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LESSON 7: THE SELF AS A COGNITIVE CONSTRUCT

The Cognitive Self: The Self-Concept

Several nonhuman animals, including chimpanzees, orangutans, and dolphins, have at the very least some
primitive sense of self (Boysen & Himes, 1999). We know this information because of multiple experiments that have
been conducted using animals. In one study (Gallup, 1970), researchers applied through paint a red dot on the
forehead of anesthetized chimpanzees and then placed them in a cage with a mirror. When the chimpanzees woke up
and looked in the mirror, they then touched the dot on their faces, and not the dot on the faces as seen in the mirror.
This action implies that the chimps understood that they were looking at themselves, and not at other animals. Thus,
we can assume that they can realize their existence as individuals. Most other animals, such as cats and dogs, never
realize that it is they who are looking at themselves in the mirror.

Babies with similar red dots painted on their foreheads are able to recognize themselves in a mirror in the same
way that chimps do, and they do this by approximately 18 months old (Asendorpf, Warkentin, & Baudonnière, 1996;
Povinelli, Landau, & Perilloux, 1996). The child's knowledge about their self continues to develop as they grow. By two
years of age, the infant becomes aware of their gender as a boy or a girl. At four years old, the child's self-descriptions
are likely based on physical features, such as their hair color. By approximately the age of six, the child can understand
basic emotions and the concepts of traits and can create statements, for instance "I am a nice person" (Harter, 1998).

By the time children are studying in grade school, they will have learned that they are unique individuals, and
at this point they can think about and analyze their behavior. They also begin to show awareness of the social
situation, that is, they understand that other people are looking at and judging them in the same way that they are
looking at and judging others (Doherty, 2009).

You: Through Other’s Eyes

How do you think others see you?

“I am who I am.” The self can be defined in various ways.

According to William James, who was one of the earliest psychologists to study the self, the “I” is the thinking,
acting, and feeling self; meanwhile, the “Me” is the set of physical characteristics and psychological capabilities that
makes who you are. Likewise, Carl Rogers and his theory of personality used the same terms, with “I” as the one who
acts and decides, and “Me” as what you think or feel about yourself as an object.

Two types of self that we can be aware of according to Carver and Scheier:

1. the private self or your internal standards and private thoughts and feelings

2. the public self or your public image that is commonly geared toward having a good presentation of yourself to
others

Symbolic Interactionalism Theory

Theories generally see the self and identity as mental constructs, that is, created and recreated in memory.
Current studies point to the frontal lobe of the brain as the specific area in the brain that is associated with processes
concerning the self (Elmore, Oyserman, and Smith 2017, 75).

Under the theory of symbolic interactionism, the following three reasons explain why self and identity are social
products (Elmore, Oyserman, and Smitch 2012, 76):

1. we do not create ourselves out of anything;

2. whether we like to admit it or not, we need others to affirm and reinforce whom we think we are; and

3. what we value as important to us may also have been influenced by what is important in our social or
historical context.

The Self-Concept
Although each person possesses a unique self-concept, we can identify several common characteristics across
the responses given by different people on the measure.

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Physical characteristics are important components of the self-concept, and they are mentioned by many people
when they describe themselves. If you have been concerned lately that you have been gaining weight, then you might
write, "I am overweight." If you think you are particularly good looking ("I am attractive") or if you think you are short
("I am short"), then those things could have been reflected in your responses. Our physical characteristics play a key
role in our self-concept because we realize that other people often use them to judge us. People will typically list the
physical characteristics that differentiate them from others in either positive or negative ways (e.g., "I am blond" and "I
am short") in part because they understand that these characteristics are salient and are likely to be utilized by others
when judging them (McGuire, McGuire, Child, & Fujioka, 1978).

A second aspect of the self-concept that is related to personal characteristics is made up of personality traits,
that is, the specific and stable personality characteristics that describe an individual (e.g., "I am friendly," "I am shy,"
and "I am persistent"). These individual differences are key determinants of behavior, and this particular aspect of the
self-concept varies among people.

The remainder of the self-concept reflects its external social components, such as membership in the social
groups that we belong to and that we care about. Typical responses for this component can include "I am a writer," "I
am Jewish," and "I am a mother, sister, and daughter." Group memberships form an important part of the self-concept
because they provide us with our social identity, that is, the sense of our self that involves our memberships in social
groups.

Cultural differences in self-concept have also been discovered in people's self-descriptions on social networking
sites. DeAndrea, Shaw, and Levine (2010) took a look at individuals' free-text self-descriptions in the About Me section
in their Facebook profiles. Consistent with the researchers' hypotheses and previous research using the TST, the
African-American participants had the most independently (internally) described self-concepts, whereas Asian
Americans had the most interdependent (external) self-descriptions, while the European Americans were somewhere in
the middle.

The Difference between Self-Complexity and Self-Concept

Self-concept is a knowledge representation containing knowledge about us, which includes our beliefs about
facets such as our personality traits, physical characteristics, abilities, values, goals, and roles, as well as knowledge of
our existence as individuals.

Self-schema refers to a long-lasting and stable set of memories summarizing a person's beliefs, experiences,
and generalizations about the self in particular behavioral domains. A person may have a self-schema founded on any
aspect of themself as a person, which can include physical characteristics, personality traits, and interests as long as
they consider the aspect of their self-importance to their self-definition.

One way to learn about a person's self-concept and the many self-schemas it contains is through the use of
self-report measures. An example is this deceptively simple fill-in-the-blank measure used by many scientists to get a
snapshot of the self-concept (Rees & Nicholson, 1994).

I am (please fill in the blank) __________________________________

I am (please fill in the blank) __________________________________
I am (please fill in the blank) __________________________________
I am (please fill in the blank) __________________________________
I am (please fill in the blank) __________________________________

Self-complexity is the extent to which individuals have multiple different and relatively independent methods of
thinking about themselves. Some selves have more complexity than others, and these specific differences can be a
key part in determining psychological outcomes. Having a self that is complex means that we have different ways of
thinking about ourselves.

As observed, the self-concept is a rich, complex social representation of who we are, covering both our internal
characteristics as well as our social roles. Along with our thoughts on who we are right now, the self-concept is also
inclusive of thoughts about our past self— our experiences, accomplishments, and failures; and about our future self—
our hopes, plans, goals, and possibilities. (Oyserman, Bybee, Terry, & Hart-Johnson, 2004)

The multidimensional nature of our self-concept implies that we must take into account each component in
isolation and their interactions with each other and to their overall structure. Two very important structural aspects of

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our self-concept are complexity and clarity. Although every human has a complex self-concept, individual differences
exist in self-complexity.

For instance, imagine a woman whose self-concept contains the social identities of a student, girlfriend,
daughter, liberal arts student, and table tennis player and who has gone through a wide variety of life experiences.
Social psychologists would state that she has high self-complexity. Meanwhile, a man who perceives himself primarily
as either a student or as a part of the football team, and who has had a relatively narrow range of life experiences in
comparison would be said to have low self-complexity. For those with high self-complexity, various aspects of the self
are separate because the positive and negative thoughts about one specific self-aspect do not spill over into thoughts
about other aspects.

As we may differ in the complexity of our self-concept, we can also differ in its clarity. Self-concept clarity is the
extent that one's self-concept is clearly, consistently defined (Campbell, 1990). Theoretically, these concepts of
complexity and clarity are independent of each other; a person can have either a more or less complex self-concept
that is either well-defined and consistent or ill-defined and inconsistent. However in reality, each of them have have
similar relationships to multiple indices of well-being.

Self-Awareness
Self-awareness is having the ability to clearly perceive one's personality, including strengths, weaknesses,
thoughts, beliefs, motivation, and emotions. It allows us to comprehend other people, how they perceive us, our
attitude, and our responses to them at the moment. Similar to any other schema, the self-concept may vary in its
current cognitive accessibility. As such, self-awareness is the extent to which we are currently fixing our attention on
our self-concept. When our self-concept becomes highly accessible because we are concerned about being observed
and maybe even judged by others, we go through a form of publicly induced self-awareness also known as self-
consciousness (Duval & Wicklund, 1972; Rochat, 2009).

Not every aspect of our self-concept is equally accessible at all times, and the long-term differences in the
accessibility of different self-schemas help to create individual differences in terms of, for example, our current
concerns and interests. You may know several people for whom the physical appearance component of their self-
concepts is highly accessible. They examine their hair every time they see a mirror, worry whether their clothes make
them look good, and do a lot of shopping for themselves. Other people are more focused on their social group
memberships; for example, they tend to ideate in terms of their roles as Muslims or Christians or as members of the
local tennis or soccer team.

Deindividuation refers to the loss, or process of losing individual self-awareness as well as individual
accountability while in groups (Festinger, Pepitone, & Newcomb, 1952; Zimbardo, 1969), and how people become
more attuned to themselves as group members, along with the particular social norms of that particular situation
(Reicher & Stott, 2011).

Two Kinds of Self-Awareness

1. Conceptual self-awareness – what we think about ourselves, which may include judgments, evaluations, logical
conclusions, as well as things that are easy to put words to.

2. Embodied self-awareness – includes registering various types of inner states. Interoception allows us to know if
we are tired or hungry, excited or in pain, and so forth. Body schema is our awareness of different body parts
and their relationship with each other and to the environment; it lets us be aware of our movements and
coordination. Embodied self-awareness also lets us know our responses and reactions to internal and external
events, such as our emotions, our impulses, our needs, and wants. Occasionally, when we tune in to what we
are experiencing inside, it is hard to come up with words.

To illustrate the difference between these two types of awareness, refer to the following example:

First, think about your arm. For me, when I think about my arm, I notice that it is small, it is hairy, and the flab in my
upper arm jiggles slightly. I notice that I am critical of my arm. The next directive is to feel your arm. When I switch to
this mode, I almost well up in tears: my arms are connected to my heart, and I desire to hold people—the world—in my
embrace. What wonderful arms!

The Benefits of Self-Awareness

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Self-awareness can keep you from doing something dangerous. It can be too much that we are concerned
about being observed and criticized by others (self-consciousness). For example, in a large crowd, you experience
deindividuation, the loss of self-awareness in groups, although this is a matter of contention (resistance). Therefore,
group identity and self-awareness have a considerable impact on our self-esteem. One way that affects our self-esteem
is through social comparison.

Social Comparison Theory

Social comparison theory tells us that we learn about ourselves, the appropriateness of our behaviors, and our
social status by comparing aspects of ourselves with other people.

Two Major Types of Social Comparison

1. Downward Social Comparison – comparing ourselves with others worse off than us to create a positive self-
concept and raise self-esteem.

2. Upward Social Comparison – comparing ourselves with those who are better off than us.

While it may be a form of motivation for some, many people feel low self-esteem as they highlight more of their
weaknesses or inequities. Social comparison entails self-evaluation maintenance theory.

Self-evaluation maintenance states that we can feel threatened when someone outperforms us; thus, we react
in the following three ways:

 we distance ourselves from that person or redefine our relationship with them

 we reconsider the importance of the aspect or skill in which we were outperformed

 we strengthen our resolve to improve certain aspects of ourselves

However, to increase or maintain self-esteem, several people become narcissistic. Narcissism is a trait that is
characterized by overly high self-esteem, self-admiration, and self-centeredness.

The Benefits of Self-Knowledge

"To know thyself is the beginning of wisdom." – Socrates

1. Happiness. You will be happier when you're able to express who you are. Moreover, expressing your desires will
increase the possibility that you will get what you want.

2. Better decision-making. When you know yourself, you can make better choices about everything, from small
decisions, such as which sweater you will buy, to huge decisions, such as which partner you will spend your life
with. You will have guidelines applicable in solving life's varied problems.

3. Self-control. When you know yourself, you know what motivates you to resist bad habits and at the same time
develop good ones. You will have the insights to know which are the values and goals that ignite your
willpower.

4. Resistance to social pressure. When you stand firm in your values and preferences, you are far less likely to
say "yes" in the times when you want to say "no."

5. Tolerance and understanding of others. Your awareness of your weaknesses and struggles can help you
empathize with others.

6. Vitality and pleasure. Being who you truly are helps you to feel more alive, and makes your experience of life
far richer, larger, and more exciting.

Building Blocks of Self: Your VITALS

V = Values. Values are guides to decision-making and motivators for goals, such as “helping others,” “being creative,”
“health,” “financial security,” and so on.

I = Interests. It includes your passions, hobbies, and anything that draws your attention over a sustained period. To
determine your interests, ask yourself the following questions: What are you paying attention to? What is that you are
curious about? What's concerning you? That focused mental state of being interested in something will make life vivid
and may give you clues to your deepest passions.

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T = Temperament. It describes your preferences that you were born with. Do you recharge your energy from being
alone (introvert) or from being in the company of other people (extrovert)? Are you a planner or a go-with-the-flow
type of person? Do you make decisions more based on feelings or thoughts and facts? Do you prefer details or huge
ideas? Knowing the answers to temperament questions can help you gravitate toward situations in which you can
flourish and avoid situations in which you can wilt.

A = Around-the-Clock Activities. This refers to when you like to do things, that is, your biorhythm. Are you a morning
person or a night person? When during the day does your energy peak? If you schedule your activities when you are at
your best, then you are respecting your innate biology.

L = Life Mission and Meaningful Goals. Ask yourself the question: "what have been the most meaningful events of my
life?" You may unearth clues as to your hidden identity, to your career, and life satisfaction.

S = Strengths. It includes abilities; skills; talents; and character strengths, such as: loyalty, respect for other people,
love of learning, emotional intelligence, and fairness. Knowing your strengths is one of the very bastions of self-
confidence; not being able to acknowledge your superpowers can lower your self-esteem.

Reflection on the Self as Proactive and Agentic

According to Albert Bandura, agency is perceived as proactive agents of experiences. It is the endowments,
belief systems, self-regulatory capabilities, and distributed structures and functions through which personal influence is
exercised, rather than reside as a discrete entity.

Main features of human agency:

 Intentionality. It refers to the acts done intentionally. For example, I saw an old woman who will cross the
street; unfortunately, she cannot walk fast. What I did was to help her, and my only intention is to cross her
safe.

 Forethought. It enables the person to anticipate the likely consequences of prospective actions. For example, I
will clean my room not only to make it clean and comfortable but rather to have a good ambiance for me to
study. I am thinking of a good consequence that should I do.

 Self-reactiveness. It involves making choices and choosing appropriate courses of action, as well as motivating
and regulating them. For example, I chose this course. Thus, I must do my obligations to study, pass, and learn
from my subjects. I must be reactive toward the things and circumstances that may happen.

 Self-reflectiveness. It gives the person the ability to reflect upon and the adequacy of his or her thoughts and
actions. For example, I did not study our lesson in Calculus, and I got a failing grade. Essentially, I will reflect
on what happened, and the best thing to do is to do better and never let your professor or a certain subject
bring you down.

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LESSON 8: THE SELF IN WESTERN AND EASTERN THOUGHTS
Individualism versus Collectivism
Individualism stresses, or places great emphasis, on individual goals and the rights of the person. By contrast,
collectivism is focused on group goals, what is best for the collective group, and personal relationships.

Individualism

⮚ Individualist is motivated by personal rewards and benefits.

⮚ Individualist people set personal goals and objectives based on self.
⮚ Individualistic workers are comfortable working with autonomy and not a part of a team.
⮚ Geographic clusters of individualism may be found in Anglo countries, Germanic Europe, and Nordic Europe.
Collectivism

⮚ Collectivist is motivated by group goals. Long-term relationships are essential.

⮚ Collectivistic persons readily sacrifice individual benefits or praise to recognize and honor the team’s success. Being
singled out and honored as an individual from the rest of the group may be embarrassing to the collectivistic person.
⮚ Geographic clusters for collectivism are often located in Arab countries, Latin America, Confucian Asia, Southern
Asia, and Sub-Saharan Africa.

The Self in Western and Eastern Thoughts

Various cultures and environments see the concept of "self" in different ways. We often compare cultures using
the East-versus-West idea, where East is like Asia, and West is like Europe and North America. Even if countries are
close, they can still be different because of various factors. In the Philippines, each region might have a similar or
different view of the "self" due to its diverse makeup.

In the Search for the Self: Eastern versus Western Perspectives

“I believe that if we are honest with ourselves, that the most fascinating problem in the world is ‘Who am I?’
What do you mean, what do you feel, when you say the word I—I, myself. I don’t think there can be any more
fascinating preoccupation than that," was the opening to a lecture made by the late great British philosopher Alan
Watts, who is also known for his interpretations of Eastern philosophy and mythology.

In various talks and numerous books, Alan Watts explored the two significant myths about the self. Here, the
term "myth" isn't about something untrue but serves as a way to interpret and understand oneself and one's reality.

The myth of the "world as an artifact" pervades in the West, wherein there is a distinct difference between the
creator and the created, the godhead and the godhead's creations, in the same way that a potter is distinct from pots
and a carpenter is distinct from his/her constructions. In the East, there is that myth of the world as sort of a drama,
wherein all of the things in the world are not made, but acted, same as a player acts parts, where there is, for contrast,
no distinction is made between creator and created, and the godhead is no longer distinct from the godhead's
creations. All that exists is a function of the same existence.

As said by Alan Watts, "these are the two great images which govern respectively the religions of the West,
descending from Hebraism, that is to say, Hebraism itself, Christianity and Islam, and on the other hand, the myth that
governs those religions which have had their origins in India, most particularly, Hinduism itself, and to a lesser extent
Buddhism." Watts quickly followed this up by clarifying that this is how the two myths of the self are expressed at a
popular level, that is, they are what it is like and not what it is, and that the majority of sophisticated adherents or
followers of the particular religions of the East or the West have a deeper and more profound understanding of
themselves and their reality.

Genealogical Self and a Confucian Way of Self-Making

In Anglo-European West and East Asia, moral philosophy starts from understanding the self's true
nature. Different conceptions of self or answers to the questions such as "what am I?" and "how do I become myself?"
often lead to varying ways of moral life to varying answers for the question "what ought I do to live my life?"

The three main ways of understanding the relationship between myself and the surrounding contextual others
in contemporary studies of Confucianism are as follows:

1. the “universal self”

2. the “organismic self”

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3. the "relational self”

All these three influential understandings of the Confucian conception of self either still stand in the shadow of
the Indo-European metaphysical traditions of self or are not sufficient to go beyond that shadow. Thus, they may not
lead us to a complete and appropriate understanding of the unique and the true spirit of the conception of self in
Confucianism.

Based on how Chinese characters get themselves generated “genealogically,” the genealogical self is an
alternative understanding of the Confucian conception of self. It is rooted much deeper in the Chinese social, cultural,
and linguistic traditions than any other three conceptions.

Taoism: Deceptiveness of Language

Taoism shows us how language deceives us. (Ho, 1995) Centuries later, Berkeley argued that words impede
thinking. Taoism predates, or existed before, the philosophy of linguistic analysis that started in the 20th century.
The Tao De Ching, specifically, (Classic of the Way and of Potency, Graham, 1989) begins by asserting the following:

The Way that can be ‘Way’-ed

Is not the constant Way.

The name that can be named
Is not the constant name. (p. 219)

The Tao is timeless and all-encompassing yet also nameless and indescribable. Any particular representation of
the Tao through language is false, that is, "the knower does not say, the sayer does not know" (Ho, 1995). This idea
presents an insurmountable predicament for the Taoists; it places them in the rather awkward position of being unable
to ever articulate what the Tao is." (Ho, 1995) However, being mystics, Ho says that Taoists are not troubled at all by
this predicament. The point they're making is that there is a need to be mindful of the limitation that is inherent in
language. Chuang-tzu's witty aphorisms, anecdotes, and arguments are also forceful in inducing skepticism as to
whether any utterance makes sense at all.

Taoism itself is the very embodiment of paradoxes and contradictions. Here, the sage acts without action, and
the ruler rules without governing. (Ho, 1995) An intelligent person is similar to a small child. Things are relative yet at
the same time identical because the Tao is unitary. Being and nonbeing produce each other; each of them derive their
own meaning from the coexistence of the other. Taoism even predates Derrida's 1978 critique of the concept of
logocentrism and his apparent deconstructive aim to undermine the notions of identity and hierarchy fundamental to
Western thought.

Buddhism
Buddhism has evolved into many sects in other great traditions, each of which, with its school of thought
departing in various ways, occasionally radically, from its founder Gautama's teachings. Making the diagnosis that
holding onto the illusion of individual selfhood is the source of our suffering. Buddhism provides a prescription for
enlightenment. Self-renunciation holds the key to salvation. Given that life is viewed as intrinsically futile, the goal is
deliverance from the self and "not from worldly sufferings due to social conditions." (Ho, 1995) Nirvana, which is the
ideal to be attained, is a state of transcendence that is devoid of self-reference. Buddhism has worked out a
particularly elaborate system of practice to enable one to attain this transcendence. Meditation is an instrumentality
central to this system. (Ho, 1995)

Hinduism
“In Hinduism, the conception of selfhood is strongly informed by monistic metaphysics. This conception is
elaborated in Vedanta, which is one of the major orthodox systems of Indian philosophical thought.” (Ho, 1995)

The Social Construction of the Self in Western Thought

 Plato was one of the very first philosophers to state that the soul is eternal (H, 2017); thus, a man's soul
makes up his enduring self because the soul continues to exist even after death.

 Rene Descartes also stated that "thinking is an attribute of the soul", and "the continuity of his thinking mind
is what makes him remain the same person." In other words, our consciousness is a result of our "soul" or
"enduring self." He believed that if he cannot think, then he cannot exist. Thus, thinking in and of itself is what
constitutes a self.

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 John Locke said that the self is a person’s memory. In other words, our memory allows us to identify
ourselves, and the process of identifying ourselves enables us to formulate the idea of a self.

West
The eternal reality of the universal truth is self-liberation by getting rid of the false “Me” and discovering the
true “Me.”

 Regarding the lifestyle. Western influence developed early independence. Self-expression is given freely. You
are responsible for yourself and must live on your own. One’s own goals take priority as motivated by “I-
dominated” materialistic preferences, needs, and rights.

 Regarding relationships. Tasks are more important than relationships. Cognitive skills are independent of social
skills. Concepts such as arranged marriages are not expected. They go for unions based on love as they
believe in the idea that love comes before marriage.

 How is a child taken care of? The overriding goal of the parents is to make the child independent and "self-
reliant." Babies are filled with potential, and a good parent is one who can unearth and nurture the latent
abilities and talents in their child and encourage the good while discouraging the bad.

 How does senior life look like? An elder is given preference over the family. Thus, he is flexible and free to
make decisions on his own.

 On education. Western educational systems are focused on the ideas of creativity. The system means that
numerous things are bound together, but it still does its best to elevate individual ways to deal with various
students. Western education moves further and aims to transform students into undeniable members of the
training procedure. They are urged to make inquiries and think critically.

 Leadership. It is informal and egalitarian, with the belief being all people are equal and deserve equal rights
and opportunities (source: Oxford Languages).

 On Leadership. People are the most comfortable with their social equals because the importance of social
rankings is minimized[1].“Leadership is done from in front. Never ask others to do what you, if challenged,
would not be willing to do yourself.” – Xenophon. In terms of evolution and improvement, hence has a goal.
Development stops when the goal is reached.

 Regarding beauty. Men are more attracted to women with tanned, copper skin with mature features.
Meanwhile, women are attracted to muscular guys—however, personality-wise, women like sassy, witty,
strong, and real men.

Confucianism: Concept of Religion and Spirituality

“According to Confucians, spiritual development comes after physical, emotional, and mental development.
One must first learn to know, respect, and honor oneself as one goes about daily business. As Confucius said, “if you
don't know how to live as a person, how can you serve the spirit?” (Confucian Analects, Confucius 1971 [500 B.C.E.]).”
(JRank, n.d.)

Concept of Jen as a loving relationship. Jen is a proper relationship between two parties, that is, “a loving
and caring relationship to reach humanity. Meditation is considered a cornerstone to search for self, find the truth, and
achieve individual and collective goals.” (JRank, n.d.)

Concept of harmony. “A central feature of Confucianism is harmony between people and their environment,
nature, or Tao. The Tao Chi (Yin-Yang diagram) is an example of the value of harmony with the environment. It is also
applied to the concept of health for energy (qi/chi), balance for disease prevention, healing, and the development of
human potential. Meditation is a way of managing energy that is applied to reach physical, emotional, mental, and
spiritual harmony for individual holistic health.” (JRank, n.d.)

This core value of Confucianism had positive and negative effects on Chinese history; it became detrimental to
women and children. Contemporary Confucians recommended family conflict resolution as a solution to this problem.
“Younger generations are not allowed to express their opinions before their elders. According to social standards,
women and children who have been abused are still expected to be submissive. Social workers and helping
professionals must understand the hidden cultural dynamics to deal with the root philosophies and beliefs as they help
people.” (JRank, n.d.)

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Family conflict resolution. “According to Yin Yang theory from the Tai Chi diagram, contemporary
Confucians, such as Douglas K. Chung (1993a), recommended the family conflict resolution model. It is an example of
an innovation of Confucianism in redefining the image of Tao through daily practice. In the model, any system’s
solutions to conflict resolutions and goals for development aim to integrate love ( Jen), justice, freedom, and fidelity
(the image of Tao) in the dynamics. This approach aims to fulfill human needs (love). Justice is seen by the end of the
cycle under perfectly equal treatment. Freedom is practiced by volunteer choice and participation in negotiation and
compromise, that is, the flexibility of mean line and the possibility of forming new systems. Faithfulness is reached by
the stability, repeatability, and accountability of leadership and/or revealed by natural laws. Therefore, role equity and
change in the role are the core implications of Yin-Yang theory.” (JRank, n.d.)

Theory of the Universe (humanism or secularism, instead of the supernatural) Confucius cared about
humans, that is, the human condition and not metaphysics (grand theories of the universe.) Confucius said, ‘worry
about humans, not gods; worry about life, not death.’ He emphasized that good government would promote social
harmony and general well-being (Confucius is primarily a political thinker).” (Messerly, 2014)

Confucius remains metaphysical when he says that morality is embedded in the universe and within humans.
The essence of morality is a concern with the general welfare. Plato, Aristotle, Locke, and Hobbes, and American
Presidents Jefferson, FDR, LBJ, Jimmy Carter, etc., shared this view. Such concern is out of fashion with large parts of
American politics today. Confucius claimed that the decree of heaven would not support rulers who rule for their
benefit instead of the general welfare.

"Another metaphysical concept in the school of Confucian thinking is the idea that several things are beyond
our control—these things are the result of destiny. Confucius talked as if destiny is a design of the heavens that is
beyond human understanding. Humans can conform or align with the decree of heaven if they choose by promoting
the general welfare, but our destiny is beyond our understanding and control. Humans should thus follow the decree of
heaven by not being concerned with wealth, status, longevity, etc." (Messerly, 2014)

The Tao is the way of the sages, in essence the way that previous good rulers followed the decree of heaven
and endorsed the common good, thereby promoting social cohesion.

Theory of Human Nature – Confucius had high hopes about human potential; he desired for people to be
sages or wise persons who instantiate and bring forth the goodness of the heavens within them. This is accomplished
by being benevolent. The result of being moral, or benevolent, is joy. (Messerly, 2014)

Confucius was not clear on why only a few people become wise, benevolent sages, but he put forward the
suggestion that it may be because we choose of our own free will not to be good. He also thought
that our environment plays a significant role in shaping us. Thus, we need to be molded to achieve moral perfection
that is "molded especially by a culture and a social system that is conducive to our moral development." (Messerly,
2014)

Diagnosis – "Social discord is 'caused by selfishness and ignorance of the past'. As a consequence, human
interaction is marred and marked by strife, rulers govern with attention only for their personal gain, common people
suffer under the load of unjust burdens, and social behavior as a whole is determined by egoism and greed." (Messerly,
2014) Why is life so bad? According to Confucius, it is because of 1) profit motive (seeking profit), 2) lack of respect for
parents (disrespect), 3) lying, 4) ignorance of the past and 5) minimal benevolence.

Prescription – Confucius prescribed self-discipline for individuals and rulers to cure the ills of society. "In
other words, society will be better when the people who comprise it are better. This approach provides answers to the
five problems listed above." (Messerly, 2014)

 “Do what is right because it is right and not for profit. In our struggle to be moral, we thus align ourselves with
the decree of heaven, with something similar to the natural order. We also protect ourselves against
disappointment because we care about moral virtue" (Messerly, 2014) instead of things we cannot be assured
of achieving, such as fame and fortune. Moral excellence is its reward, whether we are recognized for it or
not. It encourages us to keep working for righteousness in the world, although no one appreciates you for it. If
we are motivated by the things that are right, we will find joy in our efforts, although we do not fully succeed.
Thus, destiny plays a role in human life. However, our moral excellence is something definitely within our
control, and we should struggle and strive to attain it through self-discipline. We should cultivate self and not
social recognition, fame, or fortune.

 Cultivating self implies that you will be a better family member. “Being a good family member has
reverberations throughout society. A person who is good to their parents and siblings and children will be good

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to others as well." (Messerly, 2014) The transformation of the self and benevolence begins in the family and
spreads outward.

 About lying, Confucius said that we need the word and deed to conform; ergo, actions should reflect words. If
we all lie, then trust will disappear. Words are easy to generate; if a person or government uses them thus to
conceal the truth, then from this social chaos ensues. Trust is a key component of all dependable social
interaction.

 According to Messerly, “The answer to ignorance of the past is education, study, and scholarship." The most
important thing for Confucius is the study of the cultural legacy of our past to revealing how moral perfection
can be achieved. "Such education is also crucial for good government." (Messerly, 2014) Only after one
received good education should one be allowed to be a leader.

Benevolence refers to kindness, goodwill, charity, compassion, generosity, and philanthropy. It is the main
means of moral perfection. For Confucius, this process of becoming benevolent involves three elements, that is, a)
clinging to and adhering to benevolence at all times, b) the golden rule: treating others as you would like to be treated
and not doing to others what you do (Messerly, 2014) not want to be done to you, and c) habituating our action
according to moral rules that we learn from studying the classics. Benevolence is achieved by acting following "the
moral rules we learn through study, which is to live according to the way of the heavens." (Messerly, 2014)

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LESSON 9: THE PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL SELF
The Biological Self
As outlined within the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, the biological notion of Self and non-self defines the
characteristics of identity that distinguish individual organisms from similar kinds.

Three (3) Categories of the Biological Self:

1. Physical self

2. Biological Blueprint

3. Heredity

"Physical Self refers to the body, and complex, finely tuned, a machine with which we interface and interact
with our environment and fellow beings. The Physical Self is that concrete dimension, the tangible aspect of the
person directly observable and examinable." The Physical Self is categorized into two types: Physical features - face,
body structure, height, weight, and fitness (crucial aspects), and Physical Components - physical competencies,
evaluation of physical worth, and perception of beauty. "Directly or indirectly, the discussion on Physical Self has found
a place in various schools of psychology like psychoanalysis, behaviorism, humanism, etc. with some of its most
ardent exponents and followers dealing with the issue in varying proportions." (Singh, n.d.)

Physical Self-esteem is a person's evaluation of their physical self, including evaluations of physical appearance
and physical competencies, also known as Physical Self-worth.

Physical beauty is the degree to which a person's physical traits are considered pleasing or beautiful. It is a
combination of qualities, for instance, shape, color, or form, that pleases or appeals to the aesthetic senses, in
particular the sight of people.

Three Qualities of Beauty

 Genetics - how we actually look

 Health and Grooming- how we take care of ourselves

 Positive Self-Regard- how we feel about how we look

The Biological Blueprint is a dynamic biological and chemical process that contributes to physical features. It is
the physiological processes that trigger bodily changes and sustain survival. It also shows genetic transformation and
biological development embodied in heredity that triggers physical characteristics.

DNA serves as the "genetic blueprint" dictating the genotypic composition of each organism. It plays an
important role in determining various traits and characteristics. In its purest form, DNA comprises two strands of
nucleotides (A, C, G, and T), intricately wound around each other. The specific binding capabilities of these bases are
noteworthy; A consistently binds to T, and C consistently binds to G. Scientists find these binding properties valuable,
as determining the nucleotide sequence of one DNA strand enables the deduction of the sequence of another strand
through complementary binding. In humans, DNA is structured into 24 units known as chromosomes, each consisting
of densely coiled DNA.

What is Heredity?

Heredity refers to the passing down of genetic information, traits, and characteristics from one generation to
the next. This transmission occurs through the transfer of genetic material, particularly DNA, from parent organisms to
their offspring during reproduction. Heredity is a fundamental concept in genetics and plays a key component in
determining the biological similarities and variations among individuals within a species. It encompasses the
inheritance of physical traits, such as eye color or height, as well as the transmission of predispositions to certain
diseases or conditions.

What is Maturation?

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Maturation entails an individual's development through natural growth processes governed by internal
biological factors. It signifies the regular progression of growth and aging, unfolding naturally without requiring any
conscious effort on the part of the individual.

Sexual maturation spans from the initial embryonic differentiation of sexual organs to their full maturity and
fertility. Puberty, on the other hand, is a transitional phase between childhood and adulthood, marked by the
maturation of sex organs and the reproductive system, coupled with a growth spurt. Additionally, significant
psychological, behavioral, cognitive, and emotional changes accompany the process of puberty (Beunen, Rogol, & Mal,
2006).

SEXUAL SELF

This is a part of yourself where you learn and understand your sexual development and how people's sexual
activity, beliefs, misconceptions, and unlimited access from the internet to sex can influence your sexual behavior and
responses.

Sexual Development is a lifelong process that starts at the moment of conception (Tsiaras, 2016). It is a part of
human development.

3 Reasons Why an Individual's Sex Is Important in Life-long Development

1. Develop attitude and behavior patterns

2. Learning Experience

3. Parent's attitudes and significant others

Freud's Psychosexual Stages of Development

Psychosexual Stages

Oral o Frustrations o Schedule Fed

o Overindulgence o Demand Fed

Anal (2-3 y/o) o Overindulgence o Uncontrolled

Phallic o Heterosexualizing o Homosexuality

interactions

o Jealousy

o Parent-identification

Latency o Repression of Oedipal o Reality principle and

Attachments Reduction of learning of skills
sexuality Establish Gender
Identity

Genital o Sexual instincts o Sublimate sexual energy

into emotional
o Sexual conflicts commitments
o Death instincts o Hostile, rebellious, JD

o Vows of celibacy

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The Human Productive System
Sex is not only for reproduction; it helps strengthen relationships, encourages a man to stick around to take
care of his child, and affects not only health but well-being. (Tsiaras, 2006)

Female Reproductive System

 Ovaries - 400,000 eggs

 Ovum -100,000 times larger than the sperm cell

 X chromosome

 Puberty - 8-13 y/o (menarche)

Male Reproductive System

 Testes -200M sperm cells

 X or Y chromosomes

 Puberty - 10-15 y/o

 Hormones are constantly active

Human Sexual Response

 Androgens, Estrogens, Progesterone

 Sexual motivation - refers to the libido, a person's sexual drive or desire for sexual activity.

The Cycles of the Human Sexual Response

1. Excitement (desire/arousal) is a sudden increase in blood pressure, pulse, and blood supply to the body's
surface, increasing temperature

2. Plateau may feel physical and emotional excitement, have sensations of sensitivity and warmth, and even
appear flushed.

3. Orgasm - a feeling of intense pleasure that happens during sexual activity. It's sometimes called coming or
climaxing. (What is an orgasm? , n.d.)

4. Resolution - the body slowly returns to its normal functioning level and swells, and erect body parts return to
their previous size and color.
(Sexual Response Cycle: Learn About the Phases of Sex, n.d.)

5 Circles of Sexuality

1. Sensuality - awareness and feelings about your own body and other people's body.

2. Sexual Intimacy - the ability to be emotionally close to another human being and accept closeness in return.

3. Sexual Identity - a person's understanding of who he/she is sexual, including the sense of being male and/or
female.

4. Reproduction and Sexual Health - a person's capacity to reproduce and the behaviors and attitudes that make
sexual relationships healthy and enjoyable.

5. Sexualization - aspect of sexuality in which people behave sexually to influence, manipulate, or control other
people - the "shadowy" side of human sexuality

Lust Attraction Attachment

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Driven by sex hormones, testosterone, This is the phase where a person starts A bond helps the couple take their
and estrogen to feel love. relationship to advanced levels (The
Science Behind Falling in Love, n.d.)
Main neurotransmitters: adrenaline,
dopamine, serotonin. 2 Major hormones: oxytocin and
vasopressin

The Diversity of Human Sexuality

 Gender Bias - means holding stereotyped opinions about people according to their gender.

 Sexual Orientation - an enduring pattern of emotional, romantic, and sexual attraction to men, women, or both
sexes. It refers to a person's sense of identity based on those attractions, related behaviors, and membership
in a community of others who share those attractions.

(INTERVIEW: THE LGBT COMMUNITY IN TANZANIA, n.d.) (What Is Sexual Orientation?, n.d.) (Essentials of Psych DOUBLE
Jeopardy Jeopardy Template, n.d.)

The Diversity of Sexual Behavior

Sexual behavior transcends in different forms. It may be influenced by the basic psychological aspect of
sexuality and expectations, attitudes, beliefs, and state of medical and biological knowledge. Heterosexuality - it is the
sexual attraction and behavior directed to the other sex. More than male-female intercourse, it involves kissing,
petting, caressing, massaging, and other sexual activities.

Homosexuality and Bisexuality

Homosexuality is a romantic and/or sexual attraction between members of the same sex. Bisexuals are those
who can be romantically or sexually attracted to the same sex and the other sex. Some male homosexuals prefer the
term "gay," and some female homosexuals prefer the term "Lesbian."

Transsexuality
These are people who believe that they were born with the body of the other gender. Transsexuals sometimes
seek sex-change operations, which undergo several steps such as intensive sexual counseling, hormone injections,
living as a member of desired sex for several years, and surgery.

NATURAL & ARTIFICIAL METHODS OF CONTRACEPTION

Natural Contraception

This is a classification of birth control types that depend on observations of a woman's body through
monitoring and recording different fertility signals during her menstrual cycle. Though there are different methods, one
may predict when a woman will be more likely to get pregnant. Natural contraceptives may be through abstinence,
calendar method, symptothermal method, ovulation detection, lactation amenorrhea method, and coitus interruption.

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(Belleza, 2019)

Artificial Methods

Artificial methods are diverse methods of contraception to prevent a woman's conception. Artificial
contraception depends on the individual's health status, age, sexual activity, and/or the number of sexual partners.
Samples of artificial methods are oral contraceptives, transdermal patches, vaginal rings, subdermal implants,
hormonal injections, intrauterine devices (IUDs), chemical barriers, diaphragm and cervical cap, male and female
condoms, etc.

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(Belleza, 2019)

Sexual Disorders

 Paraphilia is a set of regular, strong, sexually arousing fantasies or behaviors having to do with inanimate
objects, children, or non-consenting adults, or suffering or humiliation of oneself or the partner.

 Paraphilic Disorders are paraphilics that cause distress and/or cause problems related to functioning in the
person with the paraphilia or that harm or may harm another person. Most people with paraphilia are men, and
many have more than one type of paraphilia. Some of them also have severe personality disorders, for
instance, antisocial personality disorder or narcissistic personality disorder. (Paraphilias and Paraphilic
Disorders, n.d.) (Brawn, 2019)

Common Paraphilic Disorders

 Pedophilic disorder - is characterized by recurring, intense sexually arousing fantasies, urges, or behavior
associated with children (usually 13 years old or younger).

 Voyeurism - involves getting sexually aroused by watching an unsuspecting person who is disrobing, naked, or
engaged in sexual activity. Voyeuristic behavior involves acting on voyeuristic urges or fantasies and feeling
distressed by or unable to function because of those urges and fantasies. (Paraphilic Disorders - DSM-5, n.d.)

 Transvestism - involves recurrent, intense sexual arousal from cross dressing. Transvestic disorder is
transvestism causing significant distress or substantially interferes with daily functioning.

 Exhibitionism - involves exposing one's genitals to become sexually excited or also having a strong urge to be
observed by others during sexual activity. Exhibitionistic urges or fantasies can cause one to be distressed and
unable to conduct daily functions. (The psychology behind public masturbation and indecent exposure, 2018)

 Sexual Masochism - involves various acts in which a person gets sexual excitement from being humiliated,
beaten, bound, or otherwise abused. Sexual masochism causes significant distress or substantially interferes
with daily functioning.
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 Sexual Sadism - involves various acts in which a person experiences and derives sexual excitement from
inflicting physical or psychological suffering on another person. Sexual sadism disorder causes significant
distress, substantially negatively affects daily functioning, harms another person, or involves someone who
has not given consent.

LESSON 10: TO BUY OR NOT TO BUY? THAT IS THE QUESTION!

William James – a psychologist and philosopher who had a significant influence on the development of psychology in
the United States
– the father of American psychology
– the first one to teach a psychology course in the U.S.

THREE COMPONENTS OF THE EMPIRICAL SELF

William James coined the term "the empirical self" to refer to how people answer the question “Who am I”? His
analysis is broad. James grouped various components of the empirical self into three subcategories, that is, (a) the
material self, (b) the social self, and (c) the spiritual self. (University of Washington, n.d.)

1. “Material Self refers to the set of tangible objects, people, or places that carry the label "my" or "mine." Two
subclasses of the material self can be distinguished” (University of Washington, n.d.), that is the bodily self and
extracorporeal (beyond the body) self. Rosenberg (1979) referred to the extracorporeal self as the extended self.

“People’s emotional responses to their possessions also attest to their importance to the self. A person who
loses a wallet often feels greater anguish over a lost photograph than over any money that is missing. Similarly, many
car owners react with extreme anger when their cars are damaged, even when the damage is only slight in physical
terms. Finally, many people who lose possessions in a natural disaster go through a grieving process similar to the
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process people go through when they lose a person they love.” (McLeod, 1984 cited in Belk, 1988).

Material Self Investment Diagram

 Body. For James, it is the core of the material self. It is the innermost part of our material self. We are directly
attached to this commodity that we cannot live without. We strive hard to make sure that these body functions
are well and good. Intentionally, we are investing in our bodies. Any ailment and disorder directly affects us.
Some people get certain body parts insured. For example, Mariah Carey used 1 billion USD to insure her vocal
cords and legs. David Beckham also used 70 million USD to insure his legs.

Rudolf Hermann Lotze was a German philosopher and logician. He had a medical degree and was well-versed in
biology. He argued that if mechanical laws govern the physical world, then relations and developments in the universe
can be explained as the functioning of a world mind

 Clothes – William James believed that clothing is an essential part of the material self. He believed a person’s
clothes are one way they express who they feel they are. Clothes are a way to show status, thereby forming
and maintaining one’s self-image. In his book, Microcosmus, Lotze stipulated that “anytime we bring into the
surface of our body, we invest that object into the consciousness of our existence, taking in its contours to be
our own and making it part of the self.”

The fabric and style of the clothes we wear bring sensations to the body, directly affecting our attitudes and
behavior. Thus, clothes are placed in the second hierarchy of material self. Clothing is a form of self-expression.
We choose and wear clothes that are a reflection of our self.

 Immediate family – It includes our parents, siblings, and other family members. We view them as parts of
ourselves. According to the Business Dictionary, your immediate family includes spouse, parents,
grandparents, children (adopted, half, and stepchildren are generally included in the definition), grandchildren,
siblings, and in-laws (mother, father, brother, sister, daughter, and son). (What Is Considered Immediate
Family?, n.d.)

Immediate and other family members can be determined using the following two ways:

o Relation by blood – This means they share the same lineage or parent, such as siblings, children, or
grandchildren.

o Relation by marriage – This means they share a common bond through the marriage of one member of
each family, such as with in-laws or stepchildren. (What Is Considered Immediate Family?, n.d.)

 Home – Home is where our heart is. It is the earliest nest of our selfhood. The home is an extension of self
because, in it, we can directly connect ourselves.

2. Social self is a term that refers to how we are regarded and recognized by others. James's analysis of the social self
was broad. “James went on to make an additional point about these social selves. He posited an instinctive drive to be
noticed and recognized by others.” (University of Washington, n.d.) James argued that we affiliate not because we like
the company, but because we crave recognition and status. Building on James’s analysis, modern researchers

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proposed that we also possess a relational self, which is self-defined in terms of specific interpersonal relationships.
The relational self includes all “individuals we regard as “ours,” such as our parents, siblings, romantic partners, close
friends, and colleagues.” (Andersen & Chen, 2002; Chen, Boucher, & Tapias, 2006)

Social Comparison Theory

“Social comparison theory proposes that we use social comparisons to construct our self-concept, especially
when we have no other objective standard available to us (Festinger, 1954). How do you know if you are shy,
competitive, rich, anxious, or anything else? These subjective ideas only become meaningful in comparison to others.
For example, if you are walking alone on the beach, then you may not even be thinking about your physical
appearance. However, when someone much more attractive than you walks by, the unflattering social comparison can
deliver a small shock to your previously contented self-concept (Bachman & O’Malley, 1986; Marsh, Köller, & Baumert,
2001).“ (The Social Self)

Two Types of Social Comparison:

 Upward Social Comparisons – “we compare ourselves to someone better than us. This type of comparison can
be useful when we want to improve on a particular skill. Most people who like watching cooking shows with
celebrity chefs enjoy getting tips on making their food taste or look better. The same is true for people who get
ideas about home decorating from Martha Stewart or by reading magazines with ideas, or when athletes learn
from coaches. However, constantly comparing ourselves to people who have excelled can lead to frustration or
even depression.” (The Social Self) Why cannot my cupcakes look as good as the ones on Pinterest?

 Downward Social Comparisons – when we compare ourselves to someone worse than we are. This might not
help us improve, but it makes us feel better. For example, my cupcakes may not win any cupcake reality show
contest, but they are better than the cupcake my daughter tried to make. My tennis skills may not be on a
professional level, but I am better than the guy on the next court who cannot hit a single ball over the net.
(The Social Self)

How do we know the self is social?

1. “Self-perception theory notes that when we form impressions of others, we do so by observing their behavior
and then making guesses about those people’s values, opinions, and so on. The theory suggests that we form
our self-concept in the same way; we observe our behavior and form our self-concept by inferring what our
values, opinions, and so forth are based on our behavior.

2. Self-discrepancy theory is the idea that instead of one single self-concept, we have three self-concepts. Our
actual self is our perception of who we are right now, while our ideal self is the person we would like to be.
Finally, our ought self is the self-concept we have that reflects what we think other people in our social world
expect of us. The self-discrepancy theory hypothesizes that when our actual self and ideal self do not match,
we will feel dejection-related emotions, such as disappointment and shame. Meanwhile, when our actual self
and ought self do not match, we feel agitation-related emotions, such as guilt or anxiety.

3. Self-expansion theory suggests that we all want to grow and improve over time, reaching the best possible
self-concept. One way to “expand” our self-concept is to include other people in our cognitive view of self,
which provides us access to other people’s skills, memories, perspectives, and so on. A measure of the degree
to which we have included someone else into our self-concept is called the Inclusion of the Other in the
Self scale, which asks people to choose one pair of overlapping circles out of seven choices. The choices show
the progressive degrees of overlap with one circle labeled “self” and the second circle labeled ‘other.’” (The
Social Self)

3. Spiritual Self – “is our inner self or our psychological self. It is comprised of our self-perceived abilities, attitudes,
emotions, interests, values, motives, opinions, traits, and wishes. Many aspects of the spiritual self are evaluative.
People think of themselves as attractive or unattractive, intelligent or unintelligent, and honest or dishonest .”
(University of Washington, n.d.)

James claimed that the spiritual self is the most intimate version of self because of the satisfaction experienced
when one thinks of one’s “ability to argue and discriminate, of our [one’s] moral sensibility, and conscience, of our
indomitable will” (James 1890, 164) is purer than other sentiments of satisfaction. Then, James described several

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bodily processes in which becoming introspective can make the acts entirely mindful, conscious processes, thereby
providing further insight into an intimate, spiritual self.

“James concluded that our possessions, which are aspects of the material self, and our emotions, attitudes, and
beliefs, which are components of the spiritual self, are closely related. Abelson (1986) observed that this similarity is
captured in our language. A person is said to have a belief from when it is first acquired to when it is discarded or lost.
We also say things like, “I inherited a view” or “I cannot buy that!” Finally, we speak of people who have abandoned
their convictions or disowned an earlier position. These terms imply that possessions and attitudes share an
underlying conceptual property: they are both owned by the self (see Gilovich, 1991; Heider, 1958 for an elaboration
of this view).

Our tendency to treat our opinions as possessions can create interpersonal difficulties. When people find
themselves in a disagreement, they often react as if they are being personally attacked instead of simply
acknowledging that different people have varying perspectives (De Dreu & van Knippenberg, 2005). In turn, this
perception leads them to become belligerent and uncompromising. Mediators are often needed to broker solutions, in
part, because they are not invested in holding one view or the other.” (University of Washington, n.d.)

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LESSON 11: SUPERNATURAL: BELIEVE IT OR NOT

The spiritual self will be cohesive in its belief and practices that one’s act echoes one’s belief.

The spiritual self is one of the four constituents of the “self,” according to William James in his book The
Principles of Psychology in 1890. The spiritual self is the most intimate and inner subjective part of the self because
the satisfaction experienced when one is thinking of one’s ability to argue and discriminate one’s moral sensibility and
conscience is purer than all other sentiments of satisfaction. The ability to use moral sensibility and conscience may be
seen through religion's expressions, beliefs, and practices. In the same manner, cultural rituals and ceremonies are
several manifestations of what people believe in. Seeking the meaning of life is a journey that the spiritual and self are
on.

Religion – an organized group that believes and performs the same religious and spirituals. Rebecca Stein
(2011) defined religion as a set of cultural beliefs and practices that generally include some or all of the following
characteristics.

Characteristics of Religion:

 belief in an anthropomorphic supernatural being, such as spirit and gods;

 focus on the sacred supernatural; sacred refers to a feeling of reverence and awe;

 “presence of supernatural power or energy that is found on supernatural being and physical beings and
objects;”

 “performance of ritual activities that involves the manipulation of a sacred object to communicate to
supernatural beings and/or to influence or control events;”

 articulation of worldview and moral codes through narratives and other means; and

 provide the creation and maintenance of social bonds and mechanism of social control within a community and
an explanation for the unknown and a sense of control for individuals.
(SlideShare, n.d.)

Ritual – is the performing of ceremonial acts prescribed by a tradition or sacred law (Brittanica, 2017). It is a
specific, observable mode of behavior exhibited by all known societies.

Three characteristics of ritual:

1. feeling of respect and fascination relative to sacredness;

2. dependence upon belief expressed in myth; and

3. symbolic relationship with the reference.

The self can be described as a ritual being who exhibits a striking parallel between their verbal behavior. Like
languages, as symbols based upon rules, the ritual may be viewed as a system of symbols

Some World Religious Beliefs and Practices

Different religions with varying beliefs and practices exist. Some of the major religions are Buddhism,
Christianity, Hinduism, Islam, and Judaism.

1. Buddhism – is a religion that was established by Siddhartha Gautama (the Buddha) in India.

o Beliefs

 Life is composed of suffering, pain, and frustrations.

 Reactive cycle: wanting and halting, like and dislike, craving and aversion

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 Meditation to break the cycle

o History

 Born from a noble family, a king and a queen (Nepal)

 Mother has a dream

 Made four trips at the age of 29

 Found enlightenment during meditation in a fig tree at Gaya for 49 days

o Noble Truths

 Dukkha – the truth of suffering

 Samudaya – the truth of the cause of suffering

 Niroda – the truth of the path that leads to the end of suffering

o Dharma Wheel/Darmachakra – a widespread symbol of the Noble Eightfold Path or the Middle Way

The eight items in the Dharma wheel symbolize the Noble Eightfold Path

o Custom and Practices

Two Types of Meditation Practices

1. Samatha: mindfulness of breathing and development of loving-kindness

2. Vipassana: practices aim at developing insight into reality. Acquiring wisdom is by studying Buddha’s
teachings, the Dharma. Through the reflection of the Dharma, Buddhists can achieve a deeper understanding
of life. Buddhists believe in the nonviolence principle.

o Some of the Buddhist celebrations

 Parinirvana Day in February

 Buddha Day (Wesak) in May

 Dharma Day in July

 Padmasambhava Day in October

 Sangha Day in November

2. Christianity is a religion that is based primarily on the teachings of Jesus Christ.

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o Beliefs

 Christians believe in a Trinitarian God, that is, one God with three persons: God the Father
(Creator), God the Son (Savior), and God the Holy Spirit (Sustainer). Eternal life after death will
be achieved through faith in Jesus Christ.

 Jesus Christ is God the Son who came into the flesh to spread the Good News of salvation. He
died on the cross for the sins of humanity but was resurrected from death so that anyone who
will believe will be saved and have eternal life.

 The Holy Bible is a selection of books that is divided into two, that is, the Old and New
Testaments.

o Customs and Practices

 Christians practice sacraments of baptism and communion. The sacrament of baptism

symbolizes the birth in the Christian world, while the sacrament of communion is the act of
remembering Jesus’s sacrificial love.

 Christmas and resurrection (Easter) are two major celebrations in Christianity. Christmas is
held on December 25 to commemorate the birth of Jesus Christ, while resurrection (Easter
Sunday, depending on the lunar calendar) celebrates the resurrection of Jesus Christ from
death.

3. Hinduism – the main religion of India that includes the worship of many gods; it believes that after you die, you
return to life in a different form. (Merriam-Webster, Incorporated, n.d.)

o Beliefs

 Hinduism covers a wide range of traditional beliefs and religious groups; thus, there is no
single founder or leader. Hindus believe existence is a continual cycle of birth, death, and
rebirth governed by Karma.

 Karma is a concept where the reincarnated life will depend on how the past life is spent.
Hindus believe that the soul passes through the cycle of successive lives, and the next
incarnation will always be dependent on how the previous life was lived. (BBC, n.d.)

 Mahabharata and Ramayana are the two important texts of the Hindus.

 Vedas are the sacred scriptures of Hindus.

o Customs and Practices

 Diwali and Navrati are the most celebrated festivals of the Hindus. Diwali is a festival of lights,
while Navrati is a nine-night festival celebrating the triumph of good over evil.

4. Islam – teaches there is only one God, and Muhammad is God’s prophet.

o Beliefs

 Muslims believe in Allah, who is their “One God.” They believe in the unity and universality of
God.

 Muslims have a strong sense of community or “ummah” and awareness of solidarity with all
Muslims worldwide. It means “willing submission to God.”

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 Muslims believe that Mohammed is the last and final prophet sent by God. Mohammed was
born in Mecca in 570 CE (Common Era) and received revelations from God through Angel
Gabriel for 23 years. (SlideShare, n.d.)

 The Quran is the Holy Book of Israel as taught to be recited in Arabic because any translation is
seen as inadequate.

o Custom and Practices

Five Pillars of Islam (the foundation of Muslim life):

1. Shahadah – statement of faith, “there is no God, but one true God and Mohammed is his messenger of Allah.”

2. Salat is a ritual prayer that is practiced five times a day in a set form.

3. Zakat – monetary offering for the benefit of the poor. It comprises 2.5% of Muslim assets.

4. Hajj – the yearly pilgrimage to Mecca. Muslims who can afford it are asked to do it once in a lifetime.

5. Sawm is the fasting period during Ramadan. Muslims fast from eating food, drinking fluids, and performing
sexual acts from dawn to sunset during the celebration of Ramadan. Ramadan is the ninth month of the
Islamic lunar calendar.

Two of the Major Festivals in Islam

1. Eidul-Fitr is the celebration at the end of Ramadan.

2. Eidul-Adha is celebrated with the completion of the Hajj (pilgrimage).

5. Judaism – the religion developed among the ancient Hebrews that stresses belief in God and faithfulness to the
laws of the Torah. (geoalliance.asu.edu, n.d.)

o Beliefs

 The Jews believe in the coming of the Messiah, the Savior.

 The sacred scriptures of Jews are called Torah, or the Law, and serve as the guide of the Jewish
living. The study and interpretation of the Torah are part of Jewish culture.

o Custom and Practices

Five major festivals:

1. Rosh Hashanah – the New Year

2. Yom Kippur – the Day of Atonement

3. Pesach – Passover

4. Shavuot – Pentecost

5. Sukkot – Tabernacles

The Jewish Sabbath begins on Friday evening at sunset and is an important time when families gather for a
Sabbath meal.

Cult of Death. The members of Peoples Temple at Jones Town, Guyana, committed mass suicide after the
American Preacher Jim Jones has ordered them to drink poison. Over 900 people were killed during this event in
November 1978.

Animism is a belief that inanimate objects, such as trees, plants, the sun, and the sea or all of them at the same
time, may be worshipped. This was the belief in the Philippines before the Spaniards came.

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In the Philippines

 Hanging coffins in Sagada along the mountain’s crevices would bring the dead closer to the gods.

 Spiritual or faith healers – alternative healing but occasionally the main go-to of Filipinos. They use the spirits
to diagnose and cure the sick.

 Tawo of Bicol. They are invisible creatures that are thought to cause a wide range of illnesses and can only
communicate with faith healers or albukaru.

 Belief in supernatural beings – Aswang, mangkukulam, tikbalang, tiktik, kapre, duwende, etc.

However, it is not unusual to see people with strong faith adhering to superstitious beliefs. Our spiritual beliefs affect
our decisions politically and economically. Example: RH bill – the Catholic Church is a strong critic of this bill.

The Practice of Religion

1. Worship 7. Celebration
2. Rites 8. Meditation
3. Rituals 9. Dances
4. Sacrifices 10. Matrimonial
5. Fiestas 11. Funeral
6. Trances 12. Baptism

These acts become religious when they are considered sacred by the practitioners, depending on their beliefs. Ex:
Wine, incense, flowers

o Article 33 of the Revised Penal Code – One can be imprisoned for committing the crime of offending
religious feelings.

The Concept of Dungan

The concept strips man of everything, the body and all the physical faculties, and the only thing left would be his
soul.

In Hinduism, the atman is the universal, eternal self. The cycle of death and rebirth continues until the time the
soul has attained its karmic perfection and becomes one with brahman, which is the ultimate reality (permanent
home).

In Islam, the soul exists simultaneously as the body, but it will survive bodily death, which will then have a life of
its own.

In ethnic groups (animism), our soul can exist outside the body in dreams or visions (e.g., ghosts). It may also
reincarnate in the next life in another form, such as humans, animals, or plants.

For Babaylan, the Dungan, a companion that coexists, gives life, animation, and sensibilities, dwells inside a
person’s body. It can temporarily leave the body during sleep.

In indigenous concepts, the soul is a separate entity. It is the life force, energy, an ethereal entity, and a spirit
with a will of its own that resides in the human body and provides the essence of life.

Rituals and Ceremonies

Archeologists have found that rituals existed 100,000 years ago, acknowledging that all known communities
have their rituals and some form of religion. The main benefit of religion is the promotion of cooperation as an effective
social mechanism. Rituals or patterned behavior are forms of communication that signify a commitment to their group
members. It is done publicly as it is the manifestation of the beliefs, values, and basic ideals. It also gives assurance
that the person will do their fair share of the “work.” This creates a deeper bond with other members and the
community. Examples include the fasting of Muslims, Jews standing under the scorching sun, etc. When members
make sacrifices, it means that people are able to achieve the higher demands of religion. The higher the demands of
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religion, the higher the commitment should be. The higher the commitment is, the greater the cooperation among
people.

Religion, Magic, and Witchcraft

Magic refers to methods that somehow interface with the supernatural and by which people can bring about
particular outcomes. For Edward Tyler, magic is not part of the religion because it does not involve spirits. For James
Frazer, magic is the initial step before it becomes a religion, which will evolve into science. For Emile Durkheim, a
religious ritual involves the community, while magic gravitates to the needs and wants of an individual only.

How does magic affect our spiritual self?

Victor Frankl is a psychiatrist who was imprisoned for three years in a concentration camp during World War II.
He wrote a book entitled “Man’s Search for Meaning,” where he discussed logotherapy (ways of finding the meaning of
life). This varies from time to time and from person to person. (Shafier, 2011)

Finding and Creating Meaning of Life

Logotherapy is the man’s primary motivational force to search for the meaning of life, whatever the situation
is. In logotherapy, meaning can be discovered by creating a work or doing a deed, experiencing someone’s attitude
toward unavoidable suffering. According to Victor Frankl, logotherapy uses the philosophy of optimism in the face of
tragedy, where people can turn suffering into human achievement and accomplishment, derive from guilt the
opportunity to change oneself for the better, and derive from a life of incentive to take responsible action.

Basic Concepts of Franklian Psychology:

1. Life has meaning under all circumstances.

2. The main motivation for living is our will to find the meaning of life.

3. Freedom to find meaning.

Franklian Psychology aims to:

1. be aware of spiritual resources

2. be conscious of spiritual resources

3. use the “defiant power of the human spirit” and stand up against adversity

Logotherapy Assumption
Philosophical assumption about a person:

1. A human is an entity consisting of body, mind, and spirit.

2. Life has meaning under certain circumstances, even the most miserable.

3. People have a will to meaning.

4. People have freedom under all circumstances to activate the will to find meaning.

5. Life has a demanding quality to which people must respond if decisions are to be meaningful.
(Psychology Benefits Society, 2017)

Frankl Purposive Sources of Meaning:

1. Purposive work. To find the meaning of life starts with holding a future goal.

2. Courage in the face of difficulty

3. Love is the only way to grasp another human being in the innermost core of his personality.

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Definition of Terms

 Belief – It sets the foundation for one’s action and is not readily recognizable.

 Practice – It is the action that manifests the belief of the person and is observable.

 Prayer – It is a general practice in almost all religions.

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