GEOGRAPHY

INTRODUCTION TO PHYSICAL GEOGRAPHY

Physical geography focuses upon the character of, and processes shaping, the land-
surface of the Earth and its envelope, emphasizes the spatial variations that occur
and the temporal changes necessary to understand the contemporary environments
of the Earth. Its purpose is to understand how the Earth’s physical environment is
the basis for, and is affected by, human activity. Physical geography was
conventionally subdivided into geomorphology, climatology, hydrology,
and biogeography, but is now more holistic in systems analysis of recent
environmental and Quaternary change. It uses expertise in mathematical and
statistical modelling and in remote sensing, develops research to inform
environmental management and environmental design, and benefits from
collaborative links with many other disciplines such as biology (especially ecology),
geology and engineering’ (K. Gregory 2002). However, R. Inkpen (2005) makes the
soundly based claim that there is not a single history of physical geography.
Between 1850 and 1950, the main ideas that had a strong influence on the
discipline were uniformitarianism, evolution, exploration and survey, and
conservation (G. P. Marsh 1864). In the 1960s, ‘a new type of physical geography
began to emerge that accentuated a concern with dynamic processes of earth
systems. This new approach, which has evolved to the present, is founded on basic
physical, chemical, and biological principles and employs statistical and
mathematical analysis. It has become known as the “process approach” to physical
geography…Over the past fifteen years, physical geographers, who have always
acknowledged that the systems they study are complex, have turned to emerging
ideas in the natural sciences about nonlinear dynamical systems and complexity to
explore the relevance of these ideas for understanding physical-geographic
phenomena’ (Rhoads (2004) AAAG 94, 4). ‘Advances in remote sensing,
geographical information systems and information technology have enabled a more
global approach; a second new development has been the advent of a more
culturally-based approach throughout many branches of physical geography. By
2000 a series of issues can be identified including the increasingly holistic trend,
greater awareness of a global approach and of environmental change problems,
and of the timely opportunities which can arise from closer links with human
geography and with other disciplines’ (Gregory (2001) Fennia 179, 1).
Harden (2011) Phys. Geog. 33, 1, 1 writes that ‘while the sub-discipline of physical
geography remains firmly grounded in research undertaken to explain Earth’s
landscapes and its geomorphic, hydrologic, atmospheric, cryospheric, petrologic,
and biogeographical processes, which change over time and space, the extent of
the human “footprint” on this planet challenges physical geographers to pay
greater attention to the role of people in environmental change and the interactions
between people and their environments’.
 Geomorphology[6][7] is concerned with understanding the surface of
the Earth and the processes by which it is shaped, both at the present
as well as in the past. Geomorphology as a field has several sub-fields
that deal with the specific landforms of various environments
e.g. desert geomorphology and fluvial geomorphology; however, these
sub-fields are united by the core processes which cause them, mainly
tectonic or climatic processes. Geomorphology seeks to
understand landform history and dynamics, and predict future changes
through a combination of field observation, physical experiment, and
numerical modeling (Geomorphometry). Early studies in
geomorphology are the foundation for pedology, one of two main
branches of soil science.
 Hydrology[6][7] is predominantly concerned with the amounts and
quality of water moving and accumulating on the land surface and in
the soils and rocks near the surface and is typified by the hydrological
cycle. Thus the field encompasses water in rivers, lakes, aquifers and
to an extent glaciers, in which the field examines the process and
dynamics involved in these bodies of water. Hydrology has historically
had an important connection with engineering and has thus developed
a largely quantitative method in its research; however, it does have
an earth science side that embraces the systems approach. Similar to
most fields of physical geography it has sub-fields that examine the
specific bodies of water or their interaction with other spheres
e.g. limnology and ecohydrology.
 Glaciology is the study of glaciers and ice sheets, or more commonly
the cryosphere or ice and phenomena that involve ice. Glaciology
groups the latter (ice sheets) as continental glaciers and the former
(glaciers) as alpine glaciers. Although research in the areas is similar to
research undertaken into both the dynamics of ice sheets and glaciers,
the former tends to be concerned with the interaction of ice sheets
with the present climate and the latter with the impact of glaciers on
the landscape. Glaciology also has a vast array of sub-fields examining
the factors and processes involved in ice sheets and glaciers
e.g. snow hydrology and glacial geology.
 Biogeography[6][7] is the science which deals with geographic patterns
of species distribution and the processes that result in these patterns.
Biogeography emerged as a field of study as a result of the work
of Alfred Russel Wallace, although the field prior to the late twentieth
century had largely been viewed as historic in its outlook and
descriptive in its approach. The main stimulus for the field since its
founding has been that of evolution, plate tectonics and the theory of
island biogeography. The field can largely be divided into five sub-
fields: island biogeography,
paleobiogeography, phylogeography, zoogeography and phytogeograp
hy.
 Climatology[6][7] is the study of the climate, scientifically defined as
weather conditions averaged over a long period of time. Climatology
examines both the nature of micro (local) and macro (global) climates
and the natural and anthropogenic influences on them. The field is also
sub-divided largely into the climates of various regions and the study
of specific phenomena or time periods e.g. tropical cyclone rainfall
climatology and paleoclimatology.
 Soil geography deals with the distribution of soils across the terrain.
This discipline, between geography and soil science, is fundamental to
both physical geography and pedology.[8][9][10] Pedology is the study of
soils in their natural environment. It deals with pedogenesis, soil
 morphology, soil classification. Soil geography studies the spatial
distribution of soils as it relates to topography, climate (water, air,
temperature), soil life (micro-organisms, plants, animals) and mineral
materials within soils (biogeochemical cycles).
 Palaeogeography[6] is a cross-disciplinary study that examines the
preserved material in the stratigraphic record to determine the
distribution of the continents through geologic time. Almost all the
evidence for the positions of the continents comes from geology in the
form of fossils or paleomagnetism. The use of these data has resulted
in evidence for continental drift, plate tectonics, and supercontinents.
This, in turn, has supported palaeogeographic theories such as
the Wilson cycle.
 Coastal geography is the study of the dynamic interface between the
ocean and the land, incorporating both the physical geography (i.e.
coastal geomorphology, geology, and oceanography) and the human
geography of the coast. It involves an understanding of
coastal weathering processes, particularly wave action, sediment
movement and weathering, and also the ways in which humans
interact with the coast. Coastal geography, although predominantly
geomorphological in its research, is not just concerned with coastal
landforms, but also the causes and influences of sea level change.
 Oceanography[6] is the branch of physical geography that studies the
Earth's oceans and seas. It covers a wide range of topics, including
marine organisms and ecosystem dynamics (biological oceanography);
ocean currents, waves, and geophysical fluid dynamics (physical
oceanography); plate tectonics and the geology of the sea floor
(geological oceanography); and fluxes of various chemical substances
and physical properties within the ocean and across its boundaries
(chemical oceanography). These diverse topics reflect multiple
disciplines that oceanographers blend to further knowledge of the
world ocean and understanding of processes within it.
 Quaternary science[7] is an interdisciplinary field of study focusing on
the Quaternary period, which encompasses the last 2.6 million years.
The field studies the last ice age and the
recent interstadial the Holocene and uses proxy evidence to
reconstruct the past environments during this period to infer the
climatic and environmental changes that have occurred.
 Landscape ecology is a sub-discipline of ecology and geography that
address how spatial variation in the landscape affects ecological
processes such as the distribution and flow of energy, materials, and
individuals in the environment (which, in turn, may influence the
distribution of landscape "elements" themselves such as hedgerows).
The field was largely funded by the German geographer Carl Troll.
 Landscape ecology typically deals with problems in an applied and
holistic context. The main difference between biogeography and
landscape ecology is that the latter is concerned with how flows or
energy and material are changed and their impacts on the landscape
whereas the former is concerned with the spatial patterns of species
and chemical cycles.
 Geomatics is the field of gathering, storing, processing, and delivering
geographic information, or spatially referenced information. Geomatics
includes geodesy (scientific discipline that deals with the measurement
and representation of the earth, its gravitational field, and other
geodynamic phenomena, such as crustal motion, oceanic tides, and
polar motion), cartography, geographical information science
(GIS) and remote sensing (the short or large-scale acquisition of
information of an object or phenomenon, by the use of either recording
or real-time sensing devices that are not in physical or intimate contact
with the object).
 Environmental geography is a branch of geography that analyzes
the spatial aspects of interactions between humans and the natural
world. The branch bridges the divide between human and physical
geography and thus requires an understanding of the dynamics of
geology, meteorology, hydrology, biogeography, and geomorphology,
as well as the ways in which human societies conceptualize the
environment. Although the branch was previously more visible in
research than at present with theories such as environmental
determinism linking society with the environment. It has largely
become the domain of the study of environmental management or
anthropogenic influences.

Q2

Composition of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is a layer of gas or layers of gases that envelope a planet and is held in
place by the gravity of the planetary body. A planet retains an atmosphere when the
gravity is great and the temperature of the atmosphere is low.

 The atmosphere of earth is composed of nitrogen (78%), oxygen (21%), argon

(0.9%), carbon dioxide (0.04%) and trace gases. A variable amount of water
 vapour is also present in the atmosphere (approx.1% at sea level) and it
decreases with altitude.
 Carbon dioxide gas is largely responsible for the greenhouse effect. It is
transparent to the incoming solar radiation but is opaque to the outgoing
terrestrial radiation. It absorbs a part of terrestrial radiation and reflects back
some of it towards the earth’s surface.
 Dust particles are also present in the atmosphere. They originate from different
sources like fine soil, smoke-soot, pollen, dust and disintegrated particles of
meteors. Dust and salt particles act as hygroscopic nuclei around which water
vapour condenses to produce clouds.

Composition of the Atmosphere – Ozone Gas

 Present around 10-50 km above the earth’s surface and acts as a sieve,
absorbing UV (ultraviolet rays) from the sun.
 Ozone averts harmful rays from reaching the surface of the earth.

Composition of the Atmosphere – Water Vapour

 Water vapour is a variable gas, declines with altitude.
 It also drops towards the poles from the equator.
 It acts like a blanket letting the earth from becoming neither too hot nor too cold.
 It also contributes to the stability and instability in the air.

Composition of the Atmosphere – Dust Particles

 Dust particles are in higher concentrations in temperate and subtropical regions
due to dry winds in contrast to the polar and equatorial regions.
 They act as hygroscopic nuclei over which water vapour of the atmosphere
condenses to create clouds.

Composition of the Atmosphere – Nitrogen

 The atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen.
 Nitrogen cannot be used directly from the air.
 Biotic things need nitrogen to make proteins.
 The Nitrogen Cycle is the way of supplying the required nitrogen for living things.

Composition of the atmosphere – Oxygen

 The atmosphere is composed of 21% oxygen.
 It is used by all living things and is essential for respiration.
 It is obligatory for burning.
Also read: Oxygen Cycle
Composition of the Atmosphere – Argon
 The atmosphere is composed of 0.9% argon.
 They are mainly used in light bulbs.

Composition of the Atmosphere – Carbon Dioxide

 The atmosphere is composed of 0.03% carbon dioxide.
 Plants use it to make oxygen.
 It is significant as it is opaque to outgoing terrestrial radiation and transparent to
incoming solar radiation.
 It is also one of the gases responsible for the greenhouse effect.

Structure of the Atmosphere

The atmosphere is divided into five different layers depending upon the temperature
conditions – troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere, thermosphere and exosphere.
Troposphere

 It is the lowermost layer of the atmosphere.

 The average height of the troposphere is 13 km; its height is about 8 km near the
poles and about 18 km at the equator. At the equator, its thickness is greatest
because heat is transported to great heights by strong convection currents.
 All the climatic and weather changes take place in this layer of the atmosphere.
 The temperature decreases with the increase in height; for every 165 m of
height, the temperature decreases by 1℃ (normal lapse rate).
 Tropopause is a zone that separates the troposphere from the stratosphere. The
temperature in this zone is nearly constant (-80℃ over the equator and about -
45℃ over the poles) and hence, it is called the tropopause.
Stratosphere

 It is the second layer of the atmosphere, just above the troposphere and extends
up to a height of 50 km.
 This layer of the atmosphere contains the ozone layer which absorbs ultraviolet
radiation from the sun and protects life from harmful forms of energy. The UV
radiations absorbed by the ozone layer gets converted into heat, that is why the
stratosphere gets warmer with increasing altitude (unlike the troposphere).
 Weather-related phenomena are absent in this layer of the atmosphere, that is
why aeroplanes fly in the stratosphere for a smooth ride.
 Stratopause separates the stratosphere and mesosphere.
Mesosphere
  Mesosphere is the third layer of the atmosphere which extends up to a height of
80 km.
 In this layer, temperature decreases with increasing altitude and drops down to
minus 100℃ at the height of 80 km.
 Meteorites burn in this layer on entering the atmosphere from outer space.
 Its upper limit is mesopause which separates the mesosphere and thermosphere.
Thermosphere

 The ionosphere lies within the thermosphere. It is located between 80 and 400
km above the mesosphere and contains electrically charged particles called ions,
hence the name ionosphere.
 In this layer of the atmosphere, temperature increases with increasing height.
 Radio Waves transmitted from the earth are reflected back to the earth by this
layer.
 Satellites orbit in the upper part of the thermosphere.



Exosphere
  The uppermost layer of the atmosphere above the thermosphere is called the
exosphere.
 This layer gradually merges with outer space.

Q3

Koppen Climate Classification

 Koppen’s Group-A climates are found in the unbroken belt around the Earth at
low latitudes, typically within 15° North and South.
 Group A climates are regulated largely by the seasonal variations of the trade
winds, the Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ), and the Asian monsoon.

Group A: Tropical Humid Climates

 Tropical humid climates exist between Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn.
 Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone makes the climate hot and humid.
 The annual range of temperature in this region is very low whereas the annual
rainfall is high.
 The tropical group is divided into three types. They are:

o Af – Tropical wet climate

o Am – Tropical monsoon climate

o Aw – Tropical wet and dry climate

Tropical Wet Climate (Af)

 Tropical wet climate is seen near the equator.

 The chief areas that lie in this climate are:
 o Amazon Basin in South America

o Western Equatorial Africa

o The islands of East Indies

 A substantial amount of rainfall occurs in every month of the year.

 These regions receive thundershowers in the afternoon.
 The temperature is uniformly high.
 The annual range of temperature is negligible.
 The maximum temperature during the daytime is about 30°C whereas the
minimum temperature is about 20°C.
 The region is bestowed with Tropical evergreen forests and large biodiversity.
Candidates must go through the relevant links provided below to prepare for topics
important for the UPSC examination-

Tropical Monsoon Climate (Am)

 Tropical monsoon climate (Am) is found over:

o The Indian sub-continent

o North-Eastern part of South America

o Northern Australia
  These regions receive heavy rainfall in summer.
 Winter in this area seems to be dry.

Tropical Wet and Dry Climate (Aw)

 The tropical wet and dry climate is found in north and south of Tropical Wet
Climate (Af) type climate regions.
 It borders with Cf or Cw on the eastern part and dry climate on the western part
of the continent.
 Extensive Aw climate is found in

o Sudan

o South of Central Africa

o North and South of the Amazon forest in Brazil

o Connecting parts of Bolivia and Paraguay in South America

 The annual rainfall in Tropical Wet and Dry Climate is significantly less than that
in Af and Am climate types.
 The wet season is shorter in this region.
 The dry season is longer with the drought being more severe.
 The diurnal ranges of temperature are extreme in the dry season.
 Temperature is high throughout the year.
 Deciduous forest and tree-shredded grasslands main flora found in this region.

section b
Q6 what is heat budge os earth
Heat Budget of the Earth
Heat is a form of energy that is received by the earth from the sun. The concept of Heat Budget
deals with the amount of heat energy received from the sun and its utilization in the atmosphere
and the surface of the earth. This explains why the earth neither warms up nor cools down
despite the huge transfer of heat that takes place.

 A heat budget is a perfect balance between incoming heat (insolation) absorbed

by the earth and outgoing heat (terrestrial radiation) escaping it in the form of
radiation.
 If the incoming heat and the outgoing heat are not balanced, then Earth would
be getting either too warmer or cooler. Since these are perfectly balanced the
earth is neither too warm nor too cold.
 The equilibrium that exists between the insolation (short waves) and the
terrestrial radiation (long waves) is called the heat budget of the earth.
Heat Budget of Earth – explained with an example

Image Source: NCERT

 If the total insolation received at the top of the atmosphere is considered to be

100%, a certain amount of energy is reflected, scattered and absorbed while
passing through Earth’s atmosphere and only the remaining amount of radiation
reaches the earth’s surface.
 Approximately 35 units are reflected to space even before reaching the earth’s
surface.

o Of these, 27 units are reflected from the top of the clouds and 2 units from
the snow and ice-covered areas of the earth. The reflected amount of
radiation is called the albedo of the earth.

 The remaining 65 units are absorbed, 14 units within the atmosphere and 51
units by the earth’s surface. The earth radiates back 51 units in the form
of terrestrial radiation.

o Of these, 17 units are radiated to space directly and the remaining 34

units are absorbed by the atmosphere
 The 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from insolation + 34 units
from terrestrial radiation) are also radiated back into space.
 Thus, the total radiation returning from the earth and the atmosphere
respectively is 17+48=65 units which balance the total of 65 units received
from the sun.
 Q7 what is air mass

Air Mass Definition

Air mass can be defined as a large air volume with uniform temperature and moisture.
These masses can stretch thousands of miles horizontally over the Earth’s surface, and
vertically from ground level to the stratosphere (10 miles) into the atmosphere.

How do Air Masses Form?

Air masses form over source regions that give them their uniform temperature and
humidity. Moreover, low wind speeds prevent these large volumes from moving. So,
while they stay stationary over a region, they acquire the conditions of that region,
either temperature or humidity. Then as wind speeds increase, they move to other
areas, still keeping their source region’s states.
They can also clash with different air masses in other regions and cause storms.

Categorisation of Air Masses

Meteorologists classify air masses based on where they are formed. Here is the
classification.
Typically, there are 4 types of air masses:

 Arctic: These air masses form in the Arctic region and are very cold.
 Tropical: These air masses form in low lying latitudes and are warm up to a
moderate level.
 Polar: These air masses form in the high-latitude region and are cold.
 Equatorial: They start forming over the Equator and are warm.
Besides this classification, there is another way to categorise air masses. Meteorologists
classify them based on whether they form over water or land. These distinctions are:

 Maritime: Maritime ones form over the water bodies and are filled with
moisture.
 Continental: Whereas, the Continental ones form over the land and are arid.
For instance, an air mass formed over interior Asia is a continental polar air mass that is
cold and dry. However, one that is formed over the Indian Ocean is a tropical air mass
that is humid and warm.
 Q8 describe the causes of earthquick origen
Earthquakes are caused by a sudden release of stress along faults in the earth’s crust.
The tectonic plates are always slowly moving, but they get stuck at their edges due to
friction. When the stress on the edge overcomes the friction, there is an earthquake.
The resulting waves of seismic energy propagate through the ground and over its
surface, causing the shaking we perceive as earthquakes. The main causes of
earthquakes are:

 Plate tectonics: They account for most earthquakes worldwide and usually
occur at the boundaries of tectonic plates.
 Induced quakes: They are caused by human activity, like tunnel construction,
filling reservoirs and implementing geothermal or fracking projects.
 Volcanic quakes: They are associated with active volcanism.
 Collapse quakes: They can be triggered by such phenomena as cave-ins,
mostly in karst areas or close to mining facilities, as a result of subsidence.
 Q9 describe glacial landform

Glacial Depositional Landforms

Glaciers have played an important role in the moulding of landscapes in the mid and
high latitudes of alpine environments. The major depositional landforms made by
glaciers are:

 Esker
 Outwash plains
 Drumlins
Read in detail about these below:

Eskers
 The esker is one of the most striking landforms of fluvioglacial deposition.
 They are usually formed of washed sand and gravel.
 Eskers vary in shape and size.
 When glaciers melt, the water flows on the surface of the ice or leaks down along
the margins.
 These waters amass underneath the glacier and flow like streams in a channel
beneath the ice. Such streams flow over the ground with ice forming its banks.
 Very coarse materials like stones and blocks along with some minor segments of
rock debris transported into this stream settle down in the valley of ice
underneath the glacier and after the ice melts can be found as a winding ridge
called Esker.

Outwash Plains
 It is also known as called a sandur.
 It is a plain formed of glacial sediments deposited by meltwater outwash at the
limit of a glacier.

Drumlins
 These are smooth oval-shaped ridge-like topographies composed primarily of
glacial till with masses of gravel and sand.
 It forms due to the dumping of rock debris underneath heavily loaded ice through
fissures in the glacier.
 The long axes of drumlins are parallel to the direction of ice movement.
 Drumlins give an indication of the direction of glacier movement.
 The Stoss end is the steeper of the two ends and used to face into the ice flow.
Moraines:
 Moraines are long ridges of deposits of glacial till.
 When these deposits are at the end of a glacier, they are called as Terminal
moraines and when they are deposited on both sides, they are called as Lateral
moraines.
 When lateral moraines of two glaciers join together, they form Medial moraines.
 When the lateral moraines of both sides of a glacier join together, it forms a
horse-shoe shape.
 Ground moraines are deposits left behind in areas once covered by glaciers.