Republic of the Philippines

Department of Education
REGION VI - WESTERN VISAYAS
SCHOOLS DIVISION OF CADIZ CITY
CADUHA-AN NATIONAL HIGH SCHOOL
BRGY. CADUHA-AN, CADIZ CITY, NEGROS OCCIDENTAL

Citra Craft: Creating Vegan Leather from Orange Fruit Peels (Citri

sinensis)

A Capstone Research presented to the

Faculty and Staff of Caduha-an National High School, Cadiz City

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

in Senior High School Curriculum

Ditchella, Nica Pauline T.

Tolentin, Jessibel M.
Elizario, Missy P.
Cataytay, Mary Chris N.
Moncada , Cassandra
Alcantara , John Robert

March 2025
 ABSTRACT

This study aims to determine whether orange peels can be utilized for

producing a vegan material. In the modern world, a substantial amount of orange

peels are discarded, contributing to pollution. However, orange peels contain cellulose

and pectin, which can be used to make substances that are less harmful to the

environment. The objective of this research is to investigate the feasibility of using

orange peels as an alternative to animal skin in the production of leather goods in the

form of eco-friendly vegan leather. The results indicate that the developed vegan

leather from orange peels exhibits moderate durability and texture, withstanding a

weight of half a kilogram. Additionally, it was observed that the energy is likely to be

utilized in lightweight applications. While participants found the color and odor of the

material moderately acceptable, the sticky texture was identified as a significant issue

stickiness. This was likely caused by the glycerin content used in the manufacturing

process, as well as the absence of a proper drying phase. This study brings new hope

in addressing environmental issues in the fashion sector by presenting orange peel-

derived vegan leather as a sustainable alternative.

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 CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION

Background of the study

In recent years, the demand for sustainable and eco-friendly alternatives to

traditional leather has been increasing. One innovative approach to meeting this

demand involves utilizing the peels of oranges, a byproduct of the citrus industry, to

create vegan leather. This study aims to explore the feasibility and potential benefits

of developing vegan leather from orange peels, offering a unique solution that not

only addresses environmental concerns but also provides an alternative for consumers

who prefer cruelty-free and sustainable products.

About 12.9% of the leather hides, skins, and handles produced worldwide are

produced in India. A strong 3 billion square feet of manufacturing per year. The

disadvantage of producing leather the old-fashioned way is the requirement for

chemicals and hazardous metals as well as animal slaughter (Gala et al., 2022).

Traditional leather suffers from a number of sustainability issues. It is produced from

animal skins, mostly from cows, and therefore, leather is bound up with animal

farming. This sector’s sustainability issues are well-known. But the main product of

cattle rearing is meat, not leather (Van Der Hoeven, 2020).

Vegan leather effectively addresses the issue of animal killing and completely

eliminates its use of hazardous substances and metals (Gala, 2025). Conversely, the

fashion industry has a similar issue and has a substantial negative impact on the

environment. This is primarily due to the short product life cycle, high solid waste

creation, and inappropriate disposal, (Gupta, n.d.). Regarding the fabric’s

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sustainability and environmental friendliness, there is a new trend in the fashion

business. Manufacturing biomaterials that provide qualities that guarantee their

economic feasibility (Gala, 2025).

On the other hand, leather tanning is an energy and resource intensive process

that produces a lot of sludge waste. And of course, artificial leathers produced from

fossil feedstock, do not really solve these environment problems (Van Der Hoeven,

2020). The leather sector in India is not just one of the most important industries, but

it’s also regarded as one of the worst for the environment. (Gala, 2025).

In the current study, a straightforward method was used to create a plant-based

leather substitute material or leather alternative from natural rubber (NR) and

pineapple leaf fiber (PALF). A mechanical technique was used to remove pineapple

leaf fiber from leftover pineapple leaves (Duangsuwanetal.,2023). The leaves of

Nopal cacti are used to make cactus leather. Because it is derived from plants rather

than animal hides or virgin plastic, it differs from both regular leather and pleather

(plastic leather). The nopal cactus, sometimes referred to as the prickly pear, is the

source of their cactus leather (Okafor, 2024).

Traditional leather can take decades or even centuries to break down, so the

rise of plant-based alternatives like mango leather represents a significant step

towards a more compassionate and sustainable fashion industry ( Lindstorm, 2023).

To help local producers compete in the global market, the Philippine

government should help the leather goods industry merchandise its processes. In

2022, the Philippine leather products industry's gross value added reached P11.8

billion, with the United States serving as its primary export destination (CEDTyClea,

3
2024). The industry's gross value added increased from PHP8.65 billion in 2000 to

PHP15.82 billion in 2019, but decreased to PHP11.79 billion in 2020 and PHP11.64

billion in 2021 due to the pandemic.

The government enacted Republic Act (RA) 9290 to strengthen these

industries, however, it became outdated over time. Quimbo filed House Bill No. 491

to promote import substitution and revive the Marikina shoe industry, aiming to catch

up with Vietnam, the world's second-largest shoe exporter (Solon Seeks to Revive

“old Glory” of PH Footwear Industry, n.d.). With the majority of synthetics,

durability is still an issue. Through loan grants or facilities that increase production

and satisfy demand, the Department of Trade should assist local companies in

automating their industrial processes.

Raising animals for food and leather requires huge amounts of feed,

pastureland, water, and fossil fuels. Animals on factory farms produce 130 times as

much excrement as the entire human population, without the benefit of waste

treatment plants. The production of leather hurt animals, the environment, and the

workers who manufacture it. The only ones who benefit are people who profit from

the misery and suffering of others. Thankfully, there are plenty of sustainable vegan

leather options to choose from today that mimic the properties of leather without the

cruelty to animals or environmental degradation.

Vegan leathers can be made from a variety of materials, including recycled

plastic, pineapples, cork, mushrooms, and polyurethane. Not only are they kinder to

animals, they also contribute far less to water pollution, water depletion, and

greenhouse gas emissions than leather made from cows’ skin (Newkirk, 2025)

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 In the local market of Caduha-an, oranges are the most abundant fruits,

frequently purchased by consumers. However, their peels are often which orange

peels were often discarded, despite their potential for repurposing into valuable

products. The purpose of this study is to explore the feasibility of transforming orange

peels into vegan leather, thereby reducing waste and promoting the development of

sustainable biomaterials.

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Significance of the study

This study is beneficial to the following:

Environment. This study aims to address the fruit waste issues. Instead of
tossing orange peels, it can be converted into a vegan leather, this will lessen the
organic landfill issue and prevent harmful.

Leather Consumers. Through promoting another option this study can affect
the local market and stress green policies within the fashion industry.

The Fashion Industry. The fashion industry benefits from a sustainable and
innovative material that can be used to create stylish and durable products. Vegan
leather offers a solution to the environmental and ethical challenges associated with
traditional leather production.

Statement of the problem

This study aims to answer the following questions:

1.How can a Vegan Leather be developed from an Orange Peel (Citri

sinensis)?

2. What is the level of acceptability of Vegan Leather to the consumer?

A. In terms of texture

B. Color

3. What is the extent of durability of leader made from orange peels (Citri

Sinensis)?

4. What is the extent of biodegradability of vegan leather made from orange

peels?

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Hypothesis

1. Vegan Leather cannot be successfully developed from orange

peels.

2. Vegan Leather made from orange is not acceptable to the

consumers in terms of:

A. Texture

B. Color

C. Odor

D. Fashionability

E. Durability

F. Acceptability

3. Vegan Leather made from orange peels is not a durable alternative

to commercial leather.

4.Vegan Leather made from orange peels is not biodegradable.

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 CHAPTER II

Review of Related Literature

Product made of orange peel

One major environmental issue that requires attention is the presence of toxins

in the water. This study offers a solution to this issue by describing the creation and

testing of activated carbon derived from orange peels, which effectively removes

methyl red (MR) from aqueous solutions. The bulk density, particle size, surface area,

and proximate analysis of laboratory-made adsorbents can all be used to describe

them. The prepared adsorbent had a surface area of 512.2 m2g−1. The obtained

orange peel-activated carbon is also characterized using standard techniques like

FTIR analysis, SEM, and XRD. This experiment looked at temperature (40 to 60 °C),

contact period (10 to 60 minutes), MR concentration (100 to 400 mg/L), adsorbent

dosage (0.25 to 1.25 g/L), and pH (3 to 11) (Deshmukh et al., 2022).

Furthermore, materials made from orange peel had an elastic modulus ranging

from 7.7 to 29.9 MPa when processed into bioplastic films, suggesting that they were

suitable for use in plastic applications (Mechanical and Thermal Properties of

Bioplastic Film Obtained From Orange Peel, 2022). Additionally, orange peel boards

demonstrated their efficacy as thermal insulation materials with a flexural strength of

0.09 MPa and thermal conductivity of 0.065 W/mK (Vitale et al., 2021).

8
 Overall, orange peel waste's mechanical qualities point to its adaptability and

potential for reuse in a number of sectors, such as building, bioplastics, and fashion.

The results highlight how crucial it is to investigate novel applications for agro-

industrial waste, supporting sustainability and waste minimization initiatives while

offering competitive substitutes for traditional materials (Mechanical and Thermal

Properties of Bioplastic Film Obtained From Orange Peel, 2022).

Circular Economy and Waste Recovery

Aiming to reduce waste and encourage material reuse, the circular economy

places a strong emphasis on the sustainable management of resources, Many creative

waste recovery techniques have been developed in relation to orange peels, a by-

product of the citrus processing industry. Through procedures like hydroalcoholic

extraction, these peels can be converted into useful products, such as dietary fibers for

nutraceuticals and essential oils for use in food and cosmetic applications (Naviglio et

al., 2022).

Furthermore, orange peels can be fermented to produce bioethanol, organic

acids, and other valuable substances that are consistent with clean technology and

sustainability principles (Gervasi & Mandalari, 2024). Additionally, orange peels

have been used as natural fillers in environmentally friendly polymer composites,

improving the mechanical and antioxidant qualities of bioplastics (Pagliarini et al.,

2024). This strategy addresses environmental issues related to plastic waste by

lowering dependency on fossil fuels and promoting the production of biodegradable

materials.

9
To increase the citrus processing chain's economic viability and advance a zero-waste

economy, it is imperative that citrus by-products, such as orange peels, be valued

(Panwar et al., 2021). By incorporating these strategies orange peels can be efficiently

converted from waste into useful resources, fostering sustainability and innovation in

agro-industrial processes. Orange peels and other fruit trash can be turned into useful

products by using a circular economy model in Colombia to make bioplastics. This

concept seeks to create jobs throughout the supply chain while reducing production

costs and the carbon impact (Pedraza & Camargo, 2021).

The demand for Vegan Leather

The use of orange peels in the textile industry has significant implications for

implications for sustainable fashion, as it promotes resource efficiency and waste

reduction. Orange peels are frequently discarded as a byproduct of the juicing

business, which pollutes the environment. However, they may be used to make luxury

fabrics, natural colors, and antimicrobial agents, turning this waste into useful

resources (Devi & Saini, 2020).

This approach aligns with the larger sustainable fashion movement, which

aims to address the unsustainable practices by reducing textile waste and promoting

ethical production methods. Additionally, incorporating such cutting-edge materials

into fashion design can increase consumer awareness and acceptance of sustainable

practices, promoting a change in consumer behavior toward more environmentally

friendly purchases and bolstering a circular economy in the fashion industry (Kautish

l., 2021).

Sustainable Leather Alternatives

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 The environmental footprint of the global leather business has been a source of

criticism for decades, with accusations of excessive water use, tree cutting, and toxic

tanning chemicals (Karthik & Gopalakrishnan, 2021). In response, the development

plant-based of leather alternatives has gained increasing popularity.

Mycelium leather, for instance, is produced from fungi and replicates the

texture and durability of animal leather while remaining biodegradable. Companies

such as MycoWorks have developed products like Reishi™, which are utilized in the

fashion and automotive sectors (MycoWorks, 2023). This technology not only

minimizes dependence on animal-based materials but also has a lower carbon

footprint than synthetic leather, which is generally petroleum-derived (Jones & Smith,

2022).

Piñatex is another potential material, a leather substitute made from pineapple

leaf fibers. Developed by Dr. Carmen Hijosa, Piñatex converts agricultural by-

products into a breathable and sustainable fabric (Hijosa, 2021). As a departure from

artificial replacements, Piñatex is biodegradable and offers pineapple farmers

additional livelihoods. The material has gained widespread use among

environmentally conscious fashion brands given its adaptability and strength (Garcia

et al., 2022).

These advancements highlight the viability of plant-based substitutes in

reducing the environmental damage associated with traditional leather production.

The Prospects of Orange Peels in Sustainable Material Development

Orange peels, traditionally being food waste, have revealed promising

prospects in sustainable material development. According to research, orange peels

11
are found to possess high levels of cellulose and pectin, which makes them

appropriate for biodegradable purposes (Deshmukh et al., 2022). Recent studies has

also investigated the conversion of orange peels into bio-plastics and composites,

which possess mechanical properties similar to petroleum-based plastics (Vitale et al.,

2021). Additionally, orange peels have been utilized as a reinforcing material in

biopolymers with success, enhancing flexibility and durability (Kim & Lee, 2023).

These findings suggest that orange peels could serve as a viable raw material for

sustainable leather substitutes.

Moreover, recycling orange peels into bio-based products is based on circular

economy concepts, preventing agricultural waste and encouraging resource use

efficiency (Naviglio et al., 2022). Pedraza & Camargo (2021), demonstrated that

orange peels were transformed into high-elastic bioplastic films that showed high

potential for being used in textiles and fashion applications. The biodegradability of

orange peel materials also complements their use in sustainable product development,

providing a green alternative to synthetic polymers (Gervasi & Mandalari, 2024).

These findings validate the feasibility using orange peels in the production of

vegan leather, contributing to waste reduction and sustainability within the fashion

sector.

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 Conceptual framework

INPUT PROCESS OUTPUT

Orange peels as an Developing a Vegan Leather Marketability of Vegan

Leather.
alternative for the using Orange Peels.

development of Vegan 1. The development of

Leather. Vegan Leather from Orange

Peels

2. Testing the durability of

the Vegan Leather bag from

Orange Peels and the

commercial leather

products.

3. Acceptability of Vegan

Leather to the consumer.

Figure 1.1 The framework of the study

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Definition of terms

For the better understanding of the term used in this study are both they

defined conceptually and operationally.

Oranges (Seninsis). Conceptually, is a round, orange-colored citrus fruits that

grow on trees. They originally came from China, but today these nutritious

powerhouses are grown in warm climates around the world (Bonvissuto, 2022)

Operationally, it is considered as a main variable of our experiment where its

peels are used to turn into a powder to be processed as Vegan Leather.

Vegan Leather. Conceptually, it isa material made from plant-based or

sustainable sources. It is an eco-friendly replacement for animal leather. It has rapidly

gained popularity in the mainstream fashion industry. It is used to make clothes like

jackets and accessories like bags.(Kunde, 2022b)

Operationally, it is a leather material made from orange peels, plays its part in

being a sustainable alternative for the textile, accessory, and furniture industries. It is

mainly used in making products such as shoes, bags, jackets, and furniture, and this is

a means of giving consumers the option to stay away from cruelty.

Glycerin. Conceptually, is a kind of carbohydrate also referred to as a polyol

or sugar alcohol. This colorless liquid tastes sweet and has a syrupy texture. Although

14
plants naturally make glycerin when sugars ferment, the majority of glycerin

produced today comes from the hydrolysis of fats and oils (Jabeen Begum, MD, n.d.).

Operationally, it serves as the primary binder for all of the materials'

constituent elements in leather production.

Water (H20). Conceptually, it able to dissolve more compounds than any

other liquid has earned it the moniker "universal solvent." For all living things on

Earth, this is crucial. Whichever way water travels—through the ground, the air, or

our bodies—it carries essential minerals, molecules, and nutrients with it (Water

Quality | U.S. Geological Survey, 2022) Operationally, the main solvent

utilized in the experiment is water.

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 CHAPTER III

Research Methodology

This experimental research aims to develop vegan leather from orange peels.

This study involves the collection of materials, production, and formulation,

processes.

Experimental research is a form of comparative analysis in which you study

two or more variables and observe a group under a certain condition or groups

experiencing different conditions (Indeed Editorial Team, 2024).

Scope and limitation

The goal of this project is to develop a vegan leather using orange peels. The

study utilized orange peels, glycerin, citrus pectin, and water as key the components

in the production process. A vegan leather sheet measuring 19 by 13 cm was created

and its biodegradability and durability were evaluated.

The variable of this study is the orange peels which were collected from the

community of Brgy. Chambery, Manapla between February and March.

Research Design

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 This study employs a qualitative experimental research design to provide

empirical evidence on the properties and consumer acceptance of vegan leather. The

researchers aims to assess its potential as a sustainable alternatives to traditional

leather in various applications. By following this approach, the study systematically

investigates the materials and characteristics consumer perception, offering valuable

insights into its viability in the market.

A. Collection of materials

A.1 Preparation of the Orange Peels for the study

1. Collected Orange Peels.

2. Either oven for 5 – 7 minutes or let it dry for 3 days

Picture 1: Picture 2:

A.2 Collection and Preparation of other necessary materials

1. Purchased pectin powder in an online store

17
2. Bought glycerin from a local drugstore

3. Prepared food processor to powder the orange peel

4. Strained the powdered peels right after

5. Prepared cooker/ stove, beaker, grams scale, whisk, molder

Picture1: Picture 2:

B. FORMULATION

The researchers measured all the ingredients such as:

1. Citrus pectin 30g, powdered orange peels 30g, glycerin 60ml and

water 440ml.

2. Poured 440 ml of water in the pot with low heat, then added citrus

pectin and glycerin.

3. Stirred continuously until all ingredients were fully dissolved and

bought to a boil.

4. Added the powdered orange peels to the boiling solution, and

continued stirring for 5 – 10 minutes.

5. Allowed the mixture to cool for 10 – 15 minutes.

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 C. Production

After formulating the mixture, the researcher will proceed with the

following steps:

1. Pour the mixture in a molder.

2. Spread evenly until the mixture occupy the size of the molder.
3. Allow the mixture to dry for 3 – 5 days.

D. Testing

The test of developing the orange peels into a Vegan Leather was conducted in

two (2) trials which were conducted on different days and after the next seven (7)

days. To evaluate the feasibility of using orange peels for vegan leather production,

the researchers performed various test.

The researchers patiently and methodically reviewed each completed product

from the three (3) trials that had been carried out in order to ensure accurate

outcomes. In each experiment, data on the development of vegan leather was gathered

independently every two days.

TESTING OF THE BIODEGRADABILITY TEST

At the end of the test trial, the researchers soaked the vegan leather material in

water and buried it in the soil for a week in order to assess its biodegradability. Three

days later, the mixture began to break apart in the water. Upon the addition of a

chemical substance, the water darkened and became stained. By the end of the week,

19
most of the orange peel mixture had dissolved, while the vegan leather buried in the

soil vanished after 1 week.

DATA ANALYSIS

The data collected focused on development of vegan leather made from

orange peels. Over the course of four separate trials conducted over several weeks, the

researchers experimented with different methods to evaluate the practically of the

material. The researchers examined the outcomes of each trial to effectively ensure

the accuracy and improvement. The findings indicate that with each trial the vegan

leather formulation improved progressively through day-to-day experimentation.

Following the initial tests, the biodegradability of the vegan leather was

assessed. For five days, the substance started to dissolve in the water, transforming it

into a brownish liquid. By the of the week small remnants of orange peels remained.

These results suggest that the vegan leather exhibits a high level of biodegradability,

making it a promising eco-friendly alternative to traditional leather.

To evaluate the quality of vegan leather in terms of durability, odor, texture,

color, fashionability, and overall acceptability, the mean and standard deviation were

used. Mean and standard deviation (SD) are fundamental statistical measures

employed to condense and analyze data. Mean is the middle value of a dataset and is

applied when the researchers are interested in finding out the general direction or

average response in research (Balahadia, 2020). Standard deviation does show the

20
variation of data points from the mean, though. When standard deviation is small,

then data points get packed close together around the mean, consistency is there,

while with a larger SD, one would have varying responses (Venkatesan et al., 2023b).

CHAPTER IV

Results and Discussion

Durability in supporting weight

Table 1: Observation of the Vegan leather in supporting weight

Vegan leather In kilograms Time duration

1st Trial ¼ kg 5 mins.

2nd Trial ½ kg 10 mins.

3rd Trial ¾ kg 15 mins

To evaluate the durability of the vegan leather derived from orange peels,

researchers conducted a weight-bearing test using rice. Every round, ¼ kilogram of

rice was added, with each trial lasted five minutes.

There were no indications of material damage in the first or second trial. But

in the third trials, tiny surface rips started to appear, and the vegan leather could no

longer support for an extended period.

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 The material, which measured 19 by 13 cm, was able to support up to ½

kilogram of rice. These results demonstrate that the vegan leather made from orange

peel (Citrus sinensis) exhibits a certain level of durability under controlled weight

conditions, making it a viable option for lightweight applications.

Biodegradability Test

Dissolving of vegan leather in water

Picture 1: Picture 2:

To evaluate how vegan leather behaved in tap water, researchers ran an experiment

for seven days. Initial observations showed that, the orange peel-based vegan leather

melted and softened over time in the water. The combination changed visibly

throughout the experiment, going from a transparent liquid to finally disappearing,

leaving behind few particles that had not yet dissolved. When the orange peel

combination was added to the liquid, it turned brown.

22
 Over the course of the experiment from February 26 to March 5, the orange

peels mixture exhibited a progressive dissolution process. Only the orange peels was

left due to how it was powdered, while the other ingredients was completely dissolved

by the end of the observation period. These results confirm the biodegradability of the

orange peels mixture, indicating its potential as an alternative material to traditional

leather.

Burying the vegan leather in the ground

Picture 1: Picture 2:

In addition to the water test, the researchers buried the vegan leather in loam soil for a

week in to observe its decomposition process. When the researchers excavated the

vegan leather where it had been buried, they discovered that the material had

completely disintegrated, leaving behind only shredded remnants in the soil. This

indicates a rapid decomposition rate, further supporting the materials

biodegradability.

23
 These results highlight the necessity of comprehensive evaluations of material

characteristics and environmental interactions to determine sustainability and eco-

friendliness of vegan leather.

Survey on the acceptability of the vegan leather

The acceptability of the product was measured through a survey of 50

randomly selected respondents. The evaluation was based on the Likert Scale,

utilizing the Average Weighted Mean Rage and its corresponding descriptive

equivalent, as referenced in (De Jesus, et. Al.,2020). The table below presents the

Likert Scale interpretation used in the study:

Table 2: Interpretation of the Mean of Responses

Average Weighted Mean Range Descriptive Equivalent

1.00-1.80 Unacceptable
1.81-2.60 Slightly Unacceptable
2.61 – 3.40 Undecided
3.41 – 4.20 Slightly Acceptable
4.21 – 5.00 Acceptable

Table 3: Comparative Mean of the Survey Responses

Q1: How Q2: How Q3: How Q4: How Q5: How Q6: How
would would will you would you would you would you
you rate you rate rate the rate the rate the Vegan rate the
the the Vegan Vegan leather made overall
Vegan Vegan leather leather from orange acceptability
leather leather made from made from peels in terms of the Vegan
made made orange orange of leather?
from from peels in peels in fashionability
orange orange terms of terms of ?
peels in peels in its durability
terms of terms of texture? from
its color? odor? bending
and
stretching?
4.02 3.56 2.84 2.82 3.60 3.46
Mean
50 50 50 50 50 50
N
Std. .869 .837 1.095 1.137 .904 .994
Deviation

24
 Table 2 shows the mean of the responses for each of the six survey questions.

For Question 1, the participants were asked to rate the vegan leather made from

orange peels in terms of its color [M=4.02, SD=0.896]. The results indicate that the

product color is slightly acceptable to the respondents. This suggests that the vegan

leather bears some resemblance to the commercially available leather, highlights its

potential viability as an alternative material.

For Question 2, the participants were asked to rate the vegan leather from

orange peels in terms of its odor [M=3.56, SD=0.837], and the results show that the

participants find it slightly acceptable. This entails that the vegan leather from orange

peels has a neutral scent, it indicates that this is not irritating or unpleasant in terms of

its odor. Hence, it can be considered as acceptable in terms of its odor.

For Question 3, the participants were asked to evaluate the vegan leather from

orange peels in terms of texture [M=2.84, SD=1.095]. The results indicate that the

participants were undecided about the texture. This can be due to the observed

stickiness of the product which does not resemble the texture of commercial leather.

The stickiness could be attributed to several factors such as the drying process,

formulation and the products, and high concentration of glycerin used in production

(Let’s Talk About Stickiness/Tackiness. – Humblebee &Amp; Me, 2020).

Additionally, insufficient exposure to sunlight during the drying phase may have

contributed to the products tacky feel.

To improve the texture and reduce stickiness, improvements in both

formulations and drying process are necessary, ensuring the material hardens properly

and more closely resembles commercial leather.

25
 For Question 4, the participants were asked to evaluate the vegan leather from

orange peels in terms of stretching and bending [M=2.82, SD=1.137]. The results

indicate that the participants were undecided, suggesting that the materials durability

is may not be sufficient for consumer acceptance.

According to Aymen Ansar (2025), vegan leather durability can be improved

through proper maintenance routines and initially choosing higher-quality materials

during production.

For question 5, the participants were asked to evaluate the vegan leather in

terms of fashionability [ M=3.60, SD=. 904]. The results indicate that the participants

found it slightly acceptable in terms of fashion appeal. This could be attribute to the

color, which closely resemble that of identical leather to the commercial leather

products.

For Question 6, the participants were asked to evaluate the vegan leather in

terms of overall acceptability [ M=3.46, SD=. 994]. The results indicate that the

participants found it moderately acceptable. This acceptability likely stems from its

potential for consuming natural attributes, sustainability, to meet consumer

preferences in terms of color and odor.

Formulations

Table 4: Formulation 1

Materials Amount

Powdered orange peels 15g

Water 10ml

Glycerin 5ml

26
 The table shows the Formulation 1. This is the first attempt to produced vegan

leather. Based on observation the product remained wet indicating that glycerin may

not have been a strong enough binding agent. This led the researchers to formulate

again.

Table 5: Formulation 2

Materials Amount

Powdered orange peels 30ml

Water 1.25L

Glycerin 80ml

Gulaman Powder 24g

Coconut oil 15ml

Cotton Used as a fiber structure

In week 1, the mixture appeared wet and porous, with a glossy, cotton- like

and jiggly gulaman fibers. At this stages it was still in the early phase of sun drying.

Week 2, the material had dried but remained soft and spongy.

Week 3, the texture resembled textile fabric with visible yarns and orange peel

fragments. However, the surface was jumbled and fragile, with loosely held fibers.

Despite progress, the material was still not solid, possibly due to the gulaman's

inability to act as a strong binder or need for a longer drying period. This prompted

the researchers to reformulate.

Table 6: Formulation 3

Materials Amount

Cornstarch 12g

Water 300ml

27
 Glycerin 40.5ml

Formulation 3 showed a noticeable lack of consistency and durability when

exposed to moisture and without the right binding agents. The formulation was unable

to reach a stable, dry condition even after efforts to improve its structural integrity

through oven drying. The formulation's component parts may not be fully compatible,

or there may be a problem with the binding procedure itself, given the persistent

wetness and non-binding quality. This led the researchers to formulate again.

Table 7: Formulation 4

Materials Amount

Powdered orange peels 60g

Water 880ml

Citrus pectin powder 60g

Glycerin 120ml

The vegan leather showed uneven drying after 1 hour of observation at 175° -

200°, the inner side part remained wet while the outside surface was dry, suggesting

either poor heat penetration or an extended drying time. Additionally, the outside

surface was burned due to the high temperature, indicating that the heat was too high

for proper drying. The damage may be avoided by using a lower temperature or a

shorter drying period. In order to ensure thorough and even drying without losing the

material's integrity, a more regulated and possibly lower-temperature drying

technique is required. Additionally, reducing the temperature, reducing the material's

thickness, or switching to a different drying technique that encourages more even heat

distribution, like convection drying or using a smaller pan were essential to improve

air circulation and could help to optimize the drying process.

28
 Table 8: Formulation 5

Materials Amount

Powdered orange peels 30g

Glycerin 60ml

Water 440ml

Citrus pectin powder 30g

The researchers observed the vegan leather for five days and found that sun-

drying worked well. However, a serious issue emerged: the material dissolved and

became sticky when removed from direct sunlight, especially in cold or humid

conditions. This suggest that a temperature-sensitive component in the vegan leather

solidifies when heated but returns to a sticky form when cooled.

To better understand this behavior and identify solutions, changing the

material or protective coatings, further research is needed. This inconsistency

highlights the importance of formulation optimization to achieve desired outcomes in

product development.

29
 CHAPTER V

Conclusion

The results of this study demonstrate that orange peels have the potential to be

a viable source for vegan leather. While the current formulation presents limitation in

durability, texture, and overall consumer acceptance, the study successfully highlights

the materials biodegradability, which is a crucial factor in developing environmentally

friendly alternatives to traditional leather.

The project’s success lies in its innovative approach to repurposing fruit waste

and exploring new possibilities for sustainable material production. By addressing

waste reduction and promoting ethical and sustainable fashion, sector the researchers

have demonstrated their commitment to environmental responsibility.

However, existing formulation's disadvantages, especially its stickiness and

lack of endurance, under sure the need for further research and refinement. To solve

the stickiness issue and increase the life span of the vegan leather, further research is

needed to improve the drying process, exploring alternative binding agents, and

30
optimizing the formulation are essential steps to enhance the longevity and practility

of the vegan leather. The researcher’s willingness to keep improving and their

recognition of these limitations show their commitment to continuous improvement

reflect their dedication to developing a viable and long-lasting solution.

This study encourages future researchers to explore innovative methods of

producing vegan leather using fruit waste. By providing a sustainable alternative that

consider both ethical and environmental factors, this research has the potential to

revolutionize the leather industry. Additionally, it highlights the importance of

supporting local communities and maximizing the use of waste materials to build a

more responsible and eco-conscious future.

Recommendations

It is highly recommended that future researchers expand on this work and

address its limitations to develop a more practical vegan leather made from orange
peels. Optimizing the formulation and drying process should be a priority.
Investigating substitute binding agents like alginate, agar powder, or other plant-based
polymers may improve the vegan leather's flexibility and durability.

The stickiness issue may be resolved by improving the drying procedure by

experimenting with various temperatures, humidity levels, and drying durations.

Furthermore, additional study is needed to improve texture and durability of

the vegan leather. The final product could be significantly improved by maximizing
the proportions of glycerin, binding agent, and orange peel powder. Reinforcing
agents such as flax, jute, or hemp may further improve the material's durability and
strength. Given that different orange peel may have varying chemical compositions,
it is essential study their effects on the overall quality of the vegan leather.

31
 A more detailed consumer study with a larger and more diverse sample group
should be conducted to ensure broader customer acceptance. It is also essential to
conduct a comprehensive market analysis in order to comprehend the needs of
customers, possible applications, and the competitive environment.

Lastly, it is critical to encourage cooperation and sustainability. Development

and marketing could be facilitated by forming partnerships with regional companies
in the footwear and fashion sectors. Making vegan leather from orange peels will
require creating environmentally friendly production techniques, such as utilizing
renewable sources and minimizing waste production.

By considering these recommendation, future researchers can build upon the

foundation to develop a more sustainable and ethically viable vegan leather
alternative. According to Aymen Ansar (2025), vegan leather can be made from a
variety of sources, including plastics like PVC and polyurethane, as well as innovative
plant-based materials such as cork, pineapple leaves, apple peels, and even mushroom
mycelium.

32
 Acknowledgement

We have worked hard on this study. But without the generous assistance and support
of many individuals, it would not have been possible. We would like to express our
heartfelt appreciation to each and every one of them.

First and foremost, we give thanks to God for giving us everything we needed to fulfil
this goal.

We are extremely grateful to our capstone research teacher and adviser, Ma'am
Joselyn C. Valenciano, for her leadership, ongoing supervision, and giving us
necessary information. We also appreciate her assistance in seeing our study
throughout its completion.

We sincerely appreciate the advice and direction provided by the panel throughout the
pre-oral defense. Our study has advanced greatly as a result of the knowledge,
abilities, and ability you have all contributed.

To our dear panelist, Ma’am Ma. Fe Chavez Dolorosa, Sir Eugene Jan Damasco, and
Ma’am Ma. Sheena Espinosa thank you for suggesting new ideas about our study that
led us into completing the process, without you, we do not think we could do this all
by ourselves. You all gave us new knowledge and made us discover what we need to
learn. We appreciate all of it.

33
 To Ma’am Roselan Mae Verayo, your outstanding grammatical expertise is much
appreciated by the entire study team. Our study was much enhanced by your diligent
labor, for which we are really grateful.

We would like to thank our parents, friends, and family members for their
understanding, cooperation, and support. Even when things got difficult, your faith in
us kept us going.

Without these individuals encouragement and support, this research could not have
been completed.
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APPENDIX A

Documentation

37
 APPENDIX B

TEST EXPERIMENTS

APPENDIX C

Biodegradability test

Soaking of vegan leather in water

38
 After 7 days of soaking the vegan

leather in water

Burying on the ground

After 7 days of burying the vegan

leather

Durability Test

39
 Picture1: ¼ kg of rice Picture 2: ½ kg of rice

Picture 3: ¾ kg of rice

Appendix D

Survey

Dear Participants,

We developed a Vegan leather from orange peels and we are conducting a

survey on the acceptability of this product. Line with this we are requesting you to

become one of our participants in this survey. You are not obliged to answer this form

but your participation is a big help to us in achieving our research goal.

Questions Highly Acceptable Neutral Disagree Strongly

Acceptable Disagree

1 . How would you

rate the Vegan leather
made from orange
peels in terms of its
color?

2 . How would you

rate the Vegan leather
made from orange
peels in terms of odor?

40
3 . How will you rate
the Vegan leather
made from orange
peels in terms of its
texture?

4 . How would you

rate the Vegan leather
made from orange
peels in terms of
durability from
bending and
stretching?
5 . How would you
rate the Vegan leather
made from orange
peels in terms of
fashionability?

6 . How would you

rate the overall
acceptability of the
Vegan leather?

41
42