Traditional Knowledge in

Humanities and Sciences

in India
 INTRODUCTION

•Traditional knowledge encompasses a

wide range of disciplines in India,
ranging from linguistics to advanced
sciences.
•Rooted in cultural, philosophical, and
practical aspects, it has shaped India’s
history.
•This module explores key domains like
linguistics, mathematics, chemistry,
physics, art, astronomy, astrology,
crafts, trade, and engineering.
 Linguistics in India

•Ancient India had sophisticated linguistic traditions.

•Panini: The founder of Sanskrit grammar (Ashtadhyayi).
•Vedic Texts: Preservation of sacred texts and the study of phonetics and
syntax.
•Development of languages like Sanskrit, Prakrit, and various regional
languages.

•Influence of linguistic studies on the modern understanding of language.

Linguistics is the scientific study of language, including its structure, sounds,
meanings, and use. In India, linguistic traditions were well-developed from
ancient times, with a focus on grammar, phonetics, and the preservation of
sacred texts.
 Panini's Grammar (Ashtadhyayi)
 Panini ( 4th-5th century BCE) is considered the father of linguistic analysis in India.
 Ashtadhyayi is his work on Sanskrit grammar, containing rules for word formation, sentence
structure, and phonetics.
 The 8,000 sutras (rules) in the Ashtadhyayi are a highly systematic approach to understanding
language and syntax.
 Panini's work is known for its precision and influenced not only the development of Indian
languages but also modern linguistic theories.
 Influence on Modern Linguistics
 Ancient Indian contributions to linguistics, particularly in grammar, syntax, and phonetics,
influenced modern fields like structural linguistics and generative grammar.
 Panini’s work has been compared to modern formal grammar theories in the West, such as Noam
Chomsky's theories of generative grammar.
 Vedic texts (Rigveda, Upanishads) were preserved with a focus on correct pronunciation
and phonetic accuracy, as they were considered divine.
 Vyakarana (Grammar) as part of the Vedic tradition focused on verbal communication
and oral transmission of knowledge. The study of phonetics (Shiksha) in the Vedic
tradition aimed to preserve sounds and ensure accurate transmission of sacred
mantras.
 Sanskrit and Its Influence
 Sanskrit is one of the oldest and most structured languages, with highly developed
grammatical rules.
 The study of Sanskrit grammar contributed significantly to the development of other
languages in the Indian subcontinent (Prakrit, Hindi, Marathi, etc.).
 Indian linguists also discussed language families and linguistic relationships long
before Western linguistics came into prominence.
 Mathematics: Number and Measurements

 Ancient India contributed the concept of zero and the decimal system.
 Brahmagupta (598–668 CE), a mathematician and astronomer, is credited with providing the
first recorded definition of zero as a number in his work Brahmasphutasiddhanta (628 CE).
 He discussed the operations involving zero, such as addition, subtraction, and multiplication an
Indian mathematician and astronomer, is often credited with formalizing the rules for zero in
the 7th century. He Described rules for zero, negative numbers, and algebra.
 Sulba Sutras: The Sulba Sutras (800 BCE - 200 BCE) provided early knowledge of geometry
and algebraic relationships, particularly for constructing altars.
 Aryabhata: Developed trigonometry and approximations for π (Pi).
 The Concept of Zero and the Decimal System
 Ancient India is credited with the discovery of the concept of zero, as well as the development of
the decimal system.
 Zero transformed mathematical operations and paved the way for modern mathematics.
 Ancient Indian Mathematical Texts
 Sulba Sutras (800 BCE - 500 BCE):These texts, which were part of the Vedic literature, contain
early geometry and measurement principles. The Sulba Sutras laid out rules for constructing
altars for fire rituals, using measurements such as length, width, and area.The Pythagorean
Theorem is also believed to have been known to ancient Indian mathematicians in the form of
the Sulba Sutras, much before Pythagoras himself.

 Aryabhatiya (499 CE):Aryabhata introduced several concepts in mathematics, including

methods for calculating pi (π), square roots, and trigonometric ratios. Aryabhata also presented
an approximation of pi as 3.1416, remarkably close to the modern value.

 Brahmasphutasiddhanta (628 CE):Brahmagupta is another key figure in Indian mathematics.

He was the first to explain negative numbers, zero, and their usage in
calculations.Brahmagupta also introduced solutions to quadratic equations and presented rules
for dealing with fractions and powers.
 Measurement Systems in Ancient India
 Indian culture had highly developed systems of measurement that were used in various
aspects of daily life, including construction, land measurement, agriculture, and
astronomy.Length and Distance
 Measurement:Angula: The basic unit of length in ancient India, equivalent to the width of a
finger.
 Hasta: The length of the forearm, approximately 18 inches.
 Yojana: A large unit of distance, used to measure large geographical distances. It is said to
be 12 kilometers according to some interpretations of ancient texts, though this varied over
time. These units were used in ancient Indian texts for purposes ranging from architectural
construction to astronomical calculations.
 Weight and Mass Measurement:Ratti: The unit of mass, used in the measurement of jewels,
gems, and precious metals. One ratti was roughly equivalent to 0.121 grams.
 Masha: Another unit for measuring weight, approximately equivalent to 8 grams. Weights were often
standardized to ensure fair trading and commerce.
 Time Measurement:The ancient Indians had an accurate understanding of time and developed
sophisticated devices for its measurement, including water clocks and sun dials. The concept of
hours and minutes was well understood, and the divisions of the day were made using the lunar
calendar.
 Kalpa, Yuga, and Manvantara were used to measure long periods of time in Hindu cosmology,
extending over thousands or even millions of years. This system was essential for calculating the
timing of rituals and understanding the cyclic nature of time in the Hindu worldview.
 Astronomy and the Measurement of Celestial BodiesAncient India made significant contributions to
astronomy, with Indian scholars accurately observing and measuring celestial bodies, and
calculating key aspects like planetary positions and time cycles.
 Brahmagupta introduced the idea of zero as a number and its role in arithmetic operations. He
described rules for operations involving zero, such as:
 Addition of zero: Any number plus zero equals the number itself.
 Subtraction from zero: Zero subtracted from any number gives the number.
 Multiplying by zero: Any number multiplied by zero equals zero.
 Division by zero: He considered division by zero as undefined, but his work laid the
foundation for understanding zero in arithmetic.
 Algebra, Trigonometry, and Calculus
 Aryabhata (476–550 CE): Introduced methods for calculating sine and cosine, and provided
approximations for pi (π).
 Bhaskara II (1114–1185 CE): Worked on concepts of calculus, particularly in relation to
differential calculus.
 Influence on the World
 The decimal numeral system, including the use of zero, was adopted in the Arab world and
later spread to Europe, significantly impacting global mathematical thought.
 Ancient Indian texts like the Aryabhatiya and Brahmasphutasiddhanta had a lasting
influence on both Islamic and European scholars.
 Chemistry in Ancient India

 Chemistry in Ancient India was a well-developed and highly advanced field, with significant
contributions in the areas of alchemy, metallurgy, and the understanding of chemical processes.
 The traditional knowledge of chemistry in India is largely preserved in texts related to Rasa Shastra (the
science of mercury and metals) and in practices connected with Ayurveda, the traditional system of
medicine.
 Major Metallurgical Achievements:
 Iron Pillar of Delhi ( 4th century CE): This iron pillar, located in Delhi, is made from highly refined iron
and is notable for its resistance to corrosion. The ability to create such durable iron shows advanced
knowledge of alloys and metalworking techniques.
 Zinc Extraction: Ancient Indian metallurgists are credited with the distillation of zinc. The Zinc smelting
process was first used in Zawar (Rajasthan) as early as 2000 BCE, a technology that wasn't developed in the
West until much later.
 Casting of Metals: The technique of casting and forging metals was well-developed, as seen in the Bronze
Age artifacts, including tools, weapons, and sculptures.
 Key Figures in Ancient Indian Chemistry:
 Acharya Nagarjuna (1st-2nd century CE): A prominent figure in alchemical
traditions, Nagarjuna is credited with various chemical processes for medicinal and
metallurgical purposes. He is known for his contributions to the field of alchemy,
particularly in the purification of mercury.
 Sushruta and Charaka: Both of these scholars made significant contributions to the
use of chemistry in medicine, especially with the preparation of herbal and
mineral-based remedies.
 Ancient Indian texts like the Sushruta Samhita (medical treatise) and Charaka
Samhita (traditional Ayurvedic text) contain references to chemical processes in
medicinal practices, which involved herbal compounds, metals, and minerals.
 These texts include recipes for medicinal compounds that required advanced
chemical knowledge, such as the preparation of medicines from herbs, metals, and
minerals that had to be purified, calcined, and mixed in precise proportions.
 Physics in Ancient India
•Ancient Indian philosophy and science were deeply linked and many physical
concepts were developed as part of the natural philosophy in the context of the
Vedas and Upanishads.

•Sankhya and Vedanta philosophy, for instance, speculated on the nature of the
universe, matter, and energy, albeit in metaphysical terms. For example, the idea of
Prakriti (nature or matter) and Purusha (spirit) hints at dualism, where the material
world was understood through natural principles.

•Kālidāsa (5th century CE), in his work, alluded to concepts that resemble
Newtonian mechanics—for instance, the idea that objects in motion continue in
motion unless acted upon by an external force.

•The Sāṅkhya philosophy of Kapila (6th century BCE) discussed natural laws
governing movement and forces.

•Nyaya Sutras and Vaisheshika Sutras: Early concepts of atoms and nature of
matter.
•In his book Brahmasphutasiddhanta, Brahmagupta made an early reference to gravity and
the notion that the Earth attracts objects, though not in the exact way modern physics
understands gravity. He also described the motion of planets and celestial bodies.

•He explained that the Earth's attraction could be thought of as a force that causes objects to
fall towards the Earth.

•Aryabhata, in his work Aryabhatiya, discussed the nature of light and suggested that the
Earth’s shadow causes the eclipse, indicating a correct understanding of light and the behavior
of shadows. He also noted that light travels at a finite speed, which was a significant
understanding for the time.

•Sushruta, in his medical text Sushruta Samhita, described the properties of light and its
reflection in the context of eye anatomy and vision. He also described the use of mirrors in
ancient Indian medical practices, which required an understanding of the reflection of light.
 The atomic theory (or Anu theory) was developed in ancient India, primarily in the
philosophical school of Vaisheshika, founded by the sage Kanada (6th century BCE).
 Kanada postulated that the universe is made up of atoms (Anu) and that these atoms
combine to form larger bodies. His philosophy outlined that matter was composed of small
indivisible particles (atoms), which was one of the earliest recorded versions of atomic
theory. The Anu (atom) was described as eternal, indivisible, and possessing unique
properties. This idea was remarkably similar to later Western atomic theory.
 Ancient Indian scientists had a detailed understanding of sound and acoustics, especially
through the study of Vedic hymns and the science of resonance.
 The Vedic chants were tuned and designed with precision, suggesting a keen
understanding of acoustics. Ancient texts like the Rigveda discuss the importance of sound
in both spiritual and physical contexts, reflecting an early understanding of the vibrations
and resonance associated with sound.
 The work of Panini in linguistics (which also dealt with phonetics) was rooted in the
understanding of the physics of sound. Sanskrit’s phonetic structure shows an advanced
grasp of speech production, which aligns with modern ideas in acoustics.
 Astronomy in ancient India was highly developed, with scholars like Aryabhata,
Varahamihira, and Bhaskara contributing significantly to understanding the motions of
celestial bodies.
 Aryabhata's work, Aryabhatiya, introduced concepts such as the Earth's rotation on its axis,
explaining day and night. He also accurately estimated the circumference of the Earth and
described the heliocentric model (with the Sun at the center of the solar system, though it
was not widely accepted at the time).
 Bhaskara I and Bhaskara II made further contributions to astronomy and mathematics,
including the calculation of planetary positions and the movement of celestial bodies, which
required an understanding of motion, time, and gravity.
 Indian Contributions to Astronomy
 Aryabhata: He proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system, stating that the Earth rotates
on its axis and explaining the causes of day and night. He calculated the length of the year and the
approximate value of pi.
 Brahmagupta: He described the motion of planets and explained eclipses with an understanding of
celestial mechanics.
 Varahamihira: His work, the Brihat Samhita, contained sections on astrology and astronomy,
along with mathematical concepts related to the measurement of celestial objects.These scholars
applied advanced mathematical principles to accurately measure and predict the movements of
planets, stars, and other celestial bodies.
 Influence of Indian Numerical and Measurement KnowledgeIndian mathematical concepts,
particularly the decimal system, zero, and place value, profoundly influenced the development of
mathematics in the Islamic Golden Age. Scholars like al-Khwarizmi and al-Battani made extensive
use of Indian knowledge in their work, and Indian numerals were introduced to Europe through
Arabic scholars.Indian systems of weights and measures were also adopted and adapted in various
parts of Asia, spreading through trade and cultural exchanges along the Silk Route and through
the Indian Ocean.
 The Jain philosophy (circa 6th century BCE) also mentioned the concept of heat and
temperature, though not in the context of modern thermodynamics. The idea of heat as
a form of energy was hinted at in their philosophy of panchabhautika (five-element
theory), which involved the interaction of earth, water, fire, air, and ether.
 Ancient India made significant contributions to the understanding of the physical world,
with ideas in mechanics, light, sound, atomic theory, and astronomy that continue to
inspire modern scientific studies. The integration of science, philosophy, and spirituality
in ancient Indian thought reflects a holistic approach to understanding the universe and
the fundamental forces that govern it.