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tOne:concept
ualandt
heor
eti
cal
issues
Theor
eti
calf
ramewor
ksandconcept
s:cl
assi
fyi
ngr
egi
mes
1.
1TheconceptandCl
assi
fi
cat
ionofr
egi
mes
I
npol
i
ticalsci
ence,
aregi
mei
susual
l
ydef
inedasasetofr
ulesandnor
msdet
ermi
ning
how pol
i
ticswor
ksi
nacount
[Link]
ulesmi
ghtbef
ormall
i
keaconst
it
uti
onal
pr
ovi
si
oni
nFr
ancet
hataf
fai
rst
hepr
esi
denti
sel
ect
edf
orf
ivey
ear
sori
nfor
mall
i
kea
t
radi
ti
oni
nUni
tedKi
ngdom t
hatmai
ntai
nst
hatt
hemonar
chcannotv
etobi
l
lsev
en
t
hought
echni
cal
l
yshe/
hei
sal
l
owedt
[Link]
ulesdef
ini
ngar
egi
mespeci
fyt
he
wor
kingsofi
tspol
i
ticali
nst
it
uti
ons(
thegov
ernment
,legi
slat
ure,
cour
ts…)
.Howev
ert
he
t
erm usual
l
yhas negat
ive connot
ati
on l
i
ke f
asci
str
egi
me,t
he phr
ase Ger
many
’s
democr
ati
cregi
mesoundsunsound.
I
npol
i
tics,
aregi
mei
sasy
stem ofgov
ernmentt
hatdet
ermi
nesaccesst
opubl
i
cof
fi
ce,
andt
heext
entofpowerhel
dbyof
fi
cial
[Link]
egi
memeansasetofr
ules,
whet
herf
ormal
ori
nfor
mal
,det
ermi
ningacount
ry'
spol
i
tics(
forexampl
e,ar
ulesay
ingt
hati
fonewant
s
t
orul
eademocr
acy
,theymustwi
nfr
eeandf
airel
ect
ions)
.
Ar
egi
mei
sasetofr
ulesdet
ermi
ningpol
i
ticsi
nacount
[Link]
ulesar
eusual
l
yqui
te
st
abl
e.A gov
ernmenti
sagr
oupofpeopl
erul
i
ngacount
[Link]
ernment
schange
si
gni
fi
cant
lymor
eof
tent
hanr
egi
mes.
I
n cont
empor
aryacademi
c di
scour
se,t
he t
erm "
regi
me"i
s used I
tref
erst
o"an
i
nter
medi
atest
rat
um bet
weent
hegov
ernment
,whi
chi
sresponsi
blef
orday
-to-
day
deci
si
on-
maki
ng and can be changed r
elat
ivel
y easi
l
y,and t
he st
ate,whi
ch
encompasses a compl
ex bur
eaucr
acyt
asked wi
th a wi
de r
ange ofcoer
civ
e and
admi
nist
rat
ivef
unct
ions.
"Ingl
obalst
udi
esandi
nter
nat
ionalr
elat
ions,t
heconceptof
r
egi
mei
sal
sousedt
onamei
nter
nat
ionalr
egul
ator
yagenci
es(
Ani
nter
nat
ionalr
egi
me
i
sthesetofpr
inci
ples,nor
ms,r
ulesandpr
ocedur
est
hati
nter
nat
ionalact
orsconv
erge
ar
[Link]
egi
mesgui
deandst
ruct
urei
nter
act
ionsbet
weeni
nter
nat
ionalact
ors)
,
whi
chl
i
eout
sideoft
hecont
rol
ofnat
ional
gov
ernment
s.
Pol
i
ticalr
egi
mes can be cl
assi
fi
ed i
ntot
wo br
oad cat
egor
ies democr
ati
c and
aut
hor
it
ari
an(
aut
ocr
ati
c,di
ctat
ori
al,andt
otal
i
tar
ian)
.Regi
mescanbecat
egor
izedi
nto
sev
eralov
erl
appi
ngdi
mensi
[Link]
nst
ance,howmuchf
reedom t
her
egi
meal
l
ows.A

1
keysi
mil
ari
tyacr
ossal
lregi
mesi
sthepr
esenceofr
uler
sofbot
hfor
malandi
nfor
mal
i
nst
it
uti
ons,
whi
chi
nter
actdy
nami
cal
l
ytoadaptt
ochangest
othei
renv
ironment
.
I
ndemocr
ati
cregi
mes,agov
ernmenti
nst
it
uti
onor
igi
nat
esf
ormf
reeandf
airel
ect
ions
whi
l
eci
vi
lli
ber
ti
es(
speech,r
eli
gion,associ
ati
on…)andpol
i
ticalr
ight
sar
erespect
ed.
The key char
act
eri
sti
cs ofpol
i
tics ar
e peopl
e’
s abi
l
ityt
o peacef
ull
y change t
he
gov
ernmentusi
ngt
heel
ect
ionpr
ocess.
I
nsuchr
egi
mesar
echar
act
eri
zedbyt
her
uleofl
aw,wher
elawsappl
yequal
l
ytoal
l
ci
ti
zens,i
ncl
udi
nggov
ernmentof
fi
cial
s.I
nademocr
acy
,ci
ti
zenshav
ether
ightt
o
par
ti
cipat
einf
reeand f
airel
ect
ions,wher
etheycanv
otef
orr
epr
esent
ati
vesand
l
eader
sinacompet
it
ivepr
[Link]
egi
mest
ypi
cal
l
ymai
ntai
napol
i
ticalsy
stem
t
hatensur
esmul
ti
plepol
i
ticalpar
ti
escancompet
eforpower
,ref
lect
ingt
hepol
i
tical
pl
ural
i
sm wi
thi
nthesoci
ety
.Addi
ti
onal
l
y,democr
aci
espr
ior
it
izet
hepr
otect
ionofci
vi
l
l
i
ber
ti
es,suchasf
reedom ofspeech,assembl
y,andr
eli
gion,whi
char
efundament
al
r
ight
sguar
ant
eedbyt
hest
[Link]
eat
ureofdemocr
ati
cregi
mesi
sthesepar
ati
onof
power
s bet
ween t
he execut
ive,l
egi
slat
ive,and j
udi
cialbr
anches ofgov
ernment
,
ensur
ingt
hatnoonebr
anchhol
dst
oomuchpowerandt
hateachcanactasacheckon
t
heot
her
[Link]
esofdemocr
ati
cregi
mesi
ncl
udet
heUni
tedSt
ates,wher
epoweri
s
di
vi
dedi
ntof
eder
alandst
atesy
stems,andGer
many
,whi
chf
eat
uresapar
li
ament
ary
democr
acywi
thast
rongf
ocusonhumanr
ight
[Link]
erm democr
acycanhav
eposi
ti
ve
connot
ati
ons,butaccor
dingt
opol
i
ticalsci
ent
istSamuelHut
ingt
oni
tisi
mpor
tantt
o
r
ecogni
zedemocr
acysi
mpl
yasasy
stem ofgov
ernmentwi
thf
reeandf
airel
ect
ionst
o
hol
dleader
saccount
abl
[Link]
abl
econt
empor
aryv
iewpoi
ntondemocr
acyi
sRober
t
Dahl
'
sint
roduct
ionof"
pol
yar
chy
"whi
chi
snot
abl
eforbei
ngcont
est
abl
eandi
ncl
usi
ve.
I
nanaut
hor
it
ari
anr
egi
me,r
uler
sdonotor
igi
nat
efr
om f
airandf
reeel
ect
ionbutr
each
powerv
iaot
hermeans(
elect
ionr
iggi
ng,coup,r
evol
uti
on,her
edi
tar
ysuccessi
onor
appoi
ntmentbyt
her
uli
ngol
i
gar
chy
).Var
iousf
ormsofr
epr
essi
on(
dismi
ssalf
rom wor
k,
i
mpr
isonment
,exi
l
e,assassi
nat
ion)ar
eusedagai
nstpol
i
ticalopponent
[Link]
vi
lli
ber
ti
es
ar
erest
ri
ctedt
opr
event
edopponent
sreachi
ngpower
.Yett
hegov
ernmentdoesnot
f
orcepeopl
etopar
ti
ci
pat
epol
i
tical
l
ythr
oughst
imul
atedshowsofsuppor
t,andpeopl
e
noti
nter
est
edi
npol
i
ticsar
elef
tal
one.
I
n such r
egi
mes ar
e sy
stems i
n whi
ch poweri
s hi
ghl
y cent
ral
i
zed,and of
ten

2
concent
rat
edi
nthehandsofasi
ngl
eleaderorasmal
lel
i
tegr
oup.I
naut
hor
it
ari
an
r
egi
mes,pol
i
ticalopposi
ti
on i
s of
ten suppr
essed,wi
th di
ssent
ing v
oices si
l
enced
t
hrough t
act
icssuch ascensor
shi
p,i
mpr
isonment
,orv
iol
[Link]
i
ticalf
reedoms,
i
ncl
udi
ngf
reedom ofspeechandt
hepr
ess,
areusual
l
yrest
ri
ctedort
ight
lycont
rol
l
edby
t
hegov
ernment
.Whi
l
eel
ect
ionsmayoccuri
nsomeaut
hor
it
ari
ansy
stems,t
heyar
e
f
requent
lynei
therf
reenorf
air
,wi
thout
comesmani
pul
atedt
osecur
ethedomi
nanceof
t
her
uli
ngel
i
teandmai
ntai
nthei
rhol
donpower
.Pol
i
ticalsci
ent
istJuanLi
nzst
atest
hat
anaut
hor
it
ari
angov
ernmentl
acksbot
hpol
i
ticalpl
ural
i
sm andpol
i
ticalmobi
l
izat
[Link]
st
atest
hatanaut
hor
it
ari
anr
egi
mespeci
fi
cal
l
yhasv
aguel
i
mit
sonexecut
ivepoweri
n
or
dert
ogi
vemor
econt
rolt
otheexecut
ivebr
[Link]
nst
ance,Russi
ademonst
rat
es
char
act
eri
sti
csofaut
hor
it
ari
ani
sm byhol
dingel
ect
ions,
butt
hesear
eheav
il
ycont
rol
l
ed,
wi
thsi
gni
fi
cantr
est
ri
cti
onspl
acedonopposi
ti
onpar
ti
esandcandi
dat
es,andmedi
a
out
let
soper
ati
ngunderst
atei
nfl
[Link]
mil
arl
y,Chi
naexempl
i
fiesanaut
hor
it
ari
an
r
egi
mewher
etheCommuni
stPar
tymai
ntai
nsst
ri
ctcont
rolov
ert
hepol
i
ticalsy
stem,
cur
tai
l
s ci
vi
lli
ber
ti
es,and l
i
mit
sfr
eedom ofexpr
essi
on t
o ensur
eit
s domi
nance.
Anot
hernot
abl
eexampl
eist
heRomanEmpi
reunderJul
i
usCeaserwhi
chhadahi
ghl
y
cent
ral
i
zedgov
ernmentt
hatt
ransf
ormedt
heRepubl
i
cofRomet
otheRomanEmpi
re.
An aut
hor
it
ari
an r
egi
me has "
a concent
rat
ion ofpoweri
nal
eaderorel
i
te not
const
it
uti
onal
l
yresponsi
blet
othepeopl
e".
1.
[Link]
standi
ngdemocr
acyanddemocr
ati
csy
stem
Concept
ualf
ramewor
k:meani
ngofdemocr
acyanddemocr
ati
csy
stem

Democr
acyi
sa'
mant
ra'
ter
m andassuchi
tseemsobv
ioust
hatev
ery
bodyunder
stands
whati
tis al
labout
.St
ri
ctl
y speaki
ng,t
her
e ar
e concept
ualand met
hodol
ogi
cal
di
ff
icul
ti
esi
nunder
standi
nganddef
ini
ngdemocr
acy
.Int
hiscase,onedi
ff
icul
tyi
n
def
ini
ngdemocr
acyar
isesf
rom t
hef
actt
hatpol
i
tical
syst
emsar
einacont
inual
stat
eof
ev
olut
[Link]
ngst
hati
sinconcei
vabl
eint
hepol
i
ticalcl
i
mat
eofoneper
iodofhi
stor
y
becomenotmer
elypossi
blei
nanot
her
,butsogener
all
yaccept
edt
hatt
heyar
etaken
f
orgr
ant
ed.

Peopl
ecanempl
oyt
het
erm democr
acyt
ocov
erany
thi
ngandev
ery
thi
ngt
heyr
egar
das

3
desi
rabl
e,andt
her
ear
eev
ensomewhousei
ttocov
eranyt
hingt
heyt
hinkundesi
rabl
e.
I
tist
hisv
erypopul
ari
tyoft
het
erm t
hatmakesdemocr
acyadi
ff
icul
tconceptt
o
under
[Link]
erm meansany
thi
ngt
oany
one,
iti
sindangerofbecomi
ngent
ir
ely
meani
ngl
[Link]
nst
ance,f
orMar
xist
sand l
i
ber
tar
ian communi
stsi
n democr
ati
c
sy
stem t
her
eisnosepar
ati
onbet
weent
he'
rul
ers'andt
he'
rul
ed'andassuch,t
hey
descr
ibet
hei
rownsy
stemsaspeopl
esdemocr
aci
es;andt
hesy
stem t
heydecr
yas
'
bour
geoi
s di
ctat
orshi
p'
.On t
he cont
rar
y,mostWest
ern democr
aci
es deny t
hat
communi
stsy
stemsar
edemocr
ati
cint
hesensei
nwhi
cht
heyappl
ythet
erm t
o
t
hemsel
ves.

Et
ymol
ogi
cal
l
y,t
hewor
ddemocr
acyi
sder
ivedf
rom t
woGr ds:demos and
eekwor
kr
atos,whi
chmeanscommonpeopl
eandr
ule(
legi
ti
mat
epowert
orul
e)r
espect
ivel
y.I
n
t
hiscaset
hewor
ddemocr
acyr
efer
stot
hei
deaofr
ulebyt
hepeopl
eorgov
ernmentby
t
hepeopl
e.

Thel
exi
conordi
cti
onar
ydef
ini
ti
onoft
het
erm ent
ail
sthatdemocr
acyi
sast
ateof
gov
ernmenti
nwhi
chpeopl
ehol
dther
uli
ngpowerei
therdi
rect
lyori
ndi
rect
lyt
hrough
t
hei
rel
ect
ed r
epr
esent
ati
[Link]
dingl
y,democr
acy embr
aces t
he pr
inci
ples of
equal
i
ty,i
ndi
vi
dualf
reedom andoppor
tuni
tyf
ort
hecommonpeopl
e,ast
hosewho
act
ual
l
y wi
eld pol
i
ticalpower
.Mor
eov
er,t
he def
ini
ti
on ent
ail
s,among ot
her
s,i
n
democr
ati
csy
stem,st
ate poweri
nvol
vescompr
omi
se and bar
gai
ning i
n deci
sion-
maki
ngpr
ocessi
nademocr
ati
csy
stem.

Democr
acyi
sagov
ernmentbyt
hepeopl
einwhi
chsupr
emepoweri
svest
ed
i
nthepeopl
eandexer
ciseddi
rect
lybyt
hem ori
ndi
rect
lybyt
hei
rel
ect
ed
r
epr
esent
ati
ves.

Fr
om t
heper
spect
iveofpar
ti
cipat
ion,democr
acycanbeexpl
ainedas,t
hemobi
l
izat
ion
ofconst
it
uentgr
oups ar
ound t
he i
ssues and pr
obl
ems ofcommon concer
n,t
he
or
gani
zat
ionoff
orumsf
ort
heexpr
essi
onofal
ter
nat
ivev
iewsont
hei
ssues,andt
he
i
mpl
ement
ati
onofdeci
sion-
maki
ngpr
ocedur
esbasedonmaj
ori
tyr
[Link]
dingt
o

4
t
hisdef
ini
ti
on,si
ncet
hepr
act
icalest
abl
i
shmentofdemocr
acydependsoni
ndi
vi
dual
ci
ti
zens’par
ti
ci
pat
ion,wi
thouti
tis di
ff
icul
ttoi
nfl
uence gov
ernmentdeci
sions or
pol
i
ciesf
orj
ustandf
airpubl
i
cwel
far
[Link]
acyi
nrel
ati
ont
opubl
i
cwel
far
eisa
r
ati
onal
wayofunder
standi
ngt
her
oleofpol
i
tical
par
ti
cipat
ioni
npubl
i
cdeci
sion-
maki
ng.
I
deal
l
y,i
tisbasedont
heconv
ict
iont
hatal
lpeopl
ear
eval
uabl
easi
ndi
vi
dual
s,t
hatt
hey
hav
einal
i
enabl
eri
ght
s,andt
hatt
heser
ight
smustbedef
endedandpr
eser
ved-notby
meansofi
ronhandedt
yrant
s,butbymeansofpeopl
e'
sdemocr
acy
.

St
atesman,suchasAbr
aham Li
ncol
n(f
ormerUSpr
esi
dent
)def
ineddemocr
acyas"
….
gover
nmentoft
hepeopl
e,byt
hepeopl
eandf
ort
hepeopl
e."I
nthi
scase,
gov
ernmentof
t
hepeopl
erepr
esent
sthesour
ceofl
egi
ti
macyaswel
lasofgov
ernmentof
fi
cial
sis
f
rom not
hingbutt
hepeopl
e,wher
easgov
ernmentbyt
hepeopl
eimpl
i
est
hei
deaof
publ
i
cpar
ti
cipat
ioni
nthegov
ernmentpr
ocessandgov
ernst
hemsel
[Link]
siswhatwe
cal
lpopul
arsel
f-
gov
ernment
.Gov
ernmentf
ort
he peopl
eref
erst
othe i
dea t
hat
gov
ernmentof
fi
ci
alsshoul
dactf
ort
headv
ant
ageandaccor
dingt
othei
nter
estoft
he
peopl
e.

Democr
acycanal
sobeconcei
vedast
hei
nst
it
uti
onal
i
zat
ionoff
[Link]
democr
acyi
sasetofi
deasandpr
inci
plesaswel
laspr
ocedur
esandpr
act
icesabout
humananddemocr
ati
cri
ght
s,andf
reedoms. I
nthi
scase,i
tref
erst
othepr
ocessof
or
gani
zi
ngagenci
est
hatcanwat
cht
her
espectofr
ight
sandf
reedoms,
thesi
gni
ngand
r
ati
fi
cat
ionof i
nter
nat
ionalt
reat
iesandconv
ent
ionsandi
ntr
oduct
ionoft
heser
ight
s
andf
reedomsi
nthef
undament
all
awofast
[Link],
inst
it
uti
onal
i
zat
ionoff
reedom
i
spossi
blebyt
heappl
i
cat
ionofconst
it
uti
onalgov
ernment
,humanr
ight
sandequal
i
ty
bef
orel
aw andt
hel
i
ke.I
nthi
sregar
d,f
reedom meansr
esponsi
bil
i
tyt
odoi
nli
newi
th
nat
ional
int
erestandt
henanswer
abl
eforone’
sact
ionsandi
nact
ions.

Democr
acyi
sasetofi
deasandpr
inci
plesaswel
laspr
ocedur
esand

5
 pr
act
icesabouthumananddemocr
ati
cri
ght
s,andf
reedoms

I
naddi
ti
on,democr
acyi
sapeacef
ulr
esol
uti
onofconf
li
ctbyappl
yi
ngt
hev
aluesof
t
oler
ance (
bot
h v
ert
ical and hor
izont
al)
,cooper
ati
on,compr
omi
se,consensus,
pr
agmat
ism,ci
vi
li
ty,[Link]
ati
cval
uesar
einst
rument
stor
esol
ve
conf
li
ctpeacef
ull
y

Mor
eov
er,democr
acyi
sani
deol
ogyt
hatcal
l
sforpeopl
etoel
ectt
hei
rgov
ernmentand
hol
dthatgov
ernmentaccount
abl
etot
hem v
iael
ect
ions.

DI
MENSI
ONSANDDEFI
NINGFEATURESOFDEMOCRACY
 Democr
acyasaWayofLi
fe

Democr
acyi
sawayofl
i
vingandwor
kingt
oget
heri
npeacef
ulandaccept
abl
eway
[Link]
i
deal
sofdemocr
acy
,themanagementofone’
sownaf
fai
randci
ti
zen’
sresponsi
bil
i
tyi
n
sel
f-gov
ernmentar
evi
talel
ement
s.I
nthi
scase,t
her
esponsi
bil
i
tyofci
ti
zensf
orsel
f-
gov
ernmenti
simpl
ement
edbyt
heappl
i
cat
ionofdemocr
ati
cet
[Link],ci
ti
zensar
e
expect
edt
oconcei
veandappl
ydemocr
ati
cet
hicsf
orsuccessf
ulsel
f-gov
ernance.
Democr
ati
cet
hicsi
sasetofv
aluesandat
ti
tudest
hati
snecessar
yforsel
f-gov
ernment
.

Democr
acyasaFor
m ofGov
ernment

Democr
acyi
saf
orm ofgov
ernmentor
gani
zedi
naccor
dancewi
tht
hepr
inci
plesof
popul
arsov
erei
gnt
y,pol
i
ticalequal
i
ty,popul
arconsul
tat
ion,and maj
ori
tyr
ule and
mi
nor
it
yri
ght
s,andt
hel
i
[Link]
inci
plesar
ebr
ief
lydescr
ibedbel
ow.

 Popul
arsov
erei
gnt
yref
erst
othei
deat
hatt
heul
ti
mat
epoweri
svest
edi
nal
ladul
t
ci
ti
zens (
cit
izens who ar
einal
egalage-maj
ori
ty)
.Whi
l
e pol
i
ticalequal
i
ty
denot
est
henot
iont
hatal
ladul
tci
ti
zenshav
ethesameoppor
tuni
tyasev
ery
ot
heradul
tci
ti
zent
opar
ti
cipat
einapol
i
ticaldeci
sion-maki
ngpr
[Link]
s,
equal
i
tyi
nal
lspher
eofpar
ti
cipat
ioni
rr
espect
iveofcol
or,sex,l
anguage,et
hni
c
gr
oup,pol
i
ticaloutl
ook,r
eli
gion,andt
hel
i
ke.I
tcanal
sobedescr
ibedasone

6
 per
son-one-v
[Link]
s,al
lvot
esar
eequal
l
ycount
[Link]
e,i
tref
erst
othei
dea
t
hatt
hev
oteofev
eryadul
tci
ti
zenhasequal
wei
ght
.
 Popul
arconsul
tat
ionr
efer
stot
hear
ti
cul
ati
onpubl
i
cint
erest
.Assuch,t
her
ear
e
t
wor
equi
rement
sregar
dingt
hisconcept
.Fi
rst
,publ
i
cof
fi
cial
shav
etoknow
pol
i
cies t
hatt
he peopl
e wi
sh t
o be adopt
ed and enf
orced v
iai
nst
it
uti
onal
machi
ner
[Link],af
teri
dent
if
ying t
he pr
efer
ences oft
he peopl
e,publ
i
c
of
fi
cial
shav
etoputt
hesepr
efer
encesi
ntopr
act
ice.

 Maj
ori
tyr
uleandmi
nor
it
yri
ght
s:meanst
hei
deat
hatr
ecei
vest
hel
argernumber
ofv
otesshal
lpr
evai
l
.Howev
er,t
hisdoesnoti
mpl
ythev
iewsandr
ight
soft
he
mi
nor
it
yshoul
dbesuppr
essedori
gnor
ed,
rat
hershoul
dber
espect
ed.

Popul
arsov
erei
gnt
yimpl
i
est
hei
deat
hatt
heul
ti
mat
eandsupr
eme
poweri
svest
edi
nthehandsoft
hepeopl
e.
 Democr
acyasasy
stem ofGov
ernment

Though t
he t
erm democr
acy i
s used t
o descr
ibe t
he Uni
ted St
ates sy
stem of
gov
ernmentandt
hosesy
stemsofWest
ernEur
opewhosecl
aimst
oitar
erecogni
zedby
each ot
hert
o be v
ali
d,t
her
eis st
il
lpl
ent
yofr
oom f
ordi
ver
gentv
iews and f
or
mi
sunder
standi
ngofwhati
simpl
i
edbyt
hewor
[Link]
,wi
thi
nthi
sfr
amewor
k,i
tis
possi
blet
o pr
ovi
de a mi
nimum def
ini
ti
[Link] such,democr
acy i
s a sy
stem of
gov
ernment
,and/
orassetofi
nst
it
uti
onst
hatf
ulf
il
latl
eastt
woessent
ialr
equi
rement
s.
Thesear
e:
I
tmustbeabl
etoel
i
cit(
get
)asaccur
atel
yaspossi
blet
heopi
nionofasmany
peopl
easpossi
bleonwhoshal
lbet
hei
rrepr
esent
ati
vesandonhow acount
ry
oughtt
obegover
[Link],asami
nimum,uni
ver
salsuf
frage,pol
i
tical
par
ti
es,andt
heor
gani
zat
ionoff
reev
oti
ngi
nuncor
ruptel
ect
ionsatr
elat
ivel
y
f
requenti
nter
val
sar
eindi
spensabl
e.
I
tmustpr
ovi
deway
sofensur
ingt
hatt
hosechosenbyt
hepubl
i
cdoi
nfactwhat
t
heel
ect
orat
ewant
sthem t
odoort
hatt
heycanber
epl
acedi
ftheydonot
,ev
en

7
 bet
weenel
ect
[Link]
ulf
il
lmentoft
heser
equi
rement
sent
ail
smet
hodsof
super
visi
ngt
hewor
kofgov
ernment
s,andkeepi
ngt
hem i
nconst
antcont
actwi
th
publ
i
copi
[Link]
ff
erent
ly,t
hepr
ocessofgov
ernmenti
nademocr
acyi
s
v
ital
l
yadi
aloguebet
weengov
ernmentandpeopl
[Link]
fect
ivenessoft
he
di
aloguedependsuponnat
ionalhabi
tsandci
rcumst
ancesaswel
lasont
heki
nd
ofmachi
ner
ybywhi
cht
hecont
act
sar
emai
ntai
[Link]
ctat
orscanachi
evepower
byt
heuseofr
egul
arel
ect
oralmachi
ner
y,butt
heyt
henmai
ntai
nthemsel
vesi
n
powerei
therbymani
pul
ati
ngpubl
i
copi
nioni
nthei
rfav
ororbyi
gnor
ingor
r
epr
essi
ngt
hei
rfr
eeexpr
essi
on.

Moder
nDemocr
aci
eshav
eev
olv
edanumberofcompl
exi
nst
it
uti
onsi
nor
dert
oful
fi
ll
t
her
equi
rement
sofademocr
ati
csy
stem.I
nthi
scase,
asst
atescomet
opl
aymor
eand
mor
eimpor
tantr
olesi
nnat
ional
aff
air
s,t
hei
rnumberandcompl
exi
tyar
eincr
easi
[Link]
i
nst
ance,upt
othemi
ddl he19th cent
eoft ury
,mostoft
hel
i
feofci
ti
zenswasnott
he
concer
noft
hest
ate,
butoft
hel
ocalcommuni
ty,
thel
andl
ord,
andt
heempl
oyerandt
he
f
ami
l
yinwhi
chhe/
shel
i
vedorwor
ked,t
oget
herwi
th. Wi
tht
heemer
genceoft
he
moder
nst
ate,
vastsoci
alandeconomi
cser
vices,
li
ket
ranspor
tandheal
thser
vices,
the
cont
rolofwor
kingcondi
ti
ons,
educat
ionalser
vices,
andt
hel
i
ke,
hav
egr
ownupawhol
e
gamutofor
gani
zat
ionsonbot
hnat
ionalandl
ocall
evel
stosuper
visegov
ernment
cont
rol
l
edser
vices,
suppl
yandr
ecei
vei
nfor
mat
ionongov
ernmentpol
i
ciesandt
oexer
t
pr
essur
eongov
ernmentdepar
tment
s.

Despi
tet
hef
actt
hatt
hesecanhel
ptomai
ntai
ncont
act
sandt
omakegov
ernment
s
r
esponsi
vet
opubl
i
copi
niononspeci
fi
cissues,i
tisdi
ff
icul
ttoascer
tai
nwi
thany
accur
acywhatpubl
i
copi
nioni
sreal
l
yoncompl
exandt
echni
calmat
ter
[Link]
hat
canbeobt
ainedt
hrought
hemachi
ner
yofpol
i
ticalpar
ti
esandel
ect
ions,r
angesf
rom
act
ivesuppor
ttopassi
veacqui
escence,
int
hef
orm ofav
otef
ort
her
epr
esent
ati
veofa
par
ty,
oft
eni
nignor
anceofwhatt
hei
rleader
sreal
l
yst
andf
or.I
nthi
scase,
fori
nst
ance,
t
her
ear
eci
ti
zenswhoei
therdonotknow whatt
othi
nkordonotcar
emuchf
ort
he
abov
equest
[Link]
tht
hei
rownsect
ionali
nter
est
sandcar
e

8
l
i
ttl
eaboutt
hepossi
bleef
fect
sont
hei
rcount
ryasawhol
[Link]
suadedby
i
ngeni
ousl
ywor
ded quest
ionsand bypr
opaganda t
o answeri
n a dozen ormor
e
cont
radi
ctor
yway
sanyquest
ionsdesi
gnedt
oel
i
citt
hei
rwi
[Link]
mil
ardi
ff
icul
ti
es
ar
isei
nal
mostev
eryf
iel
dinwhi
chpol
i
ticali
nst
it
uti
onsnow adayaf
fectt
hel
i
vesof
ci
ti
zens.

Theabov
edi
ff
icul
ti
eshav
ebeent
oal
argeext
entr
esponsi
blef
ort
hepr
esentt
endency
t
oregar
dtr
adi
ti
onaldemocr
ati
ctheor
iesofconsentandpar
ti
cipat
ion,ordi
alogue,as
unr
eal
i
sti
candout
-of
-dat
[Link]
empor
arypassi
onf
orobser
vingandmeasur
ing
st
ati
sti
cal
l
y,byopi
nionpol
l
sandot
herdev
ices,
howpeopl
ebehav
ehasl
edt
oconcl
ude
t
hatt
hemassoft
hepeopl
epr
efer
spassi
veacqui
escencet
oact
iveconsentandr
efuses
t
oacceptt
her
esponsi
bil
i
tiesofpar
ti
cipat
ion.I
nthi
sregar
d,JohnSt
uar
tMi
l
linhi
s
Repr
esent
ati
veGover
nment
,publ
i
shedi
n1864,
succi
nct
lyput
s:
Somepeopl
e,al
bei
t,mayv
otewi
thoutgi
vi
nganyr
ati
onalconsi
der
ati
ont
oani
ssue,
and
of
ten appar
ent
lywi
thoutanyser
ioust
houghtatal
l
,and t
hatf
ew maygi
ve cl
ear
expl
anat
ionsofwhyt
heyv
oteast
[Link]
enwhenv
oter
sar
ewel
linf
ormed,t
hei
r
knowl
edger
einf
orcesi
ncl
i
nat
ionsmor
ethani
tcont
ri
but
est
oaf
reedeci
[Link]
er,
manycont
empor
aryst
udent
sofpol
i
ticsr
ejectt
hecl
assi
calassumpt
ionaboutt
heneed
f
orci
ti
zenpar
ti
cipat
ionatbesti
nadequat
eandatwor
sti
deal
i
sti
candov
eropt
imi
sti
c.
Theyar
guet
hatdemocr
acyt
hati
sasy
stem ofdeci
sion-maki
ngi
nwhi
chgov
ernment
s
ar
emor
eorl
essr
esponsi
vet
othepr
efer
encesoft
hepeopl
e,mayseem t
ooper
atewi
th
ar
elat
ivel
ylowl
evelofci
ti
zenpar
ti
cipat
[Link],
iti
sinaccur
atet
osayt
hatoneoft
he
necessar
ycondi
ti
onsf
ordemocr
acyi
sext
ensi
veci
ti
zenpar
ti
cipat
ion.I
tisonl
yinan
i
dealdemocr
acy
,unl
i
kel
ytoexi
sti
nreal
i
ty,coul
dcompl
etepar
ti
cipat
ionbeenv
isaged.
Democr
acyasasy
stem ofgov
ernmentpr
ovi
dest
hemeansofachi
evi
ngwhat
everends
t
hepeopl
eseekt
oachi
eve.

Democr
acyasaMor
alI
mper
ati
ve

Democr
acyi
sabov
eal
lamor
alv
alueori
mper
ati
ve,t
hati
s,abasi
chumanneed,a
necessi
ty,andt
her
efor
eapol
i
ticaldemandofal
lfr
eedom l
ovi
nghumanbei
[Link]
,

9
t
hen,i
sthi
simper
ati
ve?I
tisbasi
cal
l
yaper
manentaspi
rat
ionofhumanbei
ngsf
or
f
reedom,
forabet
tersoci
alandpol
i
tical
order
,onet
hati
smor
ehumanandmor
eorl
ess
egal
i
tar
[Link]
sisasoci
ologi
calf
act
.Inal
lhumansoci
eti
es,peopl
eal
way
sfeelt
he
needt
oimpr
ovet
hei
rmat
eri
alcondi
ti
onsofl
i
feaswel
last
ofeelf
reer
-what
evert
he
r
ealsi
tuat
ionmi
[Link]
sneedbecomesanecessi
ty,
orev
enapol
i
ticaldemandf
ora
new soci
alpr
oject
,whent
hei
rsi
tuat
iondet
eri
orat
es,orwhent
heyar
einaper
iodof
cr
isi
s.
I
n abst
ractt
erms,t
he phi
l
osophi
calormor
alappr
oach t
o democr
acy ex
plai
ns
democr
acypr
imar
il
yasanendr
athert
hanast
heact
ualpol
i
ticali
nst
it
uti
ons,whi
ch
pr
ovi
dedemocr
ati
cmachi
ner
[Link]
ewi
ngdemocr
acyasanendi
sfarol
dert
hant
he
i
nst
it
uti
onalappr
[Link]
sappr
oachi
sst
il
lpr
efer
redbymanymoder
nci
ti
zenswhoar
e
notpr
epar
edt
obeact
ivemember
sofpol
i
ticalpar
ti
es,pr
essur
egr
oups,andot
her
pol
i
ticalorpr
ofessi
onalor
gani
zat
ionsv
iawhi
chpol
i
ticalandeconomi
cint
erest
sand
opi
nionsar
eexer
cisedandi
nfl
uencei
sexer
[Link]
ti
zensseedemocr
acyi
nsi
mpl
er
t
[Link]
heydonotconsi
deri
tassomuchapr
ogr
am r
atherasawayofl
i
fe.
Thei
nst
it
uti
onalandmor
alappr
oachesar
enecessar
yforsust
ainabi
l
ityandact
ual
i
tyof
t
heconceptofdemocr
acy
.Fori
nst
ance,i
fthei
nst
it
uti
onalappr
oachi
sconsi
der
edi
n
i
sol
ati
on,
itbecomesst
ati
candpur
posel
[Link]
n,i
fthemor
alappr
oachi
sconsi
der
ed
i
nisol
ati
on,i
teasi
l
ybecomesescapi
storut
opi
an.I
nthi
scase,i
tisi
mpossi
blet
o
di
scov
erhowf
arpr
inci
plesandi
deasar
ereal
i
sti
cunl
essandot
herwi
seat
tempt
sar
e
madeact
ual
l
ytoputt
hem i
ntopr
act
ice.I
naddi
ti
ont
othi
s,t
hedef
ini
ti
onofdemocr
acy
byi
tsel
fisv
agueandmor
esubj
ect
ivet
handef
ini
ti
onsi
nter
m ofi
nst
it
uti
[Link]
i
nst
ance,descr
ibi
ngdemocr
acyasasoci
etywi
thl
i
ber
tyandj
ust
icef
oral
l
,orasaway
ofl
i
fei
nasoci
etyi
nwhi
cheachi
ndi
vi
duali
sbel
i
evedt
obeent
it
ledt
oanequal
i
tyof
concer
n,orasoci
etyi
nwhi
cht
hepeopl
ethought
ful
l
yresol
vedi
sagr
eement
stosecur
e
al
lci
ti
zens,gi
venogui
dancet
ogov
ernment
sast
ohowsoci
eti
escanbeor
gani
zedt
o
pr
ovi
det
heset
hings.
I
nthi
sregar
d,how canphr
asesl
i
keequal
i
tyofconcer
norl
i
ber
tyandj
ust
icef
oral
lis
t
ransl
atedi
ntoact
s?How canmeasur
esi
ntendedt
opr
oduceequal
i
tybepr
event
ed
f
rom mer
elyi
mposi
nguni
for
mit
y,whi
chi
ssur
elyt
henegat
ionofl
i
ber
ty?How much
l
i
ber
tycanbeper
mit
tedt
oindi
vi
dual
sorgr
oupswi
thoutcr
eat
ingt
hedangert
hatt
hey

10
wi
l
luset
hesel
i
ber
ti
est
odepr
iveot
heri
ndi
vi
dual
sandgr
oupsoft
hei
rli
ber
tyandsoon
ar
esomeoft
hedi
ff
icul
ti
est
oact
ual
l
yanswert
[Link]
edonotl
oveeachot
heri
n
obedi
encet
oact
sofpar
li
ament
.

Democr
acyasaSoci
alPr
ocess

Li
keanyhumanconst
ruct
ion,
democr
acyi
snev
erper
fect
.Iti
sacont
inuouspr
ocessof
pr
omot
ingequalaccesst
ofundament
alhumanr
ight
sandci
vi
lli
ber
ti
esf
oral
l
.Byt
his,
wemean(
1)t
hef
undament
alr
ight
sofhumanper
sont
oli
feandsecur
it
y;(
2)f
reedom of
r
eli
gion,
assembl
y,expr
essi
on,
press,
associ
ati
on,
etc.
;(3)economi
c,soci
al,
andcul
tur
al
r
ight
s-t
hei
deaher
ebei
ngt
hatdemocr
acyi
smeani
ngl
esswhent
hebasi
cneedsoft
he
popul
ati
onar
enotsat
isf
ied;and(
4)t
her
ightofpeopl
es,i
ncl
udi
ngt
hei
nal
i
enabl
eri
ght
t
osel
f-
det
ermi
nat
[Link]
vent
hisassoci
ati
onwi
tht
hequestf
orf
reedom andabet
ter
soci
alor
der
,theconceptofdemocr
acyi
sincompl
etewi
thoutr
efer
encet
othenot
ionof
f
undament
alhumanr
ight
[Link]
acyi
sthatsoci
alpr
ocesst
hroughwhi
chpeopl
e
st
ri
vet
oexpandt
heser
ight
s,t
oget
herwi
thpol
i
ticalspacenecessar
yforpr
omot
ingand
def
endi
ngt
hem ef
fect
ivel
[Link]
ralt
othi
spr
ocessi
sthei
deat
hatagoodpol
i
ticalor
der
i
stheonei
nwhi
cht
hest
atei
scapabl
eofsat
isf
yingt
heneedsofi
tsci
ti
zens.

Democr
acyasaPol
it
ical
Pract
ice
I
nthi
sinst
ance,democr
acyr
efer
stoaspeci
fi
cmannerofor
gani
zi
ngandexer
cisi
ng
poweri
naccor
dancewi
thcer
tai
nuni
ver
sal
nor
msandpr
inci
[Link]
ear
etwol
evel
sat
whi
cht
hiscanbeexami
ned:t
hel
eveloft
hepr
inci
plest
hemsel
ves,andt
hatoft
he
i
nst
it
uti
ons and pr
ocedur
es ofgov
ernmentwhi
ch ar
e compat
ibl
e wi
th democr
ati
c
pr
inci
[Link]
inci
plesar
eet
obedi
scussedi
nthenextl
[Link]
acyasa
pol
i
ticalpr
act
icehast
odowi
thexi
stenceofi
nst
it
uti
onsandpr
ocedur
esofgov
ernment
,
whi
char
ecompat
ibl
ewi
thdemocr
ati
cpr
inci
[Link]
orm ofr
ulebasedonconsentof
t
hegov
erned,democr
acyr
equi
rest
hosei
nst
it
uti
onsl
i
kel
ytohel
pthepeopl
eful
fi
llt
hei
r
deepestaspi
rat
ions,
whi
l
emaxi
mizi
ngt
hei
rpr
esencei
nthepol
i
[Link]
dingl
y,
democr
acyi
sinconcei
vabl
ewi
thoutf
reeandf
airel
ect
ions,r
epr
esent
ati
vegov
ernment
,
andani
ndependentj
udi
ciar
[Link]
eov
er,t
hesei
nst
it
uti
onsar
eunl
i
kel
ytoper
for
mina

11
sat
isf
act
orywayi
ntheabsenceofv
ibr
antci
vi
lsoci
etyandaf
reepr
ess.

WhatDemocr
acyi
snot
?
Oneadv
ant
ageofl
ooki
ngatdemocr
acyi
nter
msofi
nst
it
uti
onsi
sthati
tcanhel
pust
o
av
oidsomecommonmi
sunder
standi
ngsabouti
t.I
nthi
scase,democr
acymaybe
sy
nony
mformaj
ori
tyr
ule.I
not
herwor
ds,democr
ati
csy
stemsr
elyonuni
ver
saladul
t
suf
frageand maj
ori
tyr
[Link]
sisso whengener
alagr
eementorcompr
omi
sei
s
i
mpossi
blebet
weendi
ff
eri
ngconcept
ionsofhow soci
etyoughtt
obeor
gani
zed.I
tis
ev
identt
hatmaj
ori
tyr
ulecanbeef
fect
iveonl
ywi
that
aci
torexpl
i
citconsentoft
he
mi
nor
it
[Link]
er,
whenmi
nor
it
iescomet
obel
i
evet
hatt
hemaj
ori
tyi
sunf
air
lyt
reat
ing
t
hem,t
heywi
l
lsoonerorl
aterceaset
oagr
eei
nmaj
ori
tyr
ule.I
nthi
scase,t
hemer
e
exi
stenceofmaj
ori
tyr
uleandel
ect
iondoesnothav
eanyguar
ant
eeunl
esst
hev
iewsof
bot
hmi
nor
it
yandmaj
ori
tyar
eputf
air
lyt
otheel
ect
orat
e.I
nthi
scase,anel
ect
ion
cannotber
egar
dedasar
eli
abl
etestofopi
nion,
andsubsequent
lyademocr
ati
cfacade
i
scr
eat
edr
athert
hant
her
eal
i
ty.I
nAf
ri
canst
ates,f
ori
nst
ance,whenmi
nor
it
iest
ryt
o
chal
l
enget
hemaj
ori
tyr
ulebecauseoft
her
easonment
ionedabov
e,gov
ernment
shush
opposi
ti
on mov
ement
sbybanni
ng t
hem v
ia put
ti
ng t
hei
rleader
sin pr
ison,orby
r
est
ri
cti
ngf
reedom ofexpr
essi
[Link]
ri
canst
atescannotaf
for
dthe
demandsofopposi
ti
onpar
ti
[Link]
sispar
tl
ybecauseoft
hef
actt
hatt
heyar
est
il
l
i
nexper
iencedandt
heyhav
enopol
i
tical
,economi
coradmi
nist
rat
iver
esour
cest
hatcan
enabl
ethem t
otackl
eal
lpr
act
icalandur
gentpr
obl
[Link]
ngspeci
fi
cal
l
y,t
her
ear
e
noef
fect
ivedemocr
ati
cgov
ernment
s;nor
esponsi
blegi
veandt
akepr
ocess,
absenceof
t
oler
ati
ngmi
nor
it
yvi
ew,
absenceofoppor
tuni
ti
esf
orf
ull
andf
reedi
scussi
on,
andsoon.
Thepossi
bler
eper
cussi
onsoft
hissi
tuat
ioni
ncl i
ude,nt
eral
i
a:
 Opposi
ti
onpol
i
tical
par
ti
esbecomeweakandf
ragi
l
e.
 Theoccur
renceofcoupd'
etat
,
 Theoccur
renceofr
evol
uti
on
 Absenceofst
abl
egov
ernment
 Theexi
stenceoft
hreatofdi
stur
banceandanar
chy
 Absenceofdev
elopment
 Ci
vi
lwarandt
hel
i
kes.

12
Mostoft
hesecount
ri
esar
ebackwar
dandi
noppor
tuneeducat
ional
l
y,pol
i
tical
l
y,and
economi
cal
l
ywi
thahi
ghpr
opor
ti
onofi
l
li
ter
ateci
ti
zenswhoar
epol
i
tical
l
ynai
veand
cannotbeexpect
ed t
o di
scr
imi
nat
ebet
weent
hepossi
bleandt
hei
mpossi
ble,t
he
r
esponsi
bleandt
hei
rr
esponsi
[Link]
des,t
heyhav
enoty
etacqui
redanyset
tl
ed
nat
ionall
oyal
ti
esandhav
ewr
est
ledwi
thet
hni
cconf
li
ctaswel
laspol
i
ticalopposi
ti
ons
unl
i
kewest
erndemocr
aci
[Link]
erndemocr
aci
esar
ether
esul
tofal
ongt
rai
ningi
n
sel
f-gov
ernment
,whi
chhasent
ail
edt
hegr
owt
hov
ert
hey
earofcompl
exmachi
ner
yto
saf
eguar
dindi
vi
dualr
ight
sandf
reedomsofopi
nion,
andt
opr
otectt
hei
rci
ti
zenagai
nst
i
njust
iceofst
[Link]
eor
gani
zedpol
i
ticalpar
ti
es,pr
essur
egr
oups,af
reepr
ess,
anuncor
ruptci
vi
lser
vice,i
ndependentcour
tsofl
aw,[Link]
lthi
srequi
resl
ong
exper
iencesaswel
lasahi
ghl
evel
ofeducat
ional
andsoci
aldev
elopment
.

 FUNDAMENTALPRI
NCI
PLESANDVALUESOFDEMOCRACY

Fundament
alPr
inci
plesandVal
uesofDemocr
acy

Justt
oremi
ndy
ouwhenwedi
scussdemocr
acyasapol
i
ticalpr
act
icewesai
dthatt
he
i
deacoul
dbeunder
stoodatt
wol
evel
s:att
hel
evelofexi
stenceofi
nst
it
uti
onsand
pr
ocedur
esofgov
ernment
.Thef
oll
owi
ngsar
esomeoft
hemostf
requent
lyment
ioned
uni
ver
sal
pri
nci
plesofdemocr
ati
cgov
ernance.

1)Thei
deat
hatl
egi
ti
mat
epoweroraut
hor
it
yemanat
esf
rom t
hepeopl
e,who
exer
cisei
tdi
rect
lyt
hroughpopul
arassembl
i
es,orbydel
egat
iont
hroughel
ect
ed
assembl
i
es,el
ect
edexecut
ivesorsomeot
hermodesofr
epr
esent
ati
on. By
r
epr
esent
ati
on i
tis el
ect
ed gov
ernment
,incl
usi
ve suf
frage,ef
fect
ivel
ocal
democr
acy
,fr
eepol
i
tical
par
ti
esandcr
edi
bleel
ect
ion.
2)Theconceptofr
uleofl
aw,whi
chmeanst
hatpower
,shoul
dnotbear
bit
rar
y,and
t
hati
tsexer
cisemustbeci
rcumscr
ibedbyasetofr
uleswi
thr
espectt
oit
sli
mit
s
andmodeofoper
ati
[Link]
dingt
othi
spr
inci
ple,t
hepar
amet
ersofst
ate
powerandt
hespher
eofgov
ernment
alaut
hor
it
yar
ewel
ldef
inedandl
i
mit
edso
ast
oal
l
owspacef
orot
hersoci
etalact
[Link]
i
mit
ingt
her
eal
m ofgov
ernment
al
r
egul
ati
on,
democr
acyr
ecogni
zest
hatt
her
ear
ehumanact
ivi
ti
es,
whi
char
ebest
deal
twi
thbyot
heri
nst
it
uti
onssuchast
hef
ami
l
yorv
olunt
aryassoci
ati
ons.

13
 Mor
eov
er,t
heconceptofr
uleofl
aw i
mpl
i
est
hatwi
thi
nthepubl
i
cspher
e,
ev
ery
thi
ngi
sdonei
nconf
ormi
tywi
tht
hel
aw,andt
hatt
her
eexi
stsaj
udi
cial
sy
stem capabl
eofensur
ingt
hei
mpar
ti
ali
tyofl
awaswel
last
hepr
otect
ionoft
he
r
ight
sandl
i
ber
ti
esofi
ndi
vi
dual
sandgr
[Link]
ciali
ndependence,Absenceof
cor
rupt
ion,
predi
ctabl
eenf
orcement
,andper
sonal
int
egr
it
yandsecur
it
y.
3)Thepr
inci
plet
hatt
her
uler
sar
echosenbyandar
eaccount
abl
etot
hepeopl
e.
Theel
ementofchoi
cei
mpl
i
est
hatdemocr
acyi
sagov
ernmentbyt
heconsentof
t
hegov
erned,
whomustappr
ovet
her
uler
sbywhi
cht
heyar
eadmi
nist
[Link]
e
i
swher
ethenot
ionofaccount
abi
l
itycomesi
n:t
her
uler
sar
eaccount
abl
etot
he
peopl
efort
hei
ract
s.
4)Ther
ightofci
ti
zenst
opar
ti
cipat
eint
hemanagementofpubl
icaf
fai
rst
hrough
f
ree,
transpar
entanddemocr
ati
cel
ect
ions;
decent
ral
i
zedgov
ernment
alst
ruct
ure;
andnongov
ernment
alor
gani
zat
ions(
NGOs)
.Thi
simpl
i
est
her
ightt
oor
gani
ze
f
reel
y,pol
i
ticalpl
ural
i
sm,and t
he i
ndependence oft
he or
gani
zat
ion ofci
vi
l
soci
etyf
rom t
hest
[Link]
ect
oral
par
ti
cipat
ion,
civ
icengagementandci
vi
lsoci
ety
.
5)Ther
ightofpeopl
etochangeagover
nmentt
hatnol
ongerser
vest
hei
rint
erest
s,
ort
her
ightt
orecal
l
.Peopl
ehav
ether
ightofcal
l
ingbackandr
epl
acet
hose
gov
ernment
swhoactagai
nstt
hewi
l
loft
hepeopl
[Link]
ojust
ice,pol
i
tical
equal
i
ty,basi
cwel
far
e,genderequal
i
ty,economi
cequal
i
ty,soci
algr
oupequal
i
ty,
ci
vi
lli
ber
ti
es,f
reedom ofmov
ement
,oft
hepr
ess,ofr
eli
gion,ofexpr
essi
on,of
associ
ati
onandassembl
y.
6) Tol
erancer
efer
stot
heaccommodat
ionofdi
ver
gentv
iews,bel
i
eves,cul
tur
es
l
anguages et
c.I
tmeans accept
ing and r
espect
ing ot
herpeopl
e'
s cust
oms,
bel
i
efs,opi
nionset
[Link],t
oler
ancei
sver
yimpor
tantf
ort
hepeacef
ulco-
exi
stenceofpeopl
[Link]
eranceenabl
esy
out
ounder
standt
hatot
herpeopl
ehav
e
t
her
ightt
ohol
dopi
nions,
bel
i
efsandposi
ti
onst
hatar
edi
ff
erentf
rom y
ourown.
Maj
ori
tyandmi
nor
it
yri
ght
srunsmoot
hlywhent
oler
ancei
smai
ntai
ned.I
na
democr
ati
csy
stem whi
l
ethedeci
sionsofmaj
ori
typr
evai
lat
Li
7) ber
ty:democr
acyasasy
stem ensur
esf
reedom t
othepossi
bledegr
eef
oral
lthe
peopl
esot
hatt
heycoul
ddev
elopt
hei
rowncapaci
tyandpot
ent
ial
.Li
ber
tyr
efer
s
t
othef
reedom enj
oyedbyci
ti
zenst
oleadt
hei
rli
fei
nthei
rownway
.Ther
ightt
o

14
 l
i
ber
tyi
sfoundedont
het
heor
eti
cal
just
if
icat
iont
hatasoci
etyi
schar
act
eri
zedby
v
aluepl
ural
i
[Link]
ngsmakechoi
cesi
nal
lthei
rli
vesandt
hechoi
ceand
pr
efer
enceofi
ndi
vi
dual
svar
[Link]
e,whatani
ndi
vi
dualbel
i
evesast
he
r
ightki
nd ofwor
shi
pis di
ff
erentf
rom anot
her
;the associ
ati
on,whi
ch an
i
ndi
vi
dualseekst
o be a member
,di
ff
ersf
rom ot
her
[Link] t
he bestwayof
accommodat
ingal
lthesedi
ver
sei
nter
est
sisguar
ant
eei
ngt
her
ightt
oli
ber
tyt
o
t
hei
ndi
vi
dual
.

Li
ber
tyi
sfr
eedom f
rom al
lki
ndsofr
est
ri
cti
onsexceptt
hoset
hat
ar
ecl
ear
lydef
inedandi
mposedbyt
hel
[Link]
ber
tyi
mpl
i
est
heuse
andf
ullr
eal
i
zat
ionofone'
spot
ent
iali
nal
ljust
if
iedandl
egalway
s
i
ncl
udi
ngacqui
ri
ngusef
ulknowl
edgeest
abl
i
shhomeandbr
ingup
chi
l
dren.
Li
ber
tyi
soneof
t
hef
undament
alr
ight
sofi
ndi
vi
dual
[Link]
orr
evol
uti
onsoft
hewor
ld,par
ti
cul
arl
y,t
he
Amer
icanandFr
enchResol
uti
ons,wer
eli
ber
alr
evol
uti
ons.I
nEt
hiopi
a t
her
ightt
o
l
i
ber
tyi
sment
ionedi
nar
ti
cle17oft
heFDREconst
it
uti
on.

Nooneshal
lbedepr
ivedofhi
sorherl
i
ber
tyexceptonsuch
gr
oundsandi
naccor
dancewi
thsuchpr
ocedur
esasest
abl
i
shed
byl
aw(
Art
.17)
.

8)Maj
ori
tyRul
ewi
thMi
nor
it
yRi
ght
s:democr
acyr
equi
resgov
ernmentdeci
sionst
o
bebaseduponmaj
ori
tyr
ule.I
nademocr
acypeopl
eusual
l
yacceptdeci
sionsmade
bymaj
ori
tyoft
hev
oter
sinaf
reeel
ect
[Link]
eofmaj
ori
tyal
soi
mpl
i
est
hatl
aws
enact
edi
nthel
egi
slat
urer
epr
esentt
hewi
l
loft
hemaj
ori
tyofl
awmaker
[Link]
peopl
eel
ectl
awmaker
sandt
husacceptl
awsmadebyt
[Link]
er,democr
acy
r
equi
resat
tent
ionandconcer
nforwi
thhol
dingt
hepossi
blet
yrannyofmaj
ori
ti
es.A
deci
sionmadebymaj
ori
tymaynotwi
nthesuppor
tofal
l
.Inpr
act
icall
i
fe,
unani
mit
y

15
ofagr
eementonal
lissuesi
srar
elyachi
[Link]
ldi
sful
lofpeopl
ewi
th
di
ver
genti
nter
est
sandv
iews.I
nademocr
acy
,deci
sionsar
emadeont
hebasi
sof
t
hei
nter
estandt
hewi
l
lofmaj
ori
ty,anddeci
sionsmadebymaj
ori
ti
espr
evai
lov
er
t
hatoft
hemi
nor
it
[Link]
sthei
deat
hatr
ecei
vesl
argenumberofv
otes,bei
tin
el
ect
ion,
inpar
li
ament
,ori
nlocalcommuni
tymeet
ings,
prev
ail
sov
ert
hosef
ewwho
di
sagr
[Link]
ert
hel
ess,
democr
acyi
snotasy
stem i
nwhi
cht
hev
iewsandt
her
ight
s
ofmi
nor
it
iesi
ssuppr
essedori
gnor
ed.I
tisi
mpor
tantt
onot
ethatani
deat
hathasa
mi
nor
it
ysuppor
ttodaycoul
d,i
fpr
oper
lyaddr
essed,bet
ransf
ormedi
ntoani
deaof
t
hemaj
ori
tyi
nthef
eat
[Link]
e,i
twoul
dbemostun-
reasonabl
etoper
mit
t
hemaj
ori
tyt
opuni
sht
hemi
nor
it
yfori
tsdi
ssentbyt
hreat
sofbodi
l
yhar
m,ex
il
e,or
expr
opr
iat
[Link]
nor
it
iesshoul
dbegi
venwi
tht
her
ightt
ofr
eel
yai
rthei
rvi
ews,
peaceabl
yassembl
eandt
opet
it
iongov
ernmentf
ort
her
edr
essofgr
iev
ances.

9)Account
abi
li
tyandTr
anspar
ency:gover
nmentof
fi
cial
sindemocr
ati
cpol
i
tical
sy
stemsar
eel
ect
edbyt
hepeopl
eand,hencear
eresponsi
blet
othepeopl
e.
Theseof
fi
ci
alsar
eexpect
edt
oacti
nfav
oroft
headv
ant
ageandi
nter
estoft
he
peopl
[Link]
abi
l
ityi
mpl
i
est
hatgov
ernmentof
fi
cial
sar
eanswer
abl
etot
he
deci
sionsandact
stheyt
[Link]
l
urei
ndut
ywi
l
lmakeanof
fi
cial
answer
abl
etoi
t.
Tr
anspar
encyi
mpl
i
esopennessoft
heact
ivi
ti
esofgov
ernmentof
fi
cial
sand
i
nst
it
uti
onst
othepubl
i
[Link]
sagov
ernmentof
fi
cialandi
nst
it
uti
onsi
na
democr
acynot
if
yorpubl
i
cizekeydeci
sionst
heymadet
othepubl
i
[Link]
ingt
he
t
ranspar
encyofgov
ernmentof
fi
cial
srequi
res t
he gr
ant
ing oft
he r
ight
sto
f
reedom ofspeechandpr
essf
ort
hef
ull
-f
ledgedexchangeandt
ransmi
ssi
onof
i
nfor
mat
ionf
rom medi
ainst
it
uti
onswhi
char
eownedpr
ivat
elyorbyt
hest
ate.

10)Mul
ti
par
tysyst
em:t
heexi
stenceofdi
ff
erentcompet
ingpol
i
ticalpar
ti
esi
san
i
mpor
tantf
eat
ureofademocr
ati
cpol
i
ticalsy
[Link]
i
ticalpar
tyi
sagr
oup
ofi
ndi
vi
dual
swi
thbr
oadcommoni
nter
est
swhoar
eor
gani
zedt
onomi
nat
e
candi
dat
esf
orof
fi
ce,wi
nanel
ect
ion,conductgov
ernmentand det
ermi
ne
publ
i
cpol
i
[Link]
valandcompet
ingpol
i
ticalpar
ti
esmakeel
ect
ionsmeani
ngf
ul.
Theexi
stenceofsev
eralpol
i
ticalpar
ti
esgi
vesv
oter
stheoppor
tuni
tyt
oel
ect

16
 amongcandi
dat
esandal
ter
nat
ivepol
i
cies.I
naddi
ti
on,pol
i
ticalpar
ti
est
hatdi
d
nothol
dthehel
m ofpol
i
ticalpowerser
veasl
oyalopposi
ti
[Link]
sby
cr
it
ici
zi
ngandcomment
ingongov
ernmentpol
i
ciesandact
ionsoft
hepar
tyi
n
power
,theycan make t
hose i
n powermor
eresponsi
ble,t
ranspar
entand
account
abl
etot
hepeopl
e.

WAYSOFEXERCI
SINGDEMOCRACY
[Link]
rect(
Pur
e,I
deal
)Democr
acy

Di
rectdemocr
acy
,whi
chsomet
imesal
sor
efer
redaspur
eori
dealdemocr
acy
,isa
sy
stem ofsel
f-
gov
ernancei
nwhi
chal
lci
ti
zenspar
ti
cipat
eindeci
sion-
maki
ngpr
ocess.
I
ntoday
'spol
i
ticssucht
ypeofdemocr
acycanonl
ybeexer
cisedi
nar
easofsmal
l
numberofpopul
ati
onasf
orexampl
einkebel
es,school
s,orr
uralv
il
lages.I
ndi
rect
democr
acy
,member
sofcommuni
tymeetatcer
tai
npl
acet
odi
scussi
ssuesandar
ri
ve
atdeci
sionei
therbyconsensusorbymaj
ori
tyv
ote.

Theor
igi
nofdi
rectdemocr
acycanbet
racedbackt
oanci
entAt
hens.I
ntheanci
ent
At
heni
an ci
ty-
stat
e,al
ladul
tmal
e ci
ti
zens meti
n assembl
yand made deci
sions.
At
heni
answer
erul
i
ngt
hemsel
vesdi
rect
lywi
thouti
nter
medi
ari
esofr
epr
esent
ati
ves.
Pol
i
ticalpar
ti
ci
pat
ioni
nAt
hens,
howev
er,
wasnotal
l
-i
ncl
usi
veandopenst
oal
l
.Women,
sl
avesandal
i
enswer
enotconsi
der
edasci
ti
zensandhencewer
enotal
l
owedt
o
par
ti
cipat
eint
heassembl
y.I
nst
ri
ctpar
lance,
theAt
heni
andemocr
acywasnotani
deal
orpur
emodelofdemocr
acy
.Nev
ert
hel
ess,t
heGr
eekexper
imentofdemocr
acyi
s
gener
all
yconsi
der
edt
ohav
epr
ovi
dedi
mpor
tantl
essonf
ort
oday
'swor
[Link]
sispar
tl
y
becauseoft
hef
act
sthat
:
 I
twast
hef
ir
stknownexampl
eofdemocr
acy
,and
 I
twascar
ri
edouti
nci
rcumst
ancest
hatcannev
erber
epeat
ed,whi
ch
makes i
tpossi
blet
o st
udy a much si
mpl
er f
orm of democr
ati
c
gov
ernment
.

17
 Di
rectdemocr
acy
,whi
chsomet
imesr
efer
red,
aspur
eori
dealdemocr
acy
,is
asy
stem ofsel
f-
gov
ernancei
nwhi
chal
lci
ti
zenspar
ti
cipat
eindeci
sion-
maki
ngpr
ocess.

Di
rectdemocr
acy(
pur
edemocr
acy
)isanexer
ciseofdemocr
acy
,inwhi
ch‘
al
lci
ti
zens’
wi
thoutt
hei
nter
medi
aryofel
ect
edof
fi
cial
scanpar
ti
cipat
eindeci
sion-
maki
ngpr
ocess.
I
ntoday
'spol
i
ticssucht
ypeofdemocr
acyi
sfeasi
bleonl
yinr
elat
ivel
ysmal
lnumber
sof
peopl
einl
ocal
i
tiesandi
nsomespeci
ali
nst
ancesofr
efer
endum,pl
ebi
sci
te,i
nit
iat
ive
andr
ecal
latnat
ionall
evel
s.I
nsuchcases,ci
ti
zenscanmeeti
nasi
ngl
epl
acet
o
di
scussi
ssuesandar
ri
veatdeci
sionsbyconsensusorot
herv
oti
ngmechani
[Link]
f
oll
owi
ngsar
esomeoft
hebr
iefdescr
ipt
ionsofdi
rectdemocr
acy
.
 Ref
erendum:ani
mpor
tantbi
l
lpassedbyt
hel
egi
slat
uremustbeputt
o
t
hev
oter
s'f
inal
rat
if
icat
ion.I
ncase,
ifi
tisadopt
edbyt
her
equi
redv
ote,
i
tbecomesal
[Link],
vet
opoweri
sint
hehandofv
oter
s.
 Pl
ebi
sci
te:i
tisasy
nony
m ofr
efer
endum.I
tmeanst
hatanyi
mpor
tant
i
ssuest
hatcannotbesol
vedbyt
hegov
ernmentf
orsomer
easons
shoul
dbedeci
dedbyv
otesoft
hepeopl
e,t
hatmeansl
ett
hedeci
sion
oft
hepeopl
ebef
inal
.
 I
nit
iat
ive:i
tisanar
rangementwher
ebyspeci
fi
ednumberofv
oter
smay
pr
epar
ethedr
aftofl
awandmayt
hendemandt
hatei
therbeadopt
ed
byt
hel
egi
slat
ureorr
efer
redt
othepeopl
eforaccept
anceatagener
al
orspeci
alel
ect
ion.I
fappr
oved by t
he r
equi
red maj
ori
ty,i
tthen
becomesal
aw.
 Recal
l
:meanst
hatv
oter
shav
ether
ightt
ocal
lbackt
hei
rel
ect
ed
r
epr
esent
ati
ves i
n case t
heyar
e notsat
isf
ied wi
tht
hei
rrol
es or
behav
iorandt
henel
ectsomeoneel
sei
nst
ead.

2.I
ndi
rect(
Repr
esent
ati
ve)Democr
acy

Thi
sist
he moder
nty
pe ofdemocr
acyt
hatwe hav
etoday
.In pol
i
ticalpar
lance
democr
acydi
ff
ersf
rom al
lot
herf
ormsofgov
ernmenti
nthati
tpost
ulat
est
hef
ree

18
or
gani
zat
ionsofopposi
ngopt
ions.I
nthi
sregar
d,t
hemi
ningofr
epr
esent
ati
vef
orm of
democr
acyi
sthatt
hewhol
epeopl
ecannotdi
rect
lypar
ti
cipat
eint
hei
rownaf
fai
rsbut
t
hrought
hei
rrepr
esent
ati
ves,whi
char
eper
iodi
cal
l
yel
ect
edbyt
hepeopl
ethemsel
ves.
Thatmeansaf
ew r
epr
esentt
hemany
.Int
hiscase,l
eader
smustmai
ntai
nsome
cont
actwi
thv
oter
ssoast
ost
ayi
npower
.Thi
sinv
olv
essomeor
gani
zedf
orm of
consul
tat
ionwi
tht
hepeopl
easwedi
scussedear
li
[Link]
esent
aton,perse,i
i snoti
n
i
tsel
fguar
ant
eef
ordemocr
acyandmaybenei
therel
ect
ivenordemocr
ati
c.

1.
[Link]
kofGOVERNANCE

Gov
ernancer
efer
stot
hemannerofgov
erni
[Link]
erni
ngofpeopl
eandi
nst
it
uti
ons
(
publ
i
c and pr
ivat
einst
it
uti
ons:st
ate,busi
ness,r
eli
gious i
nst
it
uti
ons,school
…).
Gov
ernancemai
nlyi
nvol
vest
wocr
it
icalel
ement
sandt
hisar
emaki
ngadeci
sionand
i
mpl
ement
ingt
hosedeci
[Link]
oadl
yspeaki
ng,goodgov
ernancei
sthepr
ocessof
deci
si
on-
maki
ngandt
hepr
ocessbywhi
cht
hedeci
sionsar
eimpl
ement
ed.

Howev
er,gov
ernancei
tsel
fisanambi
guoust
erm wi
thnost
andar
dmeani
[Link]
nit
s
wi
desense,gov
ernancecanbev
iewedast
hepr
ocessesormannerbywhi
chacount
ry
i
smanaged orst
eer
ed t
owar
dst
heachi
evementofsoci
etalgoal
s.I
nthi
sregar
d,
gov
ernmenti
snotsy
nony
mouswi
thgov
[Link]
l
egov
ernmentcanbedef
inedas
t
heaut
onomousaut
hor
it
yoft
hest
ater
egi
meencompassi
ngcomponent
ssuchast
he
‘
machi
ner
yofgov
ernment
’,gov
ernancedescr
ibesacompl
expr
ocessofgov
erni
ng,
i
nvol
vi
nganet
wor
kofpr
ivat
eandpubl
i
cact
orsandst
ruct
ures.

Asast
art
ingpoi
nt,Fukuy
amadef
inesgov
ernanceasagov
ernment
'sabi
l
ityt
omake
andenf
orcer
ulesandt
odel
i
verser
vices,r
egar
dlessofwhet
hert
hatgov
ernmenti
s
democr
ati
cornot
.Gov
ernancei
saboutt
heper
for
manceofagent
sincar
ryi
ngoutt
he
wi
shesofpr
inci
pal
s,andnotaboutt
hegoal
sthatpr
inci
pal
sset
.Thegov
ernmenti
san
or
gani
zat
ionwhi
chcandoi
tsf
unct
ionsbet
terorwor
se;gov
ernancei
sthusabout
execut
ion,
orwhathast
radi
ti
onal
l
yfal
l
enwi
thi
nthedomai
nofpubl
i
cadmi
nist
rat
ion,
as
opposedt
opol
i
[Link]
hor
it
ari
anr
egi
mecanbewel
lgov
erned,
justasademocr
acy
canbemal
-admi
nist
[Link]
heot
herhand,
Rot
ber
g(2014)st
ressest
heact
ivi
ti
esofa

19
gov
ernment
,suchast
hepr
ovi
sionofpubl
i
cgoodst
oit
sci
ti
[Link]
fi
cal
l
y,accor
ding
t
oRot
ber
ggoodgov
ernancei
sassoci
atedwi
thdel
i
ver
abl
est
hatar
edemandedby
ci
ti
zens,
suchassecur
it
y,heal
th,
educat
ion,
wat
er,
enf
orcementofcont
ract
s,pr
otect
ion
ofpr
oper
tyr
ight
s,pr
otect
iont
otheenv
ironment
,andt
heci
ti
zens’
abi
l
ityt
ovot
e.

Gov
ernancei
s:

 Theway“
…poweri
sexer
cisedt
hroughacount
ry’
seconomi
c,pol
i
tical
,andsoci
al
i
nst
it
uti
ons.
”TheWor
ldBank’
sPRSPHandbook.

 “
Theexer
ciseofeconomi
c,pol
i
tical
,andadmi
nist
rat
iveaut
hor
it
ytomanagea
count
ry’
s af
fai
rs atal
llev
els.I
tcompr
ises mechani
sms,pr
ocesses,and
i
nst
it
uti
ons,
thr
oughwhi
chci
ti
zensandgr
oupsar
ti
cul
atet
hei
rint
erest
s,ex
erci
se
t
hei
rlegal
right
s,meett
hei
robl
i
gat
ions,
andmedi
atet
hei
rdi
ff
erences.
”UNDP.

 “
Thesy
stems,pr
ocessesandpr
ocedur
esputi
npl
acet
ost
eert
hedi
rect
ion,
managementandaccount
abi
l
ityofanor
gani
zat
ion.
”Bi
rmi
ngham Ci
tyCounci
l
.

 Most
lyi
tis connect
ed wi
th anypr
oposal
simpr
ovi
ng gov
ernmentact
ivi
ti
es,
gov
ernmentmeasur
es,andal
soencour
agi
ngandi
mpr
ovi
ngt
heper
for
manceof
t
heeconomy
,and,
indeed,
soci
etyasawhol
e.

Wor
ldBanki
n1992i
nit
sRepor
t,def
inedGoodGov
ernanceast
hemanneri
nwhi
ch
poweri
sexer
cisedi
nthemanagementofacount
ry‘
seconomi
candsoci
alr
esour
cesf
or
dev
elopment
.Good gov
ernance i
sthe pr
ocess measur
ing how publ
i
cinst
it
uti
ons
conductpubl
i
caf
fai
rsandmanagepubl
i
cresour
cesandguar
ant
eet
her
eal
i
zat
ionof
humanr
ight
sinamanneressent
ial
l
yfr
eeofabuseandcor
rupt
ionwi
thduer
egar
dfor
t
her
uleofl
[Link]
eal
i
zat
ionofhow gov
ernment
smeett
heov
eral
lneedsoft
hei
r
ci
ti
zens,r
egar
dlessofaf
fi
li
ati
ons,soci
alst
atuses,orgr
oups,i
stheconceptofgood
gov
[Link]
ernment
’saccount
abi
l
ityandr
esponsi
bil
i
tiest
oit
sci
ti
zensar
emet
sat
isf
act
ori
l
[Link]
erni
ngpol
i
ciesar
eful
l
yappl
i
edi
nor
dert
oaccompl
i
shdev
elopment
,
asopposedt
opr
efer
ent
ial
pol
i
ciest
hatf
avoronl
ycer
tai
ngr
oups.