Transport in Animals Heart

Transport in Simple Animals

-​ Nature of the circulatory system varies depending on
the:
❖​ Size
❖​ Complexity
❖​ Habitat
-​ Sponges and cnidarians exchange gas between the
water from the environment and the circulating body
fluid in the organism.
Two main types of circulation

-​ Muscular organ that pumps blood to all parts of the

body.
-​ Develops in an embryo about 4 weeks following
fertilization.
-​ Beats 2.5 billion times without interruption
Blood
➔​ Open circulation
-​ The internal circulating medium of the human body.
-​ The circulating fluid (hemolymph) does not pass
-​ Carries nutrients and oxygen to the cells of the body
through enclosed tubes; instead it is pumped by
and carry away carbon dioxide and nitrogen waste from
the heart to a network of channels and cavities
body cells
(hemocoels) throughout the body.
-​ 55% plasma, 45% blood cells
-​ E.g. insects and arthropods
➔​ Closed circulation
FORMED ELEMENTS
-​ The blood vessels that transport blood away from
and back to the heart Red Blood Cells White Blood Blood Platelets
-​ E.g earthworms (vertebrates) (Erythrocytes) Cells (Thrombocytes)
(Leucocytes)
The Human Transport System
Transports oxygen Function as Essential in blood
and carbon dioxide defense and clotting
and the white blood immunity
cells.

❖​ Water
Plasma is composed of: ❖​ Proteins
❖​ Electrocytes

❖​ Fibrinogen
Proteins are made up of: ❖​ Globulin
❖​ Albumin

❖​ Nutrients
The rest is composed of: ❖​ Waste product
❖​ Gasses
❖​ Hormones

-​ Cells receive nourishment from dissolved substances

-​ Structures of the circulatory system and their functions carried in the plasma.
are uniquely adapted to keep the complex organism ➔​ Includes:
alive. -​ Minerals
-​ E.g. Blood vessels help transport blood and nutrients to -​ Vitamins
the cells of the body. -​ Amino acids
➔​ The circulatory system supplies: -​ Glucose
❖​ Gasses -​ Transports wastes to the excretory system for excretion
❖​ Nutrients
❖​ Hormones
➔​ Collects acid-base for balance and immunologic
reactions of the body.
 Blood vessels Valves
-​ Serves as highways through which blood is circulated in
the body.
3 types of blood vessels:

-​ Flaps of tissues that prevent the backward flow of

regurgitation of blood.
-​ Located between the atrium and ventricle, and at
the base of the arteries that are attached to the heart.
-​ Closure creates the heart sounds during auscultation
[med term for listening to the internal sound of the
body]
-​ Can also be found in large veins
➔​ The heart valves are the:
❖​ Bicuspid
❖​ Tricuspid
➔​ Arteries ❖​ Aortic valves
-​ Allow passage of oxygenated blood, except Patterns of Circulation
the pulmonary artery.
★​ William Harvey
-​ Thick walled vessels: help to counteract the
-​ First showed that the heart and blood vessels form
pressure exerted on them by the contraction of
a continuous closed type of circulation.
the heart muscles.
2 types of blood circulation:
-​ Largest artery: aorta; the only artery that leads
out the left ventricle
➔​ Veins
-​ Thin walled vessels
-​ Carry non-oxygenated blood towards the
heart, except for the pulmonary vein.
Two large veins in the body:
❖​ Superior vena cava
❖​ Inferior vena cava
➔​ Capillaries
-​ Abundant microscopic blood vessels that
carry blood throughout the tissues and
organs
-​ Connects to small veins and arteries
-​ Sites through which materials between the
blood and cells are exchanged
-​ Very thin (only made up of one layer of cell)
blood vessel
➢​ Because they are very thin, diffusion of
materials across their walls readily takes ➔​ Pulmonary Circulation
place. -​ Blood from the heart to the lungs, and back to the
-​ Supplies the brain with oxygen which keeps heart
a person conscious. ➔​ Systemic Circulation
-​ Continuous cyclic process for as long as the -​ Follows pulmonary circulation
person lives -​ Blood in the aorta, out the heart, to all parts of the
body and other subsystems like the Coronary
circulation.
❖​ Coronary circulation
-​ Supplied blood to the heart itself
➢​ There are two coronary arteries that branch off from the
Inhalation
aorta and transport blood to the arterioles that
penetrate the tissue of the heart. -​ chest cavity expands
-​ Diaphragm flattens, which pushes down the abdomen
➢​ If a vessel of the heart is blocked, it could lead to heart -​ Muscles of the abdominal wall relaxes
attack or myocardial infarction.
Exhalation
Renal Circulation
-​ Diaphragm and ribs muscle relax
-​ Elastic tissues of the lungs recoil causing to deflate
-​ Thoracic cavity size decreases
Air Passage and Gas Exchange
External respiration
-​ Exchange of gasses within the atmosphere and the
lungs (alveoli cells)
External respiration involves the following organs:

-​ A subsystem that moves blood through the kidneys and

back to the heart.
-​ There are two renal arteries that branch out to the
kidneys and supply them with blood
-​ Kidneys filter the blood of nitrogenous waste materials

Gas Exchange in Animals

The Human Respiratory System

1.​ Nose
-​ Entrance for the passage of air (nostrils)
-​ In the nose the air is cleaned, moistened, and
warmed.
-​ Gas exchange -​ Air is filtered by coarse hairs
Breathing ➔​ Mucus membrane
-​ A layer of specialized cells lines the walls of
the nasal passage.
-​ Secretes mucus (moist, thick, and gummy)
2.​ Pharynx
-​ Throat
-​ Found in the back of the mouth
-​ Passageway for food and air
➔​ Epiglottis
-​ A flap of cartilage that presses down and
-​ is an involuntary process that occurs simultaneously covers the opening of the air passage
with the circulation of the blood -​ Inhalation: upright position and air moves into
-​ Is essential since we obtain oxygen from the the trachea or windpipe (cartilaginous tube)
environment
-​ process of exhaling and inhaling
-​ Involves the interactions of the diaphragm, ribs, and
abdomen
 3.​ Larynx Animal Defense Responses
-​ Voice box or Adam’s apple Defenses of the human body
-​ More prominent in males due to differences in hormonal 1.​ Integumentary system
action. -​ the outermost covering of the body is the first
-​ At the upper end of the trachea barrier against invasion of microbes
➔​ Sound production ➢​ this includes:
-​ Produced when air is forced past two vocal ❖​ skin
cords that stretch across the larynx. ❖​ mucous membranes (that line the
-​ Pitch and volume depends on the amount of respiratory tubes)
tension received by the vocal cords ❖​ Urogenital tracts
4.​ Trachea ❖​ Digestive tube
2.​ Nonspecific immunity (innate)
-​ Windpipe -​ The body uses a battery of cells that are part of the
-​ Located in front of the esophagus nonspecific immune system.
-​ 10 cm long and 2.5 cm wide -​ The cells secrete chemicals and proteins that help
-​ Lined with mucous membrane and cilia in the destruction of pathogenic microorganisms.
➔​ Cilia ●​ E.g. when you cut a part of your skin and
-​ Move mucus and any material in it toward microbes enter the wound. The second line of
the throat where the mucus is coughed out defense takes action when the first line of
5.​ Bronchi defense is breached by microbes.
3.​ Specific Immunity
-​ The divided two hollow branches of the trachea -​ Identifies and removes pathogenic
-​ Each bronchus is attached to the lungs microorganisms that have invaded the innate
-​ Within the lungs, the bronchi branch divides into smaller immune system
and smaller tubes. -​ One kind of immune cell can aggressively attack and
-​ Inner lining is lined with cilia and mucus to filter air kill any cell identified as foreign
6.​ Lungs Types of Immunity
1.​ Inborn immunity
-​ Genetic predisposition
-​ receive this type of immunity from our parents and
ancestors
2.​ Acquired immunity
-​ antibodies could be obtained when we are exposed
to antigens
-​ this happens in either natural or artificial manner
-​ acquired immunity progresses the moment a person is
-​ Large, spongy, and elastic sac-like structures born
suspended from each side of the heart, inside the chest a.​ Naturally acquired immunity
cavity
➔​ Bronchial tubes -​ Occurs when the person is exposed to a live pathogen,
-​ Inside the lungs the bronchus divides into develops the disease, and becomes immune as a
smaller branches result of primary immune response
➔​ Bronchioles -​ This happens in active or passive form
-​ Even smaller microscopic tubes Active Passive
-​ Each bronchial opens into thin-walled bulb
shape structures called air sacs or alveoli Obtained once a person comes in Obtained during fetal development
cells direct contact with the disease which through the mother's placenta and
provides a permanent immunity. by breastfeeding upon rearing the
➔​ Alveoli cells newborn
-​ Is surrounded by a network of capillaries
that are important in gas exchange between could be done by administering a Acquired promptly after a person
the blood and the air sacs. prepared vaccine, weather has been exposed to a precarious
weakened or dead antigens, to disease which could be detrimental
Internal respiration stimulate the production of certain to that person's health.
-​ Exchange between the Blood and the cells of the body. antibodies.
-​ The air that we inhale is a mixture of gasses which
includes nitrogen oxygen and carbon dioxide May last for a short period of time

-​ Oxygen is the most important to humans

-​ In the air sacs, oxygen diffuses through the capillaries
and into the bloodstream
 -​ It is done for the purpose of increasing immunity
b.​ Artificially acquired immunity
against a particular infectious agent
-​ Can also be in active or passive form ★​ Autoimmune Disease
-​ In other words, it can be introduced through a vaccine -​ Develops when the immune system, which is
supposed to defend the body against
Antibodies
diseases, recognizes the healthy cells as
-​ Immunoglobulins foreign.
-​ Are proteins produced from the circulating lymphocytes, -​ Attacks healthy cells.
have the capacity to ward off foreign substances -​ Can attack one or different types of tissues of
-​ Can bind to an antigen such as a bacteria or virus, the organ.
which could result in their destruction. ●​ E.g of these diseases:
-​ antibodies do not kill invading pathogens directly; ❖​ Systemic lupus
rather, they cause destruction of the pathogens by ❖​ Pernicious anemia
targeting them for an attack by other nonspecific cells ❖​ Psoriasis
➔​ Antigens
-​ foreign substances which could be detrimental Hormones and the Coordinating System of
to health.
Types of Antibodies
Animals
1.​ IgG Hormone

-​ Mainly present in circulation with which comes in -​ Regulatory chemicals secreted by glands into the
contact directly with pathogens extracellular fluid and carried by the blood to specific
-​ Found in the blood plasma and produced in a parts of the body where the cells and tissues are put
secondary immune response into action.
-​ The only antibody that can cross the placenta from the Endocrine Glands
mother to the fetus because of its small molecular size
-​ Ductless Glands
2.​ IgA -​ Organs that are specialized to secrete hormones
-​ Release their secretions are products directly into the
-​ Mostly exist in bodily secretions such as saliva, tears,
bloodstream
colostrum, and breast milk, as well as the mucosal
linings of the digestive and respiratory tracts Thyroid
-​ They attach to antigens so as not to reach the
bloodstream
3.​ IgM
-​ the broadest
-​ found circulating in the body
-​ They are the first to encounter the pathogens that reach
the bloodstream
4.​ IgE
-​ place a big role in allergic reactions, particularly in
stimulating the release of histamine.
➔​ Histamine
-​ a small, butterfly-shaped gland in the front of your neck.
-​ which is a chemical compound produced and
-​ It makes hormones that control the way the body uses
stored in some body cells that are part of the
energy.
immune system
-​ affect nearly every organ in your body and control many
-​ released when the body experiences an
of your body's most important functions.
allergic reaction
Adrenal
5.​ IgD
-​ suprarenal gland
-​ signifies antigen-antibody differentiation
-​ A small gland that makes steroid hormones,
-​ These are attached to the surface of B-cells.
adrenaline, and noradrenaline.
➔​ B-cells
-​ These hormones help control heart rate, blood
-​ produced by the bone marrow
pressure, and other important body functions.
-​ part of the body's adaptive immune system
-​ There are two adrenal glands, one on top of each
that generates antibodies to specific antigens
kidney.
Vaccination
-​ Process of introducing an attenuated or weakened
Antigen in a susceptible host.
 Pituitary gland Saliva glands
-​ It regulates growth, metabolism, and reproduction
through the hormones that it produces.
-​ The production of these hormones is either stimulated
or inhibited by chemical messages sent from the
hypothalamus to the pituitary.
Exocrine Glands
-​ Release secretions or products through the duct
Mammary

-​ organs on each side of the face

-​ They make saliva (spit), the lubricating fluid found in the
mouth and throat.
-​ has enzymes that begin the process of digesting
(breaking down) food.
-​ It also has antibodies and other substances that help
prevent infections of the mouth and throat.

Animal Hormones
​ Pheromones
-​ Breast -​ Chemicals that are released to the surrounding
-​ Glandular organ located on the chest. environment by animals.
-​ Made up of connective tissue, fat, and tissue that -​ once released may alter the physiological behavior of
contains the glands that can make milk. receiver
Tear -​ Pheromones in insect signal attraction to copulation.
Neurosecretory
-​ cells in the brain of insects
-​ secrete prothoracicotropic hormone that activates the
prothoracic glands to secrete a hormone called
ecdysone.
-​ This hormone includes ecdysis or molting.
Ecdysis
-​ Stimulates an endocrine gland to secrete a juvenile
hormone that will prevent the development of adult
characteristics during molting.
-​ It brings about biochemical and behavioral changes in
the molting process.
Sex Hormone
-​ Located above each eyeball, called the lacrimal glands, -​ Regulate reproductive development in simpler
continuously supply tear fluid that's wiped across the animals such as insects
surface of your eye each time you blink your eyelids.
Oxytocin
-​ Excess fluid drains through the tear ducts into the nose.
-​ Targets the uterus which brings about uterine
contractions during childbirth
-​ Regulates the mammary glands for milk ejection

➔​ Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)

-​ maintain the water balance in the body
during the process of reabsorption in the
kidneys
 ★​ Menopausal woman
Motor or efferent neurons
-​ experience a decline in hormone levels,
which may cause hot flashes, decrease in -​ Compromise the efficient division of the PNS
bone density and other symptoms. -​ they really information from the CNS to effector the
➔​ Hormone replacement body found in tissues organs and organ systems
-​ therapy is the use of female hormones such Two important efferent systems in the body:
as estrogen and progesterone to treat the
Somatic Nervous System Autonomic Nervous System
symptoms of menopause.
involves nerves that innervate innervates all the other
Sensory and Coordinating systems of the skeletal muscles it peripheral effectors other than
the skeletal muscles such as
animals It is important to remember that the smooth muscles cardiac
Nerve-net there is conscious control over muscles glands and adipose
the actions of the somatic tissues
-​ Neurons are linked to one another in a web like nervous system
manner with very little coordination among body parts no conscious control over the
activities
Neuron
signals in the atomic nervous
system which travel along one
axon are related a synapse
and further moves along a
second axon to the final
effector organ

★​ Axons
-​ Extending from the CNS to anatomic ganglion, are
termed as pre-ganglionic fibers
-​ axons connecting to the ganglion cells which the
-​ The primary structural and functional component of peripheral effectors are termed as post-ganglionic
the nervous system. fibers
-​ A nervous tissue is composed of neurons and glial cells Interneurons or association neurons
-​ Specifically designed for receiving information,
transmitting electrical impulses, and influencing -​ Link a sensory neuron to a motor neuron
other neurons are effector tissues Neurosecretory neurons
Parts
-​ Occupy a central position in the neuroendocrine
Cell body Dendrites Axons
interaction
-​ serve as channels through which a multitude of afferent
Extensions are The processes those that transmit
processes that in which transmit impulses away stimuli, after being processed, are channeled to a
emanate from it impulses towards from the cell body variety of endocrine stations, which subsequently exert
the cell body control over these effector organs
The Central Nervous System
Neurons can be classified into the following categories:
Sensory afferent neurons
-​ Compromise the apparent division of the peripheral
nervous system
-​ information from the receptors in the periphery is
directed by these neurons to the CNS for interpretation
and integration
-​ Pertinent information concerning the external or internal
environment is transmitted by somatic and visceral
sensory neurons
somatic sensory neurons visceral sensory neurons

monitor the external Monitor internal conditions,

environment especially those of the various
organ systems

-​ Composed of the brain and the spinal cord

 -​ Contains the central canal filled with:
Brain
★​ cerebrospinal fluid
★​ gray matter
-​ containing cell bodies and short fibers
-​ dorsal cells function primarily in receiving
motor information
★​ white matter
-​ containing long fibers of interneurons that run
together in bundles called tracts
-​ dorsal axons take information
➔​ tracts
-​ Connect the cord to the brainstem
-​ dorsal handle sensory
-​ ventral sides handle motor information
-​ sensory information from the spinal nerves enters the
spinal cord to the dorsal roots, and motor information
from the spinal cord through the ventral roots
-​ Central processor of information in the nervous
system Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
★​ Nerve cells -​ Includes all of the cranial and spinal nerves that protect
-​ Sort information it receives and decide how outwards from the central nervous system
the body should respond is divided into:
-​ information or impulse travel along the nerve
fibers as electrical signals Somatic Division Autonomic Division
-​ information is gathered from all over the body
controls movement of muscles controls involuntary functions
through the sense organ: skin, nose, tongue,
eyes and ears
Three main parts: -​ Consists of nerves a cluster of axons ganglia and
neuron cell bodies located outside of the CNS
Brainstem
-​ it receives information from the outside and brings it to
-​ Controls involuntary actions such as heartbeat and the CNS and also to effectors such as muscles and
breathing glands
Cerebellum Sensory Organs
-​ coordinates movements of the muscles that walking
smooth and balance
Cerebrum
-​ is the largest part of the brain and is divided into
halves or hemispheres -​ responsible for processing sensory information
-​ outer layer of the cerebrum has special areas to
receive messages about sight, touch, hearing, and Touch Sensation
taste, while other areas control movement intelligence -​ Is a function of the skin, apart from providing
and personality protection to the body.
The Spinal Cord -​ diffuse throughout the skin are nerve endings that
receives stimuli from the environment and then relay
these to the brain
Gustation or taste sensation
-​ Primary responsibilities of the taste buds on the
Sense of vision
surface of the tongue
-​ The buds open at the surface of the tongue bite a
stores
Five types of taste identified by humans:
❖​ Sweet
❖​ Salty
❖​ Bitter
❖​ Umami
Ears

-​ Eye
-​ Optic nerve is cranial nerve supply to the eyes
Composed of three concentric layers:
❖​ Sclera and Cornea
❖​ Choroid, Ciliary Body and Iris
❖​ Retina
★​ Vision
-​ A complex process that requires cooperation of the
numerous components of the human eye and brain
❖​ first step in this process of the retina of the eye
❖​ the photoreceptors in the retina collect light and
-​ Hearing signals to a network of neurons that generate
The ear is divided into: electrical impulses going to the brain
❖​ External ear ❖​ the brain then processes this impulse and gives
-​ extends from the oracle or pinna to the external information about what we are seeing
auditory meatus
-​ conduct sound waves from the environment to the
Nutrition and Food Processing in Animals
tympanic membrane or the eardrum, a thin fibrous
membrane which transmit sounds to the ossicles Vitamins
❖​ Middle-ear -​ Organic compounds that function as coenzymes and
-​ refers to the tympanic cavity, an air-filled chambers cofactors to enzymes
that houses the three smallest bones in the body, types of vitamins:
the malleus, incus and, stapes
-​ collectively known ossicles, these bones transmit water soluble fat soluble vitamins
sound from the air inside the tympanic cavity into
transports as free compounds Transported in the blood as
the cochlea
of the blood and serve as complexes that are linked to
❖​ Inner ear coenzymes and metabolic lipids
-​ consists of the cochlea, which transmit sounds reactions
impulse to the brain by the auditory nerve, and
the vestibular system, which functions for vitamin c and vitamin b vitamin a, vitamin d, vitamin e,
maintaining balance and spatial orientation vitamin k

Olfaction
Minerals
-​ Inorganic molecules that provide ions essential in the
functioning of many enzymes are proteins.
➢​ Significant amounts of ions may be lost by the
body through sweating, defecating, urinating and
thus must be replenished.
➢​ Deficiencies in potassium, sodium, and chloride
ions can disturb the osmotic balance of the
blood
-​ Nose
-​ Elicited by the olfactory neuroepithelium in the nasal
cavity of the nose Digestions in Lower Forms of Animals
modified form of respiratory that contains three types of cell:
Intracellular digestion
❖​ Receptor cell
❖​ Epithelium cells -​ the breakdown of complex food to simple form
❖​ Epithelial cell inside the cellular cytoplasm.
 Human Digestive System Large Intestine

-​ Food is ingested through the mouth, chewed, and

-​ Stores undigested food
ground into smaller sizes with the help of teeth, that
-​ No digestion
mixed with saliva and pushed backward by the tongue
-​ Water and ions are reabsorbed and the bulk that
➔​ Digestion
remains is stored for a while until mass movements
-​ Breaks down food into smaller subunits
occur and defecation reflex is initiated.
-​ The products of cellular digestion faster the
epithelial lining of the gut into the blood, Functions of Enzymes in Chemical Digestion
where they are distributed to all parts of the
-​ Cannot be completed without enzymes
body
➔​ Enzymes
-​ Food -> pharynx
-​ Organic catalysts that hasten chemical
★​ From the oropharynx, the bolus of swallowed
reactions
substances now enters the esophagus and passes
-​ Play a big role in breaking down food
down the length of the tube by altering contraction and
substances that the body can absorb,
relaxation of the muscles called peristalsis.
process, and utilize.
➔​ Cardiac Sphincter
-​ Present in large amounts in digestive
-​ Guards the stomach
tracts, beginning from the oral cavity where
-​ Assists in preventing regurgitation of acidic
salivary amylase (initiates carbohydrate
chyme from the stomach
breakdown) and lingual lipase (starts fat
Small Intestine digestion) are found.
Stomach
-​ The stomach helps digest food by mixing it with
digestive juices and churning it into a thin liquid.
-​ pH is maintained at a very acidic level (pH 1 and 2) by
hydrochloric acid (HCI) secretions of the parietal cells
➔​ Pepsinogen
-​ Produced by the chief cells
-​ Then transformed by HCI into the active form,
pepsin
-​ Protein degradation into smaller particles
-​ Long coiled tube where food undergoes final begins
digestion and absorption ★​ In the duodenum of the small intestine, pancreatic
juices are secreted by the pancreas via the ampulla of
Duodenum vater
-​ First segment of the small intestine -​ Formed by the union of the pancreatic duct and
-​ Food first enters the duodenum from the stomach by the common bile duct
the pyloric sphincter Includes:

Jejunum Trypsinogen

-​ The middle part of the small intestine. -​ Converted by enterokinase to its active enzymes
-​ It is between the duodenum and the ileum trypsin, which is responsible for breaking down
-​ helps to further digest food coming from the stomach. proteins into amino acids

Ileum Chymotrypsinogen

-​ The last part of the small intestine. -​ Once activated, also breaks down proteins into their
-​ connects to the cecum (first part of the large intestine) aromatic amino acids
-​ helps to further digest food coming from the stomach Pancreatic Lipase
and other parts of the small intestine.
-​ Breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and
glycerol
 Nucleases and pancreatic amylase Reproduction and Development in Animals
-​ Breaks down starch, glycogen, and most other Reproduction in lower forms of animals
carbohydrates, except cellulose due to its special
Asexual Reproduction Sexual Reproduction
hydrogen-bonding structure
Single parent Two parents
The Accessory Glands of the Digestive System
Liver No sex cells involved One egg cell, one sperm cell

Hermaphroditic
-​ Has both ovaries and testes
-​ Can produce their own sex cells, the eggs and the
sperm cells
-​ Self-fertilization
-​ Called hermaphrodites
Protogyny Protandry

-​ Contributes to making an organ of digestion more Female to male Male to female

versatile
-​ Accessory organ to digestion
-​ Largest gland of the body Vertebrates
Consists of four lobes:
1.​ Right lobe Two types of fertilization among vertebrates:
2.​ Left lobe External fertilization Internal fertilization
3.​ Quadrate lobe
4.​ Caudate lobe Common aquatic organisms while The egg and sperm meet outside
fertilization is more common on land the body of the female, commonly in
➔​ Hepatocyte aquatic surroundings
-​ Basic constructional component
-​ Blood circulates through the liver by the Riskier than internal fertilization Common among fishes
portal vein and the hepatic vein.
-​ Produces bile
Embryonic development could be through:
➔​ A fluid that contains cholesterol, bile
acids , and bilirubin which aid in lipid Oviparity Ovoviviparity Viviparity
digestion.
Eggs are fertilized Fertilized eggs are The young develops
➔​ Stored and concentrated in the
internally, and are retained inside the inside the mother and
gallbladder deposited outside the mother to complete its obtains its
➔​ To trace the pathway of bile, the mother’s body to development, but the nourishments directly
complete their embryo gets its from the blood of the
hepatobiliary tree needs to be examined
development nourishment from the mother through the
yolk umbilical cord and not
Gallbladder
from the yolk
-​ a small, pear-shaped organ in your upper right
abdomen.
-​ stores and releases bile to help your digestive system Human Reproductive System
break down fats Female Reproductive System
Pancreas
-​ Both endocrine and exocrine gland
-​ converts the food we eat into fuel for the body's cells.
Endocrine Gland Exocrine Gland

Empties its secretions directly Ductless gland

into the blood

➔​ Islets of Langerhans
Responsible for the secretions of:
❖​ Insulin
-​ Lowering blood glucose levels
-​ The function and activity of the reproductive tract is
❖​ Glucagon
regulated by the nervous system and the endocrine
-​ Raising blood glucose levels
system
 Menstrual Cycle Sperm
-​ Describes the cyclic physiologic changes that occur in -​ Male reproductive cell
women of reproductive age in response to hormones A typical sperm consists:
released along the hypothalamic-pituitary-ovarian axis
(HPO)
-​ Not only affects the ovaries but also the endometrial
wall of the uterus
-​ Main purpose is to produce egg cells that are ready for
possible fertilization by the sperm and establishing an
endometrial wall that is conductive for implantation of
the embryo
Gonadotropin Releasing Hormone (GnRH)
-​ Secreted by the hypothalamus is released in Head
response to low levels of estrogen and progesterone at
-​ contains the nucleus with densely coiled chromatin
the end of menstruation
fibers containing the genetic material
Follicle Stimulating Hormone (FSH) -​ enclosed anteriorly by an acrosome, which contains
enzymes used for penetrating the female egg which is
-​ Secreted by the anterior pituitary gland
protected by the thick zona pellucida.
-​ Stimulates the ovarian follicles to mature
Midpiece
Theca Interna
-​ Of the Graafian follicle (mature follicle) -​ central score with many mitochondria for ATP
-​ Releases estrogen production
-​ Responsible for the development of female secondary -​ ATP provides energy for the sperm journey through
sex characteristics, thickening of the vaginal wall, the female reproductive tract
increase in uterine growth, atheroprotective effects in Tail
blood vessels, and prevention of skin aging, among
other functions -​ propels the spermatocyte to reach the egg cell and
fertilize it
Male Reproductive System
Stages of Mammalian Animal Development
1.​ Fertilization
-​ refers to the fusion of egg and sperm that result
in the formation of zygote
2.​ Cleavage
-​ the zygote undergoes a series of cell division
without an increase in its size
-​ ends with the formulation of a blastula called
blastocyst, which varies in structure among
-​ Vertebrates
3.​ Gastrulation
-​ movement of cells in the stage produces three
-​ Also controlled by the nervous and endocrine system primary germ layers: the endoderm, mesoderm,
-​ The follicle stimulating hormone affects the Sertoli cells, and ectoderm with different developmental fates.
which are responsible for nurturing the developing -​ Patterns may differ depending on the amount of
spermatocytes inside the seminiferous tubules. yolk present in the embryo
-​ The luteinizing hormone affects the Cells of Leydig,
which are responsible for the production of 4.​ Organogenesis
Testosterone. -​ cells from the three primary layers interact to form
Testosterone the organs of the body
-​ this is initiated with the formation of the notochord
-​ Responsible for secondary sexual characteristics in and a hollow dorsal nerve cord in the process
males called neurulation
❖​ Increase in bone density
❖​ Increase in muscle mass Fluid Regulation and Excretion in Animals and Plants
❖​ Maintenance of mental and physical energy -​ Among sponges, contractile vacuoles from excess
water outside of the cell
 Protonephridia Glomerular Filtrate
-​ Excretory tubules of invertebrates -​ Blood flows through the structures, water, ions, and
-​ Branch out their bodies, terminating into bulblike flame small molecules are collected, and large proteins are
cells prevented from entering and retained in the circulation
-​ Similar characteristics with plasma but contains no
Excretory pores protein
-​ where water and metabolic wastes are pumped out of ➔​ Proximal Convoluted Tubule
the body -​ Where the filtrate goes
-​ where majority of the substances are
Nephridia
reabsorbed
-​ filters the fluid inside the earthworm through the use of
Loop of Henle
nephrostomes
-​ recovery of water and sodium chloride from urine
Malpighian Tubules
-​ Branch off from the hindgut of the digestive tube of Descending Limb Ascending Limb
insects
-​ collects excess water and waste from the circulatory Permeable to water, but less Impermeable to water
system permeable to minerals and
other substances
-​ potassium ion are secreted by these tubules

Hypertonic Hypotonic
Parts and Functions of the Human Urinary System
The fluid then proceeds into:
❖​ Distal Convoluted Tubule
-​ Involved in the regulation of sodium, potassium,
and.
❖​ Aldosterone
-​ Sodium reabsorption is mediated
-​ Adrenal cortex
❖​ Parathyroid hormone
-​ calcium reabsorption is mediated
-​ Parathyroid glands
❖​ Antidiuretic hormone
-​ water reabsorption is affected
-​ Responsible for the elimination of wastes in the form
-​ Pituitary
of urine
➢​ Urine drains into the:
-​ main organ is the kidney
●​ Minor Calyx
Kidney ●​ Major Calyx
●​ Renal pelvis

-​ From here, it is drained by the ureter to be temporarily

stored in the urinary bladder.
Urination
-​ urine accumulates the bladder may be emptied by
voluntary relaxation of the external urinary
sphincter allowing the fluid to flow through the urethra
and out of the body
➔​ Internal Urinary Sphincter
-​ Automatically controlled by the sympathetic
-​ Basic functional unit is the nephron, which is and parasympathetic nervous system
composed of the renal corpuscle and a series of
tubules responsible for the excretion of waste, Urethra
reabsorption of valuable substances, and filtration of -​ Passes through genitals
blood.
➔​ Renal corpuscle
-​ consists of a tuft of capillaries, the
glomerulus, surrounded by the bowman's
capsule.
 Males Females Positive Feedback Mechanisms

Extends from the bladder to emerges superior to the -​ Accelerates a change for there in the same direction
the distal tip of the penis vagina, opening but inferior to -​ The effector drives an activity farther from the set point
the clitoris. thus making the system more unstable
-​ An indispensable physiological mechanism
about 20 cm long and is 4-5 cm long
divided into four segments
➔​ Oxytocin
-​ a hormone that induces uterine contraction
functions as a passageway for located behind the symphysis -​ secreted by the posterior pituitary gland
both urine and semen pubis

Lining is composed of stratified

squamous epithelium and then
becomes transitional near the
bladder

Fluid Regulation and Excretion in Plants

Stomata
-​ Play an important role in fluid regulation
-​ open and close the balance water and carbon dioxide
using osmotic pressure
➢​ facilitate photosynthesis in three ways
1.​ The pore allows light to enter the intracellular
part and triggers photolysis
2.​ allows carbon dioxide, a raw component of
photosynthesis to enter the leaf
3.​ allows oxygen to be expelled in the
environment
Transpiration
-​ The release of water in the form of water vapor through
the leaves of plants
-​ results and transpiration pull by which water is moved
upward through the xylem issues
Wilting of the plant Guttation

if water absorption is less than if absorption is greater

the rate of transpiration compared to transpiration

Feedback Mechanisms
Negative Feedback Mechanisms
-​ Maintains internal constancy
-​ a regulatory system in which an increase in the
concentration of a substance inhibits the continued
synthesis of that substance, and vice versa