31

the disseminules of new species which pass through the

alimentary canalof animal
undamaged.

Small mounds of dung with vigorous growth of plants on them are

found. Com
pare the specific composition of these mounds with that of the
adjacent area. Also
note the differences in the growth performance of the individuals on the two types
of substrata.

Plant propagules are of importancc. Man has been one of the most cficient
means in linking the
ecosystems.

1.10 COMMUNITY STRUCTURE

Plants growing together have mutual relationships among themselves and with
the environment. Such a group of plants in one area forms a stand. Several similar
stands represent a community. Community is a part of an ecological system (the
ecosystem) in which transformation,accumulation, and flow of energyare involved.
The functioning of this systemis intimately related with the components of the com
munity. The componentsvary in quality as wellas in quantilyand impart a structure
to the community.

The structure of a community can be studied by taking into consideration a

number ofcharacters which are usually grouped under two heads, viz., analytic and
synthetic. Certain analytical characters, viz., frequency, density, abundance and
dominance can be expressed quantitatively; while others, viz., sociability, vitality,
periodicity and stratification find only qualitative expression. Synthetic characters
include presence,constance and fidelity of components and may be computed from
analytical characters of several stands of a community.

The analytical characters of a community aredetermined by means of three main

sampling units--area, line and point, as employed in quadrat, transect and point
methods respectively.

1. QUADRAT METHOD

isthe name given to the sampling unit, an area of a definite size. In

Quadrat
shape it rectangular or square. Depending upon the
may be circular, objective, the
The
quadrats can be of many kinds, viz., list, count, chart, clip and permanent.
first

three types are mainly used in the study of community structure.

Since the assemblage of plants in a community is largely heterogencous, the

 32

determination of size and number of quadrats necessary for adequate Sampling.

is a pre-requisite.

Procedure A (Size of Quadrat): With a piece of string and 3 nails form

a L-shaped structure in the field. Thercafter using another piece of string and a nail
differentiate an area of 10x10 sa.cm. Note down thespecies present
within this area.
Now enlarge the area, to 20 X 20 sq.cm and note down the additionalspeciescoming
in. Again increasethe area to 30x 30 sq. cm and record new species.
Thus go on
increasing the area,and recording the additional species till you
make up a 2x2 sq.
m large quadrat. Summarize your data in a table.
Area
Total no. of species

10x 10 sq. cm

20 x 20

30x30

200x200

Now on a graph paper plot the number of species on the Y-axis against the
areas on the X-axis. The point at which the curve
starts fattening up, represents
the minimal area of the quadrat required for
sampling that field. The curve known
as "speciesarea curve" is illustrated in figure 1·10/A.

200|

30

20

20 30 200
FIG.
110/Aa-Determinationof requisite size of.
quadrat
 33

40

304

204

I0

400 900 I600 2500

Fro. 1:10JAb-Size of quadrat in sq. cm Species-Area Curve

REFERENCE
Oosting, H, J. 1958, The Study of Plant Conmunities. W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco.

requisite size of the quadrat

Procedure B (Number of Quadrats): When the
has been ascertained,lay 30 to 50 quadrats of that size in a stand under study. Record
A, utilising
the species occurring in each quadrat. Tabulate your data as in procedure
the first column for number of quadrats.

number of quadrats on the X-axis of a graph sheet againstthe number

Plot the
starts flattening up,
of species on Y-axis. Here also the point at which the curve
sampling of all the
gives the minimum number of quadrats required for adequate
stands of the same community.

REFERENOE
Oosting, H. J. 1958. The Study of Plant Communitles. W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco.

II. TRANSECT METHOD

A transect a sampling strip extending across a stand or several stands (Oosting
is
the analysis of vegetation changing
1958). It is useful where one is concerned with
in composition through an ecotone (transitional zone between
any two communities)
Depending upon the objective
or along the gradient of some environmental factor.
or "belt transect".
one may employ "line transect" (also known as "line intercept")
The size and number of transects vary with the extent of the area to be studied.
5
 34

REFERENCE
Oosting, H, J, 1958, The Study of Plant Çommunitles. W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisco.

VProcedure (Line Transect): A

A measuring tape or calibrated string is run
along the tape are
across the vegetation to be analysed and the plants touching and
cover.
recorded as also the length of the tape intercepted by the individual plant
From this basic data various analytical characters are computed from calculations
This method is useful especially for
as are dealt with in subsequent excercises.
bunch or tussock grasses. The construction of a profile or bisect diagram is also
possible along a transect.

Procedure B (Belt Transect): In this case instead of the line, a belt of definite
width (usually one meter) is studied across the vegetation.This strip is divided into
of individuals of each
a number of small sections and plant species and number
species coming in each section are recorded. In simple words it laying of quadrats
is

along a line. By mapping the sections on graph paper a useful picture of the vegeta
tion is obtained.

III. POINT METHOD

The sampling unit in this method is represented by a point. On this basis two

Pin

Angle
Support

The Point-fr ame

TIG. 110/uI A
 35

main methods for the vegetational analysis have been developed : (1) Point-frame
method and (2) Point-centered-quartermethod.

Procedure A (Point-Frame Method): A

WOoden frame in which 10 movable
pins are insertedat 45° angle is constructed. The usual size of a pin is 50 cm and the
length of the frame is also the same. The height at which this frame is fixed on two
folding wooden-crosses is also 50 cm.

The apparatus (known as point-frame) is placed at a number of places in the

ield, usually at random. Each time the plants hit by one or more of the ten pins,
when they are lowered, are recorded. From this information various analytical
characters are computed by calculations.

This method is usefulfor extensive grassland surveys.

REFERENCE
Phillips, E. A. 1959, Methods of Vegetation Study. Henry Holt & Co. Inc.
frocedure B
(Point-Centered-QuarterMethod): In this method of hits as in
the case of the previous one, the distançe ofthe nearest plant in cach quarter from the
base of the pin (needle)and its diameter are recorded. The needle is not mounted
on any frame. Here, the method as modified by Misra (1964) is described.

o
: 02

A B

FIo, 1·10/II B
 36

(A)Surveyor'sneedle.

(B)Position of surveyor's needle at X and the four quarters are indicated by

at X, in each of the four quarters
the plants
imaginary lines intersecting

nearest to the needle are indicated by 1 to 4.

A surveyor'sneedle (a brass rod of 3 mm thickness and 30 cm length) isprovided

the grass
a compass at thetop and is fixed by the worker at a point in
field,
With
Around thispoint the area is visually divided into four quarters, In each quarter
the

diameter are
distance between the needle and the nearest occurring plant and
its
the distances
recorded on the data sheet. In case the needle directly hits some plant,
inall the four quarters are recorded as zero and only the diameter of that particular

points should be as
plant is recorded. For adequate sampling the number of such
of a parti
high as to make provision for the measurement of at least 30 individuals
The points are usually distributed at
cular plant species (Cottam et al. 1953, 56).
random. The method is especially suited for study of bunched grasses.

REFERENCES
Cottam, G. and J. T. Curtis. 1956. The use of distance measures in phytosociological sampling.
Ecology 37: 151-60,

-and B. K. Hale. 1953. Some sampling characteristics of population of random

dispersed individuals. Ecology 34: 741-57.
Misra,K. C. 1964. Quantitative estimaion of grassland vegetation through Point-Centered-Quarter
method. Trop. Ecol, 5: 10-16,

V1.11 Frequency

Frequency as introduced by Raunkiaer (1934) indicates the number of sampling

units in which a given species occurs;and thus expresses the distribution or dispersion
of various species in a community. From this, percentagefrequency is calculated as
follows.

Number of sampling units in which the speciesoccurred

% frequency Total nunmber of units studied
-X100

Procedure A(Quadrat Method): Lay the required number of quadrats (Ex

ercise 1.10/IB)of appropriate size (Exercise1.10/LA) in the grassland to be studied.
Note presnce or absence of each species by or respectively + -
in each of the
quadrats.
 37

(1) (2) (3) (9) (5) (6) (7)

S.No. Plant Species
Quadrats Total Total Percen-
Frequency
no. of no, of tage class

quadrats quadrats frequency

1 23 4 56789 10 of studied

occur
rence

CALCULATION
Divide thevaluein column 4 of the above table with that in column 5and multiply
by 100to obtain percentage frequencyof each species.

From the above data prepare a frequencydiagram for the field under study as
described below:

Divide the species into 5 classes based on percentage frequency(Raunkiaer 1934)

Class A 1– 20%
B 21– 40%
C 41- 60%
D 6– 80%
E 81–100%.

Take a graph sheet and represent the percentage of the total number of species
coming into each class on Y axis against the five frequencyclasses on X axis, as shown
in figure.

50
total.

of
the

of
% mmber
Species
A BC DE

FIo. 1.11/A-Raunkiacr's normal frequency diagram.

 38

INTERPRETATION

Raunkiaer's law of frequency classis A>B>CD<E.

Frequency diagram
represents the homogeneity or heterogeniety of a community as floristic unifor
mity varies directly with the value for class A and E. When classes B, C and D
are relatively high,the stand is heterogeneous.In general, higher the class E greater
will be the homogeneity.

()Name two most frequent species.

(ii) Whether the grassland under study is homogeneous or heterogeneous?

Procedure B (Line Transect):Run the measuring tape across the grassland in

North-South direction. Record the plant species touching the tape in alternate one
meter segments. Lay a number of such transects.

Record the presence or absence of cach species by +or -respectively in cach

segment.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) ()

S.No. Plant Species Segments Total Total Percen Frequen
no. of no. of tage cy class
segments segments frequency
1 23456789 10 of occur studied
rence

CALCULATION

Value in column 4
Percentage frequety X100
Value in column 5
Divide the speciesin frequency classes and prepare frequency diagram as in the

quadrat method.

Procedure C (Belt Transect): In thís method, instead of recording the plant

species which touch the tape, the plants present in alternate belt segments arelisted
and the percentage frequency is calculated as in procedure B.
 39

Procedure D
(Point-Frame Method):Place the
point-frameapparatus at tenty
places the area is very large increase the number)
(if
and note down the species hit by
the needles each time. Also record the
number of hits sccured by each species. Now
record the data in the
following table.

(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (7)

S.No. Plant Species Number of hits per Total no. Total no. Percen- Frequency
place of hits of hits tage class
Place numbers 1 23 56789
4 10 secured frequency

Calculate the percentagefrequency as follows for

each species

Total n0. of secured by the species

hits
X100
Total no. of hits taken

Treat the data for preparation of frequency diagram as given in procedure A.

REFERENCE
Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The Life Forms of Plants and Statistical Plant Geography: being the collected
papers of C. Raunkiaer. Clarendon Press, Oxford, England.

1.12 Density

The terms abundance and density represent the numerical strength of species
in the community. The former, if considered alongwithfrequency,gives an idea of the
distribution pattern of the species while the latter represents the number of individuals
per unit area. The density and frequency taken together are of prime importance in
deternining communitý structure and have a variety of uses far beyond those of other
quantitative values (Oosting 1958).

Procedure A (Quadrat Method): Lay a number of quadrats of desired size and

count the individuals of each species in each quadrat. Record the data in the
follow
ing manner.
 40

Sizeof quadrat:
(4) (5) (6)
(2)
(3) ()
(1) Total no. of

Total no. of
No.of Abundance D
Density
Plant No. of individuals quadrats of
quadrats
individuals
species
quadrat number occurrence studied

1 23 56789 10
4

Now calculate abundance for cach species by the following formula.

Value in the column 3

Abundance
Value in the column 4 [Distalenhi potten
Calculate density as follows:

Value in the column 3

Density the column 5
Value in

(Abundance is described as the number of individuals per quadrat of occurrence

and density as the number of individuals per quadrat).

Specify the area of the quadrat at the top of the table and express the density as
number of individuals per square meter.

Procedure B :
(Belt Transect) Lay transects of suitable length and width in the
grassland and count the number of individuals of each species in every alternate
segment of 1 meter length. Treat each segment as a quadrat. Record the data and
calcúlate abundance and density as in procedure A.

Procedure C
(IndirectMethod): In the lower frequency
ranges (upto about 127%)
there is a linear
relationship between frequency and density (Brown 1954).
Blackman
(1935) reported that for randomly distributed
species the density of a species can be
calculated from its percentage absence (100-percentage
frequency) since there
linear relationship between the logarithm of percentage
absence and density.
(1926, quoted by Blackman
1935) used the following
expression.
 41

where mis the mcan number of

individuals of the species in the sampling
the density and y is the size of unit, k 1S
quadrat.The relation between the
and density is given as below percentageabsence

Percentage absence =e
Thus if the quadrat size and percentageabsenceare
known, density can be calculated.
The method gives accurate measure when
quadrat size is such that 80% frequency
value is obtained (Blackman 1935).

RBFERENCES
Blackman, G. E. 1935. A study of statistical methods of the distribution of species in grassland
associations. Ann, Bot. 49: 749-74.

Browo, D, 1954. Methods of Surveying and Measuring Vegetation, Comm. Agric, Bur. England.

Kylin. 1926. InBlackman(1935).

Oosting, H. J. 1958. The Study of Plant Communities, W. H, Freeman & Co., San Francisco.

1.13 Cover and Basal Area

I. COVER

The term cover or herbage cover signifies primarily thearea of ground occupied
by the above ground parts of plants, such as leaves, stems,and inflorescence, as
viewed from above (Hanson and Churchill 1961). Cover is often the most suitable
expression for recording change and isalso a good measure for the availability of
herbage. Usual methods for its estimation are (1) through Chart quadrat, (2) Line
intercept, and (3) Point--frame methods.

Procedure (Chart Quadrat): Divide the frame (quadrat) into 10X10 sq. cm
A
blocks with the pressed cord. If required,as in the case of very dense and hetero
geneous stands, use smaller divisions. Outline the exact areas occupied by
individual plants within the quadrat, on a suitably scaled graph sheet showing
the exact position of individuals. Use some identifying symbol for each species.
Now total up the area covered by individuals of diierent species to obtain arca
covered by cach species.The area may be measured either by counting the divisions
on the graph sheet or preferably through a planimeter if available. Express
the result as sq. cm per sq. m.
6
 42

on low table beside the quadrat

pantograph is available, set it
a
If a and
on graphsheet or plain paper and chart
the exact arca through this instrument
a

make
calculations as in the previous case.

The improved pantograph set up as foruse in the field.

(Pearse, Pechanec and Pickford, 1935)

FIG. 1·13/A

REFERENCE
Pearse, K., J. S. Pechanec and G. D. Pickford, 1935. An improved pantograph for mapping vegetation.

Ecology 16 :529--530.

Procedure B (Line Intercept Method): Run the measuring tape (line transec)

in the gras field. Measure the length of this tape interceptedby individual plans.
Total up the individual valucs to obtain the total length covered by different species

and separately calculate the percentage of total length of the transect covered by
and each species. The values obtained are percentage cover.

Procedure C
(Point-Frame Method): Place the apparatus at a number ofplaces
in the field (see Excercise 1.10/lII B) and note down the
number of hits oblained by
Maiden
each specics in the like manner. Use the following expression(Levy and
1933) to obtain the percentage cover of cach species if the frame has been placeo
at 10 places.

(No. of times a species is hit per 100) x(100 bare spaces)

Total No. of times vegetationis hit per 100
 43

REFERENCES
Hanson, H.C.andE, D, Churchill, 1961. The Plant
Community. Reinhold Publishing Corporation,
New York.

Levy,E.B, andE. A.Maiden, 1933. The point

method of pasture analysis. N. Z.J. Agric.49 :267-79.
Oosting, H. J. 1958. The Study of Plant
Comununities. W. H. Freeman & Co., San Francisc0.
Tuiney, F. W., O. S. Admodt and H, L, Ahlgren,
1937, Preliminary report of a study on methods used
in botanical analysis of pasture
swards, J. Amer. Soc. Agron, 29:
835-40.

C = 2n e Ahr II BASAL AREA

Basal area refers to the ground actually penetrated by the stems, and
is readily
seen when the leaves and stems are clipped at the ground surface
(Hanson and
Churchill 1961). It is one of the chicf characters determining dominance and
the
nature of the community. This is measured either at 2.5 cm above ground or actually
on the ground The values obtained in latter case are lcss flexible. Most
level.
common methods for determination of basal area are (1) Measurement through
calipers, (2) Line-interceptionand (3) Point-centered quarter method.

Procedure A. (Actual Measurement): Select 100stems of cach speciescut at

the ground surfaceby sharp scissorS and measure the diameters of their cut ends.
Calculate average diameter for each species. Convert the values for diameter (cm)
to basal area (sq. cm) through the following relation:

Average basal area =, where r (radius)

average diameter
2

By using quadrat determine density for cach spccies and multiply this value with
that of the respective basal area. Expressthe result as sq. cm per sq. meter.

Procedure B (Line-Intercept Method) : Follow the same procedure as des

cribed for measurement of herbage cover (Excercise1.13/IB), but in this case measure
the length interceptedby stem only just above the ground. Make similar calculations
for "ercentage cover.

Procedure C (Point-Centered Quarter Method): Refer exercise 1.14/B.Prepare

a of species in the decreasing order of their basal cover and herbage cover.
list

Discuss the finding and compare with the data from other sites.
 44

REFERENCE
Plant Community. Reinhold Publishing
C, and E. D. Churchill, 1961. The
Hanson, H. Corporation,
New York.

Index and other

1.14 Importance Value
Characteristics

In order to express the dominance and ecological success of any species, with

single value, the concept of importance value index has been developed, This indes
utilises three characterstics, viz., relative frequency, relative density, and relative

dominance.

Procedure A (ImportanceValue Index) Evaluate frequency, density and basal

area for all the species growing at the study site through methods already des.
cribed and calculate the following value (Phillips 1959).

Total basal area of the species

1.Relative dominance X100
Total basal area of all species

2. R:lative density
= Number of individuals of the species
Number of individuals of all species
X100

Number of occurrences of the species

3. Relative frequency X100
Number of occurrences of all species

Now add the above three values to getimportance value index (VI). Calculate
the index for all the species and arrange them in decreasing order of values

to bottom. Compare the values of IVI of important species from diferent

sites,
dif:ring in the intensity of biotic disturbance or amount of moisture in soil and
discuss.

REFERENCE
Phillips, E, A. 1959. Methods of Vegetation Study.
Henry Holt & Co. Inc.
Procedure B (Analytical measurement
Characters): One of the distance
methods evolved by Cottam and Curtis (1956) utilised to calculate the relative

frequency and density, total total density

density of the vegetation, absolute density,