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From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor

World Heritage Site, Cambodia

Article in Journal of Environmental Science & Engineering · March 2016

DOI: 10.17265/2162-5298/2016.03.004

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Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering A 5 (2016) 141-155
doi:10.17265/2162-5298/2016.03.004
D DAVID PUBLISHING

From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A

Case Study of Angkor World Heritage Site, Cambodia

Hang Peou1, Ishwaran Natarajan2, Hong Tianhua2 and Delanghe Philippe3

1. APSARA National Authority, Ampil Commune, Siem Reap, Cambodia
2. International Centre on Space Technologies for Natural and Cultural Heritage (HIST) under the Auspices of UNESCO, Institute
of Remote Sensing and Digital Earth (RADI), Beijing 100094, China
3. UNESCO Office in Phnom Penh, National Office to Cambodia, Phnom Penh 29, Cambodia

Abstract: The World Heritage Committee of UNESCO has called for a strategic commitment from its States Parties to strengthen
links between heritage conservation and sustainable development. Fulfilment of this commitment will require integration of the
conservation of sites with the sustainable use and management of natural resources in a larger area beyond the boundaries of sites.
Identification and demarcation of areas for conserving World Heritage sites and sustainable development of broader regions must
derive from an in-depth knowledge of people-environment relationships. The management of Angkor—an iconic World Heritage site
—has been primarily focused on conservation and restoration of monuments within the boundaries of the site. However, that focus is
now shifting towards addressing environmental, social and economic challenges for sustainable development of the broader
landscape described in this paper as the Angkor ecosystem. Angkor has the potential to demonstrate the application of an ecosystem
approach to sustainable development—advocated under the UN Convention on Biological Diversity. The site could be a laboratory
for new research on cultural ecosystem services as a tool for bridging site conservation to the sustainable development of the Siem
Reap province where the site is located.

Key words: Heritage, ecosystem, tourism, sustainable development.

1. Introduction both cultural and natural OUVs.

Sustainable development captured the imagination
The Convention Concerning the Protection of the
of world leaders following the publication of the
World Cultural and Natural Heritage [1] (hereafter
Report of the World Commission on Environment and
“the Convention”) is dedicated to the conservation of
Development [3]. The concept became integral to
cultural and natural places of Outstanding Universal
international development co-operation with the
Value (OUV). The 21-member, World Heritage
adoption of Agenda 21 by the UN Conference on
Committee (hereafter “the Committee”) decides
Environment and Development (UNCED) held in
whether or not places nominated by States meet
1992 in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. Since then, the
criteria and conditions for satisfying and safeguarding
understanding of the concept of sustainable
OUVs and merit inclusion in the World Heritage List
development and its implications for harmonizing
(hereafter “the List”) [2]. At the time of this writing,
heritage conservation and economic growth has
the List counts 1,031 properties of which 802 are
evolved. At the Rio + 10 summit held in 2002 in
cultural, 197 natural and 32 mixed sites, respectively.
Johannesburg, South Africa, the international
They span across 163 states. Mixed properties are
community of nations agreed that sustainable
those that meet criteria and conditions for conserving
development must find a balance between economic,
environmental and social trajectories of change.
Corresponding author: Ishwaran Natarajan, Ph.D., research
fields: international dimensions of climate change and
Support for these “three pillars” as necessary anchors
sustainable development.
142 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

of sustainable development has been consolidated sustainable development has grown stronger in the
during and after the Rio + 20 Summit, convened in new millennium and permeated discussions convened
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, in June 2012. to mark the commemoration of the 40th anniversary of
Originating 20 years before the international the Convention in 2012 [4]. During the same year the
consensus on sustainable development, the Rio + 20 Summit collated 20 years of lessons learnt to
Convention makes little reference to the latter. A implement sustainable development and adopted “The
search of the latest version of the Operational Future We Want”, firmly placing principles and practice
Guidelines for the Implementation of the Convention of sustainable development at the centre of early 21st
revealed only 4 instances of reference to sustainable century international relations agenda. More recently,
development [2]. The first two are in section 1B, in September 2015, the UN adopted 17 Sustainable
paragraph 6 of the Guidelines which note that the Development Goals (SDGs) covering a wide range of
international community has embraced the concept of environmental and development sectors [5].
sustainable development since the adoption of the In this paper, sustainable development of the
Convention in 1972 and insist that “the protection and Angkor ecosystem which includes the World Heritage
conservation of the natural and cultural heritage are a site but is defined by the boundaries of the watersheds
significant contribution to sustainable development”. of the three main rivers that are critical to the
The other two instances, in Section III.5 and in annex hydraulics of Angkor monuments and heritage (Fig. 1)
5, respectively, invite states to integrate sustainable is explored. Past knowledge and new information
development principles into the management plan for becoming available via a number of on-going projects
properties nominated for inclusion in the List. have been used in highlighting the significance of
Awareness of the need to build mutually beneficial sustainable development of the Angkor ecosystem as
relationships between heritage conservation and an important learning experiment.

Watersheds
Topographical watersheds
Siem Reap: 836.74 km2
Pourk: 935.62 km2
Rolous: 1,031.84 km2

Fig. 1 The Angkor ecosystem including the World Heritage site comprising the Angor Wat (central rectangle), Bantei Srey
(square north of Angkor Wat) and Rolous (square south of Angkor Wat), the three watersheds that are central to Angkor
hydraulics, and the modern Siem Reap city that has developed south of the Angkor World Heritage site.
 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor 143
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

Initially, the context and process of inscription of range of remedial measures to ensure the protection
Angkor as a World Heritage site is described. Next, and conservation of monuments within the area
information on the efforts of the Cambodian authority designated as World Heritage [7].
responsible for the management of Angkor, namely Angkor’s World Heritage status is justified on
APSARA, to integrate site conservation into criteria (i-iv) [2]. Together, these four criteria
sustainable use of water, forests and biodiversity as recognize the artistic and architectural masterpieces
well as the interests of visitors to and residents within that are unique to the site and the site’s historical links
the Angkor ecosystem is provided. Institutional to the Indian sub-continent and the influences it had
challenges facing the sustainable development of the on political and cultural development of Southeast
Angkor ecosystem over the next decade are Asia. Nature-culture linkages in the evolution of
highlighted. Articulation of research on tourism and Angkor that had attracted interests of other heritage
hospitality within a framework of cultural ecosystem experts a decade earlier were however, not considered
services is encouraged. An ecosystem approach to the during the urgency to nominate Angkor as World
management and sustainable development of Angkor Heritage in 1991. The International Union of
is likely to re-open debates on the extension of the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN,
boundaries of the World Heritage site since many currently known as The World Conservation Union),
important components of the historical Angkor which is the advisory body to the Committee on
civilization remain outside the current boundaries of natural heritage matters had included the Angkor Wat
the site. Focusing on the Angkor ecosystem as the unit National Park in its list of the World’s Greatest
for sustainable development will increase Natural Areas [8]. It was compiled to enable the
nature-culture synergies in the conservation of Angkor UNESCO Secretariat and the Committee to identify
and the implementation of the Convention in natural and mixed sites that may merit inclusion in the
Cambodia [6]. List. On Angkor Wat National Park, IUCN observed:
“While the main attraction of this national park is
2. Angkor World Heritage
the incomparable complex of great temples from the
The fact that Angkor contains OUV of significance Angkor Wat civilization, the wildlife of the 10,000 ha
to humankind has rarely been in doubt. Yet when the site is also significant, including endangered species
Committee inscribed the site on the List in 1992, it such as banteng, Eld’s deer, tiger, Siamese fresh-water
had to waive some conditions for normal inscription crocodile and a wide range of others. It also shows the
of sites. Such a waiver was justified given the typical habitat in which one of the world’s great
importance of Angkor to humanity’s common heritage, civilizations evolved, along with the wildlife which
the high risk at that time that in the absence of World co-existed with the mighty cities. Some of the stone
Heritage status, the site’s integrity and the authenticity carvings show large concentrations of Elephants,
of monuments would further deteriorate and the abundant fish in the Great Lake and the now nearly
urgent need for coordinating international support for extinct Kouprey (the world’s rarest bovine). Criteria
Angkor to address the most critical needs for (ii) plus cultural criteria.”
safeguarding the site. At the time of inscription of The criterion (ii) referred to by IUCN, refers to
Angkor on the List, Cambodia was still recovering natural heritage criterion (ii) which according to the
from long years of war. The Committee declared Operational Guidelines for the Implementation of the
Angkor as World Heritage in Danger, at the same time, Convention of that time was defined as [9]:
it included Angkor in the list in 1992 and called for a “… outstanding, examples representing significant
144 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

ongoing geological processes, biological evolution These changes to the definitions of criteria and
and man’s interaction with his natural environment: as their related conditions of integrity and authenticity
distinct from the periods of the earth’s development, have resulted in many cultural landscapes being
this focuses upon on-going processes in the declared World Heritage. They meet criterion (v)
development of communities, plants and animals, above and represent the “combined works of nature
landforms and marine and fresh water bodies.” and man” described by article 1 of the Convention.
The relationship between humans and their natural Efforts and findings described in the following
environments and outstanding universal values of sections of this paper illustrate that the Angkor
resulting land and seascapes for the implementation of ecosystem is an on-going example of “human
the Convention are themes of continuing debate. Since interaction with the environment”. In shifting its
1996, those debates have led to significant management focus from the conservation of
amendments to the criteria for inclusion of natural and monuments and artefacts within the site to the
cultural heritage properties in the List [10-12]. Natural sustainable development of the larger Angkor
heritage criterion (ii) which IUCN considered ecosystem, APSARA is striving to re-invent and
applicable to the Angkor Wat National Park of 1982 sustain “nature-culture” synergies that have been
has been significantly amended and its contents are central to that ecosystem for well over a millenium.
partly spread across World Heritage criteria (viii) and The challenges of meeting Angkor’s contribution to
(ix) of today [2]: socio-economic expansion and growth at national,
(viii)… outstanding examples representing major provincial and local levels, particularly through the
stages of earth’s history, including the record of life, development of the tourism and hospitality sector in
significant on-going geological processes in the and around the World Heritage site are reaching scales
development of landforms, or significant geomorphic never experienced at any time during the proud history
or physiographic features; of the Khemer people. These challenges and
(ix)… outstanding examples representing APSARA efforts to address them are making Angkor
significant on-going ecological and biological an important learning experiment for demonstrating an
processes in the evolution and development of ecosystem approach to sustainable development.
terrestrial, fresh water, coastal and marine ecosystems
3. Water—Key to a Sustainable Angkor
and communities of plants and animals.
Ecosystem
Reference to “man’s interaction with his natural
environment” in natural criterion (ii) of 1982 used by The Angkor ecosystem is defined by Kulen
IUCN to justify its recommendation of the Angkor mountains in the north and Tonle Sap Lake in the
Wat National Park as a potential mixed World south (Fig. 1). The latter, often referred to as the
Heritage site no longer exists in that form in any of the “Great Lake” is the largest freshwater lake in
World Heritage criteria. However, at present, World southeast Asia. The east-west spread of 2,804.2 km2 is
Heritage criteria (v) recognizes the importance of demarcated by the watersheds of the Pourk, Siem
“human interaction with the environment” as: Reap and Rolous rivers. Pourk and Rolous are natural
(v)… outstanding example of a traditional human rivers. Siem Reap is an artificial water-way, receiving
settlement, land-use or sea-use which is representative water from Pourk via the Bampenh reach, a 60 m wide,
of a culture (or cultures), or human interaction with 300 m long laterite channel constructed in the 9th
the environment especially when it has become century A.D. [13]. Pourk watershed was about 1,652
vulnerable under the impact of irreversible change. km2. But since its diversion the Siem Reap watershed,
 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor 145
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

overlapping that of Pourk, captures a significant and hospitality sector. A growing local and regional
portion of the water from Kulen that would have economy raises land values attracting both investors
otherwise drained into the latter river. The water and speculators.
diversion appears to have been intended to fill one or As the management of the Angkor ecosystem
more of the reservoirs east of the current World increasingly emphasizes sustainable development,
Heritage site [14]. From its earliest days, the Angkor upgrading and managing the Angkor hydraulics has
ecosystem has witnessed human tinkering of water become a central concern (Fig. 4) of APSARA. Water
resources to meet Khemer civilization’s utilitarian, from the Kulen mountain flowing via the three rivers
ritual and spiritual needs. (Fig. 1) into the Great Lake has long been diverted
The three-zone scheme described in some previous and managed for agriculture, maintenance of water
studies is applicable to the Angkor ecosystem (Fig. 2) bodies in temples and monuments and perhaps flood
[14, 15]. A significant part of the drainage zone control [15]. However, more than 8-years of APSARA
includes the fluctuating area seasonally inundated by research on Angkor hydraulics has not unearthed any
the lake. The area of Tonle Sap rises from 3,500 km2 scriptural Khmer reference to major flood or drought
in the dry to 14,500 km2 in the wet season [14]. events, neither do Khmer people remember or recite
During Angkorean times, this massive fluctuation in legends and stories of such events [13]. But others [16]
water levels exposed lands that were productively have argued that decades-long droughts interspersed
used for agriculture. The situation today is different. with intense monsoons probably caused the demise of
The Siem Reap city (town) and its environs where Angkor during 14th and 15th centuries. Military,
tourism and hospitality sector infrastructure and political, religious and trade related changes were also
facilities are concentrated are in the drainage zone contributory to the fall of Angkor [17-19]. More
(compare Figs. 1 and 2), and are susceptible to research on how these different factors interacted with
flooding during annual rains from May to September. one another, particularly from 12th to 14th centuries,
Tourism to Angkor is a major contributor to the to trigger the gradual decline and the ultimate fall of
economy of the province and the nation. Flooding of the Khmer empire is urgently needed.
Siem Reap city can cause significant loss to the APSARA has identified key water-holding and
economy and threaten livelihoods of people. The transporting infrastructure of the Angkor ecosystem
emergence of this city as the international visitor hub (Fig. 5) [20]. Many of the findings of APSARA have
for tourists to Angkor has triggered significant recently been confirmed and further expanded by
changes to the landscape around it. The construction LiDAR surveys [21]. APSARA has invested
of an international airport in Siem Reap in 2004 considerable resources to rehabilitate these structures
accelerated urbanization in and around the city and increase their water holding capacities. The most
(Fig. 3). The demographics of the Angkor ecosystem important water-storage features that have been
today resembles that of other World Heritage sites restored during 2004-2012 are:
like Galapagos (Ecuador) and Venice (Italy) where Reservoirs or “Barays”: these are the largest
visitors per year clearly outnumber residents; the 2012 water-holding structures (Fig. 5). Of the four Barays,
figures for Angkor being 2 million and 300,000, the North and Lolei Barays can hold, at full capacity,
respectively. Increase in resident population in the 5 Million cubic meters (M m3) and 10 Million cubic
area will continue as people from other parts of the meters (M m3) of water, respectively.
country move-in seeking employment and The west (56 M m3) and east (36 M m3) “Barays” are
entrepreneurial opportunities generated by the tourism capable of holding even larger volumes of water. Both
146 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

Fig. 2 Collector, temple and the drainage zones of the watersheds of the Pourk, Siem Reap and Rolous rivers [14, 15].

Fig. 3 Satellite images from 2004 and 2012 on the right-side of the figure show the rapid spread of urbanization in and
around the Siem Reap city; the graph and the pie chart on the left show overall rates of urbanization and percentages of
habitats converted to urban use, respectively, in a 138 km2 area including the city and its immediate environs based on
time-series analyses of satellite images from 1989 to 2013.
 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor 147
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

Fig. 4 The Angkorean hydraulics has now been assigned a central role for the conservation of Angkor World Heritage site
and the sustainable development of the Siem Reap province.

Fig. 5 The larger water holding “Barays” and moats which have been referred to in the text describing the hydraulics of the
Angkor ecosystem, the figure also shows numerous other water-holding structures of various sizes distributed throughout the
ecosystem [20].

north and the west “Barays” have been fully restored forces. But, APSARA studies have shown that water
and the restoration of the other two is well underway. in the moats is integral to the management of water
Moats: the primary function of moats of temples in flow and storage throughout the whole system. The
the Angkor World Heritage site was long thought to larger moats of Angkor Wat and Angkor Thom
be the protection of temple interiors from outside temples can hold 1.5 M m3 and 2 M m3 at full capacity,
148 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

respectively. In temples such as Bantey Srei and Preah Angkor monuments is closely associated with
Khan, moats that hold smaller volumes of water maintenance of ground water at sufficient levels to
occur. prevent excessive drying up of the sandy clay soils on
Ponds, royal basin and smaller water-holding which the foundations of many of the monuments rest.
structures: These abound in many temples: the royal Excessive drying and cracking of the soils could lead
basin of Srah Srang, the five basins within the Neak to collapse of the monuments. Hence, managing the
Pean temple located in the middle of the north “Baray” circulation of water within the Angkor hydraulic
etc.. They can all hold smaller yet important volumes system, especially during the dry season months from
of water. October to April will become as crucial as during the
As APSARA has set about reclaiming some of the wet season when minimizing flood-threat is the
Barays, many of the smaller ponds and basins benefit. primary concern. As referred to earlier, decades long
For example, the north Baray dried up 500 years ago droughts are thought to have been the cause that
and international teams had given up any hope of ever triggered events that led to the demise of Angkor in
restoring it. In 2005, APSARA and Cambodian the 14th and 15th centuries [16]. But supporting
engineers succeeded in restoring the dyke and water evidence that would confirm a higher incidence of
returned to the Baray in 2008. 700,000 m3 in 2008 collapse of monuments during that historical period is
expanded to 3 M m3 in 2009 and reached the lacking. Work now underway using Synthetic
maximum storage capacity of 5 M m3 during Aperture Radar (SAR) technologies under an
2011-2014. The five smaller basins in Neak Pean, the APSARA/International Centre on Space Technologies
island in the middle of the north Baray are connected for Natural and Cultural Heritage (HIST) of China
to the waters in the Baray and are now full throughout project will provide more insights into the
the year. Similarly, west Baray and the Angkor Thom relationships between groundwater levels,
moats are linked via an ancient canal inside the moat. land-subsidence risks and vulnerabilities and stability
As full-storage capacity of the west Baray was of monuments.
restored, it has been possible to keep Angkor Thom
4. Forests, People and Institutional
moat full throughout the year.
Arrangements
When the east Baray and the Lolei Baray are fully
restored, the water holding capacity of all the Barays, Kulen mountains (Phnom Kulen or the “mountain
moats and other smaller basins and structures will be of lychees”) is the birthplace of the Khmer empire [22,
more than 110 M m3. Even without the help of east 23]. The Cambodian Government has the intention to
and Lolei Barays, APSARA effectively mitigated the nominate “Sites of Kulen” as a separate World
flood threat to the Siem Reap city and its immediate Heritage site in the future. However, no part of Kulen
environs during 2012. APSARA estimates that during Mountains was included in the nomination of Angkor
the rainy season of 2012, it diverted nearly 20 M m3 Wat in 1991 that was included in the List in 1992.
of flood waters which would have otherwise Phnom Kulen is a sacred mountain and has several
inundated large parts of the Siem Reap city and its archaeological sites that are well known but much less
environs. Sixteen M m3 were drained into the west visited than the monuments within the Angkor site as
Baray and 2 M m3 into the north Baray, respectively. shown in Fig. 1. More recently, Phnom Kulen
The remaining 2 M m3 were dispersed across Angkor National Park has become the focus of a range of
Thom and Angkor Wat moats. biodiversity conservation and restoration efforts. A
APSARA engineers believe that the stability of recent biodiversity assessment of the Park revealed
 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor 149
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

several interesting findings, for example, the first There is a south-north gradient in increasing
sighting of the Burmese python (Python vittatus) deforestation. Rates of deforestation were at least 1.5
within the Park was reported [24]. Seven IUCN times higher during the period 2000-2014 in
red-listed amphibian and reptile species, including the comparison to that of 1989-2000. Reforestation was
Mekong snail-eating turtle (Malayemys subtrijuga) evident only in about 5% of the area shown in Fig. 6.
and the elongated Tortoise (Indotestudo elongata) In comparison to the deforestation rates in the area
were sighted, mammal species of international shown in Fig. 6, deforestation around the Siem Reap
concern, namely Pileated Gibbons, Indochinese Silver city (the pie-chart in Fig. 3) seems to have been more
Langur and Bengal Slow Loris inhabit the Park and significant. The return of peace and normalcy to the
the number of wild plant species within the Park was country increased visitation to Angkor and the
estimated to be 775. urbanization in and around Siem Reap city. Between
Twenty-five percent of the Park has been estimated 1989 and 2009, 30% of forested area in a 138 km2
to be forested based on Landsat images [24]. A more tract in and around the city shown in Fig. 3 was
recent analyses based on LANDSAT, SPOT and urbanized. Urbanization of croplands was even more
Chinese satellite images of the southern slopes of intense, i.e. 42% of croplands were converted to urban
Kulen mountains (an area of 1,663 km2, 40 m above use.
sea-level and higher, Fig. 6) undertaken by APSARA In 2010, the 400 km2 Angkor World Heritage area
and HIST of China, under a project entitled “Remote contained 112 villages and a total population of
Sensing for Environment of Angkor site (REAS)” has 120,000 inhabitants. Another study conducted in 2007
revealed that 35% of the area is still under forest. estimated the per capita income of the population to

Fig. 6 Forest cover changes in Kulen Mountains from 1989 to 2014, F refers to forested and N to non-forested areas; the
legend from F-F-F to N-F-N indicate directions of change (or the lack of it); the total area mapped and analyzed in the
southern slope of the Kulen Mountains is 1,663 km2.
150 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

be 24-30 US$, far below present international limits of the other. Through twice-a-year meetings, ICC
poverty. A 2007 Angkor Management Plan, a 2010 reviews work undertaken by APSARA and its
Angkor Heritage Management Framework and other international partners and sets priorities for future
tools like risk maps for the World Heritage site are collaboration. As the Committee raised
now being integrated into a new Management Plan conservation-sustainable development links as a
which assigns significant priority to the needs of local priority for implementation during the Convention’s
communities. APSARA has pursued participatory fifth decade [4], the ICC ensured the immediate
approaches for natural resources management and integration of that priority into the work of APSARA
livelihood planning to develop a number of pilot and its international donors and partners at the
projects. Examples include the Run Ta-Ek ecovillage national and site levels.
and community-level tourism planning and
5. Sustainable Development of the Angkor
implementation. Several others are foreseen for
Ecosystem—The Next Decade
implementation in the near future [25]. Engaging local
communities in management and improving their At the twentieth technical session of ICC-Angkor,
socio-economic status is a favoured strategy to link Dr. Jean Marie Le Furt [30] reporting on sustainable
conservation and sustainable development in many development noted: “The second component after
other cultural World Heritage sites too [26, 27]. time is space. One must think on a wider scope, but
The benefits that Angkor tourism development and not to relocate the problems. Think wider……I
planning has brought to local communities had been believe, there is the need to come out of a perspective
questioned by an earlier study that has argued that the only focusing on the site……To think wider will take
conservation of Angkor World Heritage site excluded some time because there is red tape; there are
local inhabitants from their social space [28]. operating modes which do not allow changing gear
Re-thinking old conservation approaches and the straight away. To think wider……about the town at
introduction of new ways to develop Angkor as a the same time, not at a later time. Think about things
living heritage is gaining greater attention now [28]. simultaneously……think about a larger territory that
APSARA has commissioned research and could include the site, the city……think about the
development projects on intangible heritage to allow Tonle Sap lake”.
for the continuing practice of monastic life-styles and The recognition of the importance of the hydraulics
to permit villagers to worship their favourite deities of Angkor has widened thinking of the management
within the World Heritage site. Engagement of the from site to ecosystem scales. The watersheds of the
local communities in planning and implementing three main rivers (Fig. 1) cover an area 7 times the
agricultural and water management activities are size of the World Heritage site. The APSARA-HIST
increasingly preferred to top-down decrees [25]. Project, REAS, referred to earlier aims to build a
APSARA’s effectiveness has been significantly spatial database and 3D simulation and GIS models
strengthened by the International Coordinating (Fig. 7) for an even larger (5,000 km2) area including
Committee (ICC) of Angkor, established almost at the the watersheds and additional areas west and east
same time as the inscription of the site in 1992 [29]. of them. Sustainable development must inevitably
Jointly Chaired by France and Japan, the ICC has extend beyond the spatial scale of World Heritage
been an interlocutor between APSARA and the sites and planning and management must integrate
Cambodian Government on one hand and the site-conservation priorities into territorial and
Committee and international partners and donors on regional development strategies. However, integrating
 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor 151
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

Fig. 7 Design of the APSARA-HIST Project on “Remote Sensing for Environment of Angkor Site (REAS)” for the period
2013-2016.

conservation areas to sustainable development of the Angkor ecosystem as visualized in this paper (Figs.
larger regions and territories is easier said than done. 1 and 2). Integrating Mt. Kulen into the Angkor World
In this regard, the experience of another category of Heritage site is a step that generates heated debates
UNESCO designated place, the World Biosphere within APSARA and the international support
Reserve may provide insights and lessons [31]. community who are active participants within the ICC.
Difficulties in achieving conservation-development Such a move will favourably impact APSARA’s
integration in biosphere reserves have been analysed influence to guide heritage conservation and
[32, 33]. Institutional co-ordination and co-operation socio-economic development over the entire Angkor
have been major constraints in integrating biodiversity ecosystem. But other existing land and resource use
conservation into regional and territorial planning in management agencies may resist such an expansion of
both developed and less developed countries [34, 35]. APSARA’s authority and influence. Greater
APSARA is more and more successful in co-ordination of economic, environmental and social
integrating conservation and economic development development of areas between the current boundaries
in the immediate vicinity of the World Heritage site. of the World Heritage site and Mt. Kulen, about 40
The future challenge to APSARA is to become km northeast of the site, will become increasingly
capable of influencing economic, environmental and critical to the sustainable development of the overall
social planning and implementation in the whole of Angkor ecosystem. Tourism infrastructure
152 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

development in areas between the World Heritage site species characteristics of the Angkor ecosystem may
and Mt. Kulen is currently sparse. Targeting those not meet OUV standards as currently defined and
areas for future development could spread visitor interpreted by natural heritage experts [38], they are
access and facilities away from the Siem Reap city nevertheless of significance to demonstrating an
and distribute the benefits of the hospitality sector to ecosystem approach to conservation and sustainable
new locations and beneficiaries. Mt. Kulen as the use of biodiversity as advocated under the Convention
place of origin of the Khmer Empire that reached its on Biological Diversity ratified by 194 States including
pinnacle in Angkor can be integrated into the Cambodia [39]. The ecosystem approach has in
presentation of Angkor to visitors and the public. But particular found favour in watershed and integrated
such a move would require consensus and water resources management and the conservation and
co-operation of a number of land and resource use management of the Angkor ecosystem as envisaged in
management agencies who are currently peripheral to this paper (Figs. 4 and 5) could make an interesting
the management of the World Heritage site. In case of research and application to this theme of
biosphere reserves of Vietnam, the most important worldwide interest [40]. To-date, ecosystem based
constraint to effective integration of planning and management approaches are more frequent in World
actions across conservation and development zones Natural than in Cultural Heritage sites [41].
was institutional coordination and cooperation [36]. The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment [42] for
Tonle Sap as a source of water to meet the assessing the consequences of ecosystem change for
modern-day demands of residents and visitors within human well-being identified four sets of ecosystem
the ecosystem is likely to attract greater attention in services: supporting, provisioning, regulating and
the future. As awareness of the potentially delicate cultural. Managing water flow and storage regimes in
relationship between ground water levels and the Barays, moats and other structures have an
monument stability within the Angkor ecosystem has important flood regulation function within the Angkor
grown there is recognition that sooner than later the ecosystem. Through its influence on soil properties
current, unhindered rates of extraction of groundwater that in-turn impact monument stability, effective water
within the Angkor ecosystem would have to be management is critical for long-term maintenance of
regulated and preferably abandoned over the OUV of the Angkor World Heritage site.
long-term. The Siem Reap city and its environs where Cultural ecosystem services refer to the ensemble of
tourism and hospitality sector infrastructure are aesthetic, spiritual, educational and recreational
concentrated are most dependent on groundwater services provided by ecosystems. They constitute a
sources at present. Given that the city is situated in the growing field of research applied to landscapes and
drainage zone of the watersheds of the Pourk, Siem natural ecosystems [43-45]. Yet, the application of the
Reap and Rolous rivers (Figs. 1 and 2), the possibility cultural ecosystem services approach to analysing
of using lake waters to supply the needs of the city cost-benefit ratios and outcomes of tourism and
merits serious consideration. A feasibility study hospitality sector in World Heritage sites has been rare.
sponsored by the Japanese International Co-operation The Angkor ecosystem could be an interesting case
Agency (JICA) is investigating this option. study for initiating such collaboration between
Linking World Heritage and sustainable ecosystem services and cultural landscapes research
development would require integrating natural and communities.
cultural heritage of the broader landscape surrounding The transition of the management of Angkor World
World Heritage sites [37]. Although ecosystem and Heritage of Cambodia from the conservation of an
 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor 153
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

archaeological park to sustainable development of an conservation of World Heritage sites and the
ecosystem provides unique opportunities for exploring management of ecosystem components that are
the role of cultural ecosystem services as a research outside of sites. Pursuit of research on the tourism and
tool that could facilitate the strategic shift. More than hospitality sector under a cultural ecosystem services
20 years of work of APSARA and its national and framework should be encouraged and accelerated as
international partners have accumulated data on an aid to a better understanding and application of the
quantitative and tangible (heritage tourism, hospitality ecosystem approach to the sustainable development of
and recreation) as well as on qualitative and intangible the Angkor ecosystem. Experience in Angkor may
(education and awareness of history, culture and trigger interest in adopting cultural ecosystem services
identity) aspects of cultural services provided by the approach to the pros and cons of the development of
Angkor ecosystem. The information and insights the tourism and hospitality sector in many other
expressed in this paper could trigger efforts to study World Heritage sites.
and analyse the Angkor ecosystem as a provider of
6. Conclusions
cultural ecosystem services, with a view to using the
benefits provided by those services for the sustainable Of the 17 SDGs adopted by the United Nations in
development of the Angkor ecosystem and the broader September 2015, SDG 11 aims to “make cities and
Siem Reap province. human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and
The concept of sustainable development, as sustainable”. One of the targets (target 11.4) that would
currently understood, is barely 30 years old. Original satisfy the attainment of SDG 11 is to strengthen efforts
contradictions arising from its multi and to safeguard the world’s cultural and natural heritage.
inter-disciplinary character have been tamed and the Another one of the SDG 11 targets is to support “positive
concept has now come of age [46, 47]. Attempts to economic, social and environmental links between
experiment with sustainable development by policy, urban, peri-urban and rural areas by strengthening
planning and management practitioners have national and regional development planning”.
progressed in parallel and may have at times outpaced The shift of focus of Angkor management from
or diverged from interests and needs of academic and conservation and restoration of monuments within the
research communities. Similar to observations made archaeological Park to the sustainable development of
with regard tourism studies [48], sustainable the Angkor ecosystem presents an opportunity for
development research community is relatively new demonstrating the role of Angkor in attaining SDG 11
and may not have kept pace with the dramatic growth in Cambodia. The two targets above could be the basis
in practitioner level experimentation underway in to derive appropriate metrics to measure and monitor
places like the Angkor World Heritage site. Case progress. The development of the Siem Reap city and
studies as that presented herein attempt to provide as province and that of the rural hinterlands of the
accurate a description as possible of on-going efforts Angkor ecosystem between the World Heritage site
in order to encourage learning from in-situ sustainable and Mt. Kulen are intricately linked with the
development practice. As observed by Forester, J. [49], conservation of OUV of the World Heritage site.
insightful practice can lead theoretical construction The sustainable development of the tourism and
and synthesis, particularly in planning and policy hospitality sector, entirely dependent on the cultural
studies. The case study description provided in this ecosystem services provided by the Angkor ecosystem,
paper could form a baseline for future studies that can is critical to the long-term maintenance of OUV of the
attempt to monitor progress in integrating the Angkor World Heritage site.
154 From Conservation to Sustainable Development—A Case Study of Angkor
World Heritage Site, Cambodia

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