The Carbohydrates: Sugars, Starches,
and Fibers
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Carbohydratesare nutrients made of carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen atoms.
Monosaccharrides are single sugars (most are
hexoses).
Glucose
serves as the essential energy source, and is
commonly known as blood sugar or dextrose.
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Fructose is the sweetest, occurs naturally in honey
and fruits, and is added to many foods.
Galactose rarely occurs naturally as a single sugar.
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Disaccharides are pairs of monosaccharides, one of
which is always glucose.
Condensation reactions link monosaccharides together.
Hydrolysis reactions split molecules and commonly
occur during digestion.
Maltose consists of two glucose units. It is produced
during the germination of seeds and fermentation.
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◦ Sucrose is fructose and glucose combined. It is
refined from sugarcane and sugar beets, tastes
sweet, and is readily available.
◦ Lactose is galactose and glucose combined. It is
found in milk and milk products.
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Few (oligosaccharides) or many (polysaccharides)
glucose units bound/linked together in straight or
branched chains.
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Glycogen
◦ Storage form of glucose in the body
◦ Provides a rapid release of energy when needed
Starches
◦ Storage form of glucose in plants
◦ Found in grains, and legumes
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Dietary fibers provide structure in plants, are very
diverse, and cannot be broken down by human
enzymes.
◦ Soluble fibers are viscous and can be digested by
intestinal bacteria (this property is also known as
fermentability ).
◦ These fibers are found in fruits and vegetables.
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Insoluble fibers are nonviscous and are not digested
by intestinal bacteria. These fibers are found in grains
and vegetables.
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Fiber Sources
◦ Dietary fibers are found in plant foods.
◦ Functional fibers are health-benefiting fibers that are
added to foods or supplements.
◦ Total fiber considers both dietary and functional
fibers.
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Carbohydrate Digestion:
In the mouth, the salivary enzyme amylase begins to
hydrolyze starch into short polysaccharides and
maltose.
In the stomach, acid continues to hydrolyze starch
while fiber delays gastric emptying and provides a
feeling of fullness (satiety).
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Carbohydrate Digestion:
◦ In the small intestine, pancreatic amylase among
other enzymes hydrolyzes starches to disaccharides
and monosaccharides.
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Carbohydrate Absorption:
◦ Primarily takes place in the small intestine
◦ Glucose and galactose are absorbed by active
transport.
◦ Fructose is absorbed by facilitated diffusion.
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Lactose Intolerance
◦ Symptoms include bloating, abdominal discomfort,
and diarrhea.
◦ Causes include lactase deficiency due to a natural
decrease that occurs with aging or damaged intestinal
villi.
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Lactose Intolerance - Dietary Changes
◦ Increase consumption of milk products gradually.
◦ Mix dairy with other foods.
◦ Spread dairy intake throughout the day.
◦ Individualization of diets
◦ Must be careful that vitamin and mineral deficiencies
do not develop
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Sugar poses no major health problem except dental
caries.
Excessive intakes may displace nutrients and contribute
to obesity.
Consuming foods with added sugars should be limited.
Naturally occurring sugars from fruits, vegetables and
milk are acceptable sources.
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Health Effects of Sugars
◦ Foods with added sugars have sugars listed as a first
ingredient.
◦ Nutrient deficiencies may develop from the intake of
empty kcalories.
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Recommended Intakes of Sugars
◦ Dietary Guidelines state to limit intake of foods and
beverages that are high in added sugars.
◦ DRI suggest added sugars should contribute no more
than 25% of a day’s total energy intake.
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Health Effects of Starch and Fibers
◦ May be some protection from heart disease and
stroke
Soluble fibers bind with bile and thereby lower
blood cholesterol levels.
Fiber may also displace fat in the diet.
◦ Reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes by decreasing
glucose absorption
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◦ Enhance the health of the GI tract which can then
block the absorption of unwanted particles
◦ May protect against colon cancer by removing
potential cancer-causing agents from the body
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Health Effects of Starch and Fibers
◦ Promote weight control because complex
carbohydrates provide less fat and added sugar.
◦ Harmful effects of excessive fiber intake
Displaces energy and nutrient-dense foods
Abdominal discomfort and distention
May interfere with nutrient absorption
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Recommended Intakes of Starch and Fibers
◦ RDA for carbohydrate is 130 g per day, or 45-65% of
energy intake.
◦ Daily Value is 300 grams per day.
◦ Dietary Guidelines encourage a variety of whole
grains, vegetables, fruits and legumes daily.
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Recommended Intakes of Fiber
◦ FDA recommends 25 grams for a 2,000-kcalorie diet.
◦ DRI at 14 g per 1000 kcalorie intake (28 grams for a
2,000 kcalorie diet)
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From Guidelines to Groceries
◦ Grains – encourage whole grains
◦ Vegetables – starchy and nonstarchy vegetables
differ in carbohydrate content
◦ Fruits – vary in water, fiber and sugar content
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◦ Milks and Milk Products – contain carbohydrate;
cheese is low
◦ Meat and Meat Alternates – meats are low but
nuts and legumes have some carbohydrate
◦ Food labels list grams of carbohydrate, fiber and
sugar; starch grams can be calculated.
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Also called nonnutritive sweeteners
◦ Saccharin
Used primarily in soft drinks and as a tabletop
sweetener
Rapidly excreted in the urine
Does not accumulate in the body
Has been removed from list of being cancer-
causing substances
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Aspartame
◦ General purpose sweetener
◦ Warning about phenylalanine for those with PKU
◦ Excessive intake should be avoided by those with
epilepsy
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Sucralose
◦ Made from sugar
◦ Passes through digestive tract
Neotame
◦ Most recent on the market
◦ Very sweet
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Tagatose
◦ Used for foods and beverages
◦ Provides less kcalories than sugar
◦ High doses can cause flatulence and loose stools.
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Also called nutritive sweeteners, sugar alcohols.
Maltitol, mannitol, sorbitol, xylitol, isomalt, and lactitol
Absorbed more slowly and metabolized differently in
the body
Low glycemic response
Side effects include GI discomfort
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