are simple lipids that have been linked to an addi1onal group (such as phospholipids)
• Derived lipids consist of hydrocarbon rings produced from the hydrolysis of simple lipids (e.g. steroids)

SIMPLE: TRIGLYCERIDE COMPOUND: PHOSPHOLIPID DERIVED: STEROID

ESTER LINKAGES
Simple and compound lipids contain faBy acids within their structure, which are covalently aBached to an
alcohol (such as glycerol) via an ester bond. This linkage involves a condensaEon reacEon (water released).

O H H H H O H H H H

EtOH H O H O C C C C C H EtOH O C C C C C H

H H H H H H H H
Alcohol
Fa(y Acid Water + Simple Lipid
FATTY ACIDS
Lipids will possess different proper1es according to the type of faBy
acid they possess. Triglycerides can differ in their physical state (solid
fats or liquid oils), while phospholipids will possess different levels of SATURATED FATTY ACID
fluidity. FaBy acids are primarily classified according to the presence
or absence of double bonds between the carbon atoms in the chain. MONO
• Saturated faBy acids possess no double bonds (saturated with H) 1

• Unsaturated faBy acids have double bonds (either one or many)

Saturated faBy acids will form straight (linear) hydrocarbon chains,
POLY
while unsaturated faBy acids will have a kinked chain. Unsaturated 1 2

faBy acids may be either monounsaturated (has one double bond)

or polyunsaturated (mul1ple double bonds). Polyunsaturated faBy
acids will possess an even greater kink in their hydrocarbon chain. UNSATURATED FATTY ACIDS

FATS AND OILS

Triglycerides can be stored by organisms as either solid fats or liquid oils depending on the type of faBy acid
they possess. As saturated faBy acids have straight chains, they can be packed more 1ghtly together, which
means more intermolecular forces can form between the chains. This increases the mel1ng temperature of
the triglyceride, meaning triglycerides with saturated faBy acids will exist as solid fat at room temperature.
Unsaturated faBy acids have kinked chains and are packed more loosely, with fewer intermolecular forces
between the chains. This results in a lower mel1ng point, so they exist as liquid oil at room temperatures.

The storage of triglycerides as fats or oils is determined by an organism’s physiology and environment. FaBy
acids need to be as a liquid within 1ssues to allow them to be u1lised by cells, but should also be packed as
1ghtly as possible to maximise storage. Warm-blooded mammals (endotherms) will tend to produce more
saturated fa$y acids – as their higher core body temperatures can keep these faBy acids liquid. However,
cold-blood animals (or those living in colder climates) will tend to produce a rela1vely higher propor1on of
unsaturated faBy acids – as saturated fats would likely solidify. This is why cold-water fish are an excellent
source of polyunsaturated fats that are essen1al to human diets (omega-3 and omega-6 oils). Plants cannot
control their internal temperatures and so predominantly produce unsaturated fa$y acids. However, plants
found in warmer climates (tropical plants) will produce more saturated faBy acids than temperate plants.

COMPARISON: FATS VERSUS OILS

FATS OILS Dietary Fats:
Found in animals Found in plants Meats
(endotherms) (and fish oils) Cheese
Saturated Unsaturated Milk
faBy acids faBy acids Eggs
Chains are straight Chains are kinked
and 1ghtly packed and loosely packed Dietary Oils:
Solid at room Liquid at room Canola Oil
temperatures temperatures Avocados
Higher mel1ng Lower mel1ng Nuts
point than oils point than fats FaBy fish
TRANS FATS
Unsaturated faBy acids can exist in two isomeric forms. Most unsaturated
faBy acids produced by organisms are cis-isomers, whereby the hydrogen
atoms aBached to the carbon double bond are on the same side (causing cis
a kink). However, unsaturated faBy acids can also be trans-isomers, when
the hydrogen atoms aBached to the carbon double bond are on different
sides. This will not cause the hydrocarbon chain to kink, meaning that the
trans-faBy acids have similar proper1es to saturated fats. These trans-fats
are not typically produced by living organisms (except ruminants) and are
instead produced by industrial cooking prac1ces to improve the shelf life.
Trans

LIPID FUNCTIONS
The different types of lipids serve different func1ons within cells, due to the differences in their proper1es:
1. Triglycerides func1on as a long-term energy storage molecule and also are effec1ve thermal insulators
2. Phospholipids play a structural role in cells by forming a primary component of all cellular membranes
3. Steroids may func1on as signalling molecules by binding to intracellular receptors (e.g. sex hormones)

1. TRIGLYCERIDES
In animals, triglycerides are stored within a subcutaneous layer of 1ssue known as adipose Essue. This
1ssue layer func1ons as both a means for thermal insula1on and a source of energy (long-term). Fats have
a very low level of thermal conduc1vity and so have a very limited capacity to conduct heat. Consequently,
they are very effec1ve insulators. Many marine mammals will possess an especially thick layer of adipose
1ssue (blubber) in order to reduce the amount of heat lost to the water and also to increase its buoyancy.

Triglycerides can also be u1lised as an energy storage op1on instead of carbohydrates.

These lipids have key proper1es that make them beBer at storing the energy long term:
• Solubility: Triglycerides are non-polar and insoluble in water (harder to transport)
• Osmosis: Triglycerides will create less osmo1c pressure in cells (beBer for storage)
• DigesEon: Triglycerides are harder to digest than carbohydrates (less accessible)
• ATP ProducEon: Triglycerides will produce roughly twice as much energy per gram

2. PHOSPHOLIPIDS
Phospholipids are the primary component of cell membranes because they
are amphipathic (have hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions). Phospholipids
consist of a phosphate group connected to two faBy acid chains by a central
glycerol molecule. As a phosphate group is polar, it forms a head region that
orientates away from the faBy acid tails. In cells, phospholipids form bilayers,
with phosphate heads facing out into the aqueous solu1ons, whilst the faBy
acid tails face in to hold the bilayer together (via hydrophobic associa1ons). Lipid Bilayer

3. STEROIDS
Steroids are derived lipids composed of four fused carbon rings. Because they are non-polar, they can pass
through the phospholipid bilayer and will commonly be u1lised as signalling molecules (hormones). Some
examples of steroids include the sex hormones – oestradiol (released by ovaries) and testosterone (testes).