—------------------------------------------WWI—----------------------------------------

Chapter 1: The causes of the First World War

In 1900, Europe dominated world events.
The assassination at Sarajevo
In 1914, Archduke Ferdinand, heir of the Austria-Hungary empire, and his wife
visited Sarajevo. A bomb was thrown at their car; however, it bounced off and they
were unhurt. They set off again by car. The chauffeur took the wrong turn and
Gavrilo Princip shot and killed the Archduke.
The Great Powers
The six most important and powerful countries in Europe were split into two armed
groups.
The Central Powers: Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy.
Germany
It was made up of small states that became one united country. The Chancellor,
Otto Von Bismarck, believed military strength could solve all problems. Germany
had a large and well-equipped army; its industry even overtook Britain´s. Bismarck
was dismissed by Kaiser Wilhelm II, who wanted Germany to lead Europe by
building up a navy and winning an empire.
Austria-Hungary
It was Germany's oldest ally since they joined together in the Dual Alliance. It was
ruled for a long time by Emperor Franz Josef. It was made up of different
civilisations. Since they demanded independence, they were difficult to rule. Franz
Josef wanted to take over the Balkans´ land.
Italy
It was the weakest of the Central Powers. It had become a united country only
recently. It was looking for new areas of land to colonise; however, it had very little
industry. It joined the Dual Alliance and the three of them became the Triple Alliance.
The Entente Powers: France, Russia, Britain (Allies).
France
It wanted to take revenge against Germany for the defeat it suffered against them.
Its industry was growing. To defeat Germany they knew they would need allies.
France had few friends in Europe due to Germany's alliances (Austria-Hungary, Italy,
Russia). Germany stopped the alliance with Russia, and France decided to make a
treaty with it.
Russia
It was the largest of the Great Powers; however, it had made little progress
compared to the others. France helped Russia economically. The Tsar (ruler) was in
complete control.
Britain
Its industrial goods were traded all over the world. Despite the rivalry with other
countries, it still had the largest and strongest merchant fleet in the world. At first, it
wanted to stay out of the alliances. Then, it considered joining the Central Powers
because of the link between German´s royal family and its own. Moreover, France
and Russia were Britain's enemies. Nevertheless, Britain had nothing in common
with Austria-Hungary, which was involved in the Central Powers. Gradually, Britain
considered Germany a greater threat than Russia or France. Britain signed the
Entente Cordiale with France. Russia lost to Japan so Britain didn't fear it anymore.
Therefore, the Triple Entente was signed between Britain, France and Russia;
however, it wasn't very firm.
Four steps to war
1 Naval Rivalry - Dreadnoughts
Germany and Britain began a race to expand their navies. Britain launched a
battleship, which was the fastest and had the best guns and armour. After this,
Germany announced it would build four of these battleships each year.
2 Morocco
The German Kaiser was jealous of Britain's and France's empires. He tested their
alliance. Britain and France controlled the Mediterranean between them; Britain
controlled the east and France the west (Morocco). The Kaiser visited Morocco and
offered the Sultan to throw the French out, but Britain and France stuck together so
the Kaiser backed down. Later, the Kaiser sent a gunboat to Morocco to expand his
territories but Britain and France forced him to withdraw.
3 The Balkans
The Ottoman (the Turkish) empire covered the Balkans. Several countries managed
to free themselves from Ottoman rule so this empire got smaller. Many people from
the Balkans were similar to Russia (Serbs and Bulgars), so they looked to it for help.
In exchange, Russia wanted the Dardanelles (channel with a sea route to the
Mediterranean) to stay safe. Russia supported the independence and expansion of
the Balkan states. Austria-Hungary didn´t want independent Slavs countries
because, this way, Slavs inside Austria-Hungary would also want independence and
it would collapse. Serbia had plans to create a “Yugoslavia”, a country that would
contain all the Slavs. To stop the Serbian expansion, Austria-Hungary took over
Bosnia. In Serbia, secret societies were formed to throw the Austrians out of the
Balkans. The Ottomans were attacked and driven out of the Balkans. Serbia
expanded, making it more determined to lead the Slav people. Austria-Hungary was
against this but Russia backed Serbia.
4 Assassination at Sarajevo
Archduke Ferdinand visited Sarajevo. There he was killed by Gavrilo Princip, a
member of the Black Hand organisation of Serbia. From then on, countries slid into
war. Germany supported Austria-Hungary. This encouraged Austria-Hungary to give
Serbia an ultimatum; Serbia had to accept being controlled by Austria or else
Austria would declare war. Serbia agreed up to a point. Russia offered Serbia help
but Austria-Hungary ended up declaring war on Serbia. Germany was worried by
Russian mobilisation because it expected Russia to be slow. Germany wanted to
attack France, through Belgium, first. Germany declared war on Russia and later on
France. Germany entered Belgium but Britain stood by its agreement to protect
Belgium. Britain declared war on the Central Powers.
Chapter 2: The First World War 1914-1918
The Schlieffen plan
If war came Germany would have to face France and Russia. So the German army
would have to split in two. The Germans made a plan, in which they took two risks:
the Russians would be slow to get ready for war and Britain would not join in when
they invaded Belgium. According to the plan, Germany would attack and surprise
France along a frontier and through Belgium. The Germans defeated France so now
they could concentrate on Russia.
The German Advance
The war began when German troops invaded Belgium. They almost succeeded;
however, the Belgiums put up more resistance than expected so the German
advance slowed down. In addition to this, Britain kept to their treaty and sent over
the BEF. The BEF attacked the Germans, not allowing them to follow their plan. The
Russians mobilised more quickly than the Germans had expected and invaded
them. When the Germans reached the River Marne too quickly for the supplies to
keep up they got weak and the Allies counter-attacked. The German advance was
stopped at the Battle of Marne and pushed back, hid in trenches, consequently,
allies could not advance any further.
Why were so many killed?
Many soldiers were killed per day because of:
1 Mass recruitment: armies were huge.
2 Mass transport: huge armies transported quickly by train.
3 Industry: European countries developed heavy industries, so the factories
provided materials for weapons and equipment.
4 Defensive weapons: the most effective weapons were the ones used in the
defensive positions.
● Trenches: the only safe place was a trench dug into the ground. Two lines of
trenches faced each other.
5 Tactics: neither side knew how to break the deadlock (bloqueo). The only method
of attack was to send soldiers, on foot, towards the enemy lines.
6 New ideas:
● Gas: the Germans tried to drive the enemy out of their trenches by using
poison gas, but soon was used by both sides. The effects were horrible.
● Tanks: tanks could end the deadlock, but they were not used in great
numbers because of their primitive design.
The home front in Britain
The FWW was fought on land, sea and in the air, so it affected everyone, including
civilians at home. Britain wasn't a safe place anymore.
Conscription (reclutamiento): at first, the British army was made up of volunteers.
But then men were pressured to join.
Propaganda: government propaganda encouraged patriotism. Everything was done
to make soldiers seem like heroes; however, the reality was that they were fighting
in conditions which were far from heroic.
Conscientious objectors: British citizens used to be able to refuse to serve in the
armed forces if they objected because of their conscience or religious belief. Then,
they could help in non-military jobs. However, in war times some objectors had their
objections refused and had to join the army. If they refused, they could get shot.
Women at work: at first, women supported the war by encouraging recruitment and
providing comforts. Once they realised war wasn't going to be over soon, they
demanded the right to serve in serious ways. Due to war and the shortage of men
employees; factories, banks, buses, hospitals and ambulances began to employ
women workers, but they got paid less than men.
Food: food imports were crucial for countries to feed their population; however,
because of oversea being disrupted there was a food shortage. It had to be
introduced a voluntary rationing system, which didn't work.
The war at sea
The British navy was still stronger than Germany´s and it blocked all German ports.
This cut off supplies of raw materials, machine tools and food. This stranglehold
was an important cause of German defeat. Both sides realised that if they lost a
major sea battle they could “lose the war in an afternoon”. Later, the German fleet in
the Pacific was destroyed, so the only German battleships left were penned up in
German ports by the Allied blockade. The Germans tried to balance the naval war
by using submarines to sink ships that brought supplies to Britain. As any ship
heading Britain was declared a target, an American ship (Lusitania) was sunk by the
Germans. This caused a strong anti-German feeling in the USA. The Kaiser ordered
to cut down the submarines.
The Battle of Jutland: there was a war at sea between Britain and Germany in which
Britain was weaker. Nevertheless, Britain was still in control of the North Sea.
The convoy system: the Germans returned to unrestricted submarines warfare, as
their only hope of winning the war. They managed to sink many British merchant
ships. Britain changed their Prime Minister, David Lloyd George, and with him, new
tactics came which difficulted German attacks. The convoy system consisted of
merchant ships that sailed in large groups scorted by fast destroyers. Sea defences
were also strengthened.
The war in the air
Aeroplanes were still new inventions, so at first, they were used to find out what the
enemy was doing and take photographs. New developments took place and figther
planes which carried bombs (small and little damage) were built. Both sides used
airships during the war. During this time, aircraft´s size, efficiency and speed
improved.
The war in other fronts
The Eastern Front
Russia attacked Germany but the Germans stopped the advance. Later, German
and Austrian troops advanced steadily, and the Russian army couldn’t stop them.
Russians fought but they were short of guns, ammunition, supplies and food. After
that, Russia counter-attacked successfully but it led to an economical crisis. In
1917, there was a revolution in Russia that made Russia want to make peace with
Germany. Germany gained land from Russia.
Italy
Even though Italy was a part of the Central Powers, at first it had a neutral position.
Later on, it declared war on Austria-Hungary. Italy wanted to gain land and colonies
from Germany and Austria-Hungary if they were defeated. Italy lost to
Austria-Hungary because of German help to the Austrians.
The Middle East
Britain attacked the Turkish empire. A British officer encouraged the Arabs to fight
against the Turks. In the end, Britain had captured Syria, Palestine and
Mesopotamia.
Gallipoli
Turkey was attacked by Britain because it wanted to break the deadlock. In
addition, supplies could be sent to Russia. They couldn’t move any further and the
Allied troops withdrew.
The end of the war
In 1917 the USA entered the war on the Allied side. Americans were against
Germany because of the sinking of the Lusitania. Also, the USA shared beliefs in
democracy with Britain. The USA entering the war was good news to the Allies
since Russia dropped out of the war. The Russian Revolution and the American
delay gave Germany one last chance and attacked the enemy's trenches. The Allies
stopped the German advances.
The first American troops began to arrive and they united their efforts with the Allies.
Several tanks were used and that pushed the Germans back. Therefore, Germany
asked for an armistice. Besides, there were revolutions and chaos in Germany. And
with that, the war stopped in 1918.
Why did Germany lose the war?
1- The effects that the long war had on the German economy.
2- The development of the tank made trench warfare (they didn’t develop a new
tank) out-of-date.
3- The naval blockade (shortages).
4- The arrival of Americans.
Chapter 3: The Treaty of Versailles
As the war had stopped, the politicians had to work out a lasting peace. The
representatives of the victors (USA, France, Italy, Britain) met at Versailles. They
worked out terms which would be presented to the defeated powers to sign.
The Versailles peacemakers
Wilson (USA), Clemenceau (France), Lloyd George (Britain), Orlando (Italy).
Wilson
The President wanted to build a better, safer world out of the war. When he led the
USA into the war, he did it on the basis of his ‘Fourteen Points’, which would prevent
another war from ever taking place and to remove any possible disagreement. He
hoped these would be the basis of the treaty, and he had no intention of punishing
Germany. The Fourteen Points were:
1. No secret treaties.
2. Seas, free to everyone always.
3. Customs barriers, removed.
4. Armaments, reduced.
5. Take into account wishes from people.
6. German forces, leave Russia.
7. Belgium independence.
8. Alsace-Lorraine, returned to France.
9. Italy’s fortier, adjusted, avoid quarrels with Austria.
10. Different nationalities, govern themselves in independent countries
(self-determination).
11. Coastline given to Serbia.
12. Self-determination for the Turkish.
13. Coastline and independence to Poland.
14. The League of Nations: international organisation to settle disputes between
countries.
Clemenceau
Since he saw his country being invaded by Germany he wanted revenge by
weakening Germany so it could never attack France again. He wanted
compensation for the damage done. He didn’t agree with Wilson’s ideals.
Lloyd George
He didn't want to punish Germany, but he had just won an election and promised to
make Germany pay. He didn't agree with two of the fourteen points, and he thought
Britain´s safety depended on controlling the seas.
Making peace
None of the four countries got everything they wanted. Wilson had to give way to
the other countries, in order to maintain the League of Nations. Other points were
only accepted when they suited the other representatives. Furthermore, at that time,
Europe was in chaos:
1- There was a flu epidemic.
2- A new democratical system was set up in Germany, due to the Kaiser's
abdication.
3- Communists tried to take the power in Germany and Hungary.
4- And in some parts of Europe, people had taken control in their hands.
In addition, the peacemakers still wanted revenge. And, also, it would have been
more neutral if they had met on neutral ground and not in France, a country which
has been hit badly by the war.
A dictated peace
It was not a negotiated peace. As there was no one present to defend Germany,
Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria.
The terms of the treaty
Territory
1. Alsace-Lorraine, returned to France.
2. The Saar, taken from Germany, given to France for 15 years (at the end of
that time people from there voted where they wanted to belong).
3. The left bank of the Rhine, Germany; occupied by the Allies.
4. Poland, independent country.
5. Danzig, free city.
6. Finland, Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia, independent countries.
7. Czechoslovakia, independent state.
8. Austria and Hungary, separated countries.
9. Yugoslavia, independent country.
10. Italy was given South Tyrol and Istria.
11. Romania, Greece, Belgium and Denmark, given small pieces of land of the
defeated countries.
Colonies
● Germany and Turkey, got their former colonies taken away and given to other
countries (had to agree to lead them to independence).
● The League of Nations had to ensure that territories under mandate were
looked after correctly.
 ★ German empire: Tanganyika given to Britain, Cameroons to France,
South-West Africa to South-Africa, Pacific islands to Japan.
★ Turkish empire: Palestine, Jordan, Iraq to Britain; Lebanon, Syria to France.
Arms
1. German army massively cut down.
2. Guns and weapons, melted down.
3. German navy was cut down and not allowed to have submarines in the
future.
4. Germany, not allowed to have air force.
5. Germany, forbidden to make alliances with Austria ever again.
Blame
Germany had to accept total blame for the war.
Reparations
Germany had to pay reparations to the Allies to compensate them.
How did Germany react to the treaty?
The German fleet had been given to the British. When the terms were announced,
German crews destroyed their ships.
The German people and the government were angry, as they lost land, people, coal,
iron, agricultural production, manufacturing industries and armed forces. Taking the
blame for the war was what hurt them the most. That made people eager to listen to
Hitler´s criticism. Despite this, they had to sign the treaty.
Criticisms of the treaty
The treaty has been criticised for:
● Not keeping the peace (just for 20 years).
● It ignored some minority groups and this made Europe less stable.
● Austria-Hungary had been divided, but it was built up again as an economic
unit.
● Roads, rails and rivers were broken, which caused industries to be cut off
from their suppliers.
● There were economic weaknesses in the new countries.
● Some of the new countries had large minorities of other peoples.
 ● Wilson´s aim was not applied to the minority groups, equally.
● German minorities were ignored.
● Self-determination did not apply to people who were on the wrong side at the
end of the war.
● New countries soon fell under the rule of dictators.
● Minorities were an impossible problem for the peacemakers to solve.

—---------------------------------------Russia—----------------------------------------
Chapter 4: The Russian Revolution
In 1917, after a series of revolutions, Russia became the first country with a
Communist government. Some of these revolutions were short and had arisen
recently, whereas others were long and had arisen many years before.
The long-term causes of the Russian revolution
Before the revolution, 75% of Russians used to live in villages and were extremely
poor peasants. They used to belong to their masters, who could buy and sell them.
Later on, they were freed and given small amounts of land. However, they had to
pay the government so they had small farms and heavy debts. They couldn't read or
write. A small number of upper-class people held most of the wealth and power.
The Church was also rich and powerful.
Workers
The industry began to develop: factories (iron, textile, engineering) were set up and
were owned by the government or foreigners. Peasants moved to the cities to get
jobs there. The factories were very large and employed a lot of people.
The Tsar
The Tsar was the ruler and made all the decisions himself. He was supported by the
Church (the priests must be obeyed). There was a secret police force that spied on
everyone in case anyone spoke against the government. Books and newspapers
were censored.
Nicholas II became Tsar in 1894. Nicholas hated making decisions. He was devoted
to his family and wife (Alexandra). His son (heir) had a terrible disease (his blood
couldn’t clot).
The long-term causes of the Revolution were:
1 Undemocratic government (not fair not good)
2 Bad working and living conditions for the workers
3 Extreme poverty (peasants) and need for more land
The opposition
The reformers (Liberals) and the revolutionaries were against this system.
The reformers wanted to modernise Russia gradually, a parliamentary system, free
elections, more education and no censorship. The revolutionaries wanted to throw
out the Tsar system and build a different one. One group of revolutionaries were
Marxists. Marx said:
1 All history is about struggles between different classes
2 The system in Europe is unfair because the factory owner (capitalist) makes a
profit out of the workers (proletariat) who do the work
3 There will be a violent revolution when the workers throw out the bosses and take
over the country (workers will then run the country for the benefit of all)
Bolsheviks
The revolutionaries lived in exile because they couldn’t say these things. The most
dedicated Marxists were the Bolsheviks, a well-organised group, led by Vladimir
Lenin.
The Duma
The Liberals were much more popular than the revolutionaries. They made a tiny
gain: there was a Russian parliament (the Duma), granted by the Tsar. Russia fought
a war against Japan and lost heavily which caused protests in the city. The Tsar
nearly lost control so he offered to call the Duma with free elections. His opponents
accepted this and the protests died down. When the Duma met they criticised the
Tsar and demanded changes. The Tsar didn’t like it and dismissed the Duma and
the next elections were controlled by the Tsar. There were two clear things:
1 No revolution would take place as long as the army stayed loyal to the Tsar
2 The Tsar could not be trusted
The short-term causes of the Russian revolution
Rasputin
The Tsar took over personal command of the Russian army and took the blame for
losing the war. Russia was left in the hands of his wife and she put her trust in
Gregori Rasputin (“he had hypnotic powers that could help her son’s illness”). Both
of them were against any changes. Some nobles were worried about Rasputin’s
influence so he was murdered (1916).
Inflation and unrest
Peasants were angry because the army took away the young men and the best
horses, so farmwork was difficult. Prices rose and hunger was widespread. Soldiers
were in bad conditions and were ordered to stop strikes and demonstrations.
The revolution of 1917
A revolution took place in Russia which put an end to the Tsar’s rule.
Demonstrations and bread riots broke out in cities. The rioters were joined by
factory workers on strike and the soldiers were asked to fire them, but they refused
and joined them. The Tsar could no longer rely on the obedience of his troops, he
lost control and abdicated. The Duma formed a Provisional Government led by
Kerensky, who promised to hold elections soon and to divide up the land among
peasants. Soldiers and workers were electing their own councils (soviets).
Lenin
The Germans would give Lenin a train to take him to Russia and hoped that he
would cause a revolution, which would take Russia out of the war. Lenin opposed
Kerensky and said war was a war of capitalists and the real enemies of the Russian
were the landowners and capitalists (not the German). The German army was better
equipped so there were more defeats. Kerensky’s promises seemed to be for the
future and Lenin offered what the people wanted there and then. Therefore, the
Bolsheviks began to gain support among the workers’ and soldiers’ soviets. They
tried to get control of the government but were defeated. Lenin had to leave the
country. The Russian General Kornilov still supported the Tsar and turned his army
against Kerensky. However, Kerensky was saved by the Bolsheviks (soldiers and
civilians formed armed Red Guard units).
Lenin was ready to act (October). Law and order had almost collapsed. Bolsheviks'
ideas were spreading and the armed Red Guard units were prepared to fight.
Kerensky had lost the support of the people. Red Guards stormed the Winter Palace
where the members of the government were meeting. Kerensky was sent into exile
and Lenin became ruler of Russia. This was called the October Revolution.
Chapter 5: Lenin and Russia 1917-1928
Lenin and the Bolsheviks had forced themselves into power. The First World War
was still raging. Starvation threatened the country. The Bolsheviks controlled
Petrograd. The Moscow Soviet won control of the city after fighting a lot. Lenin held
on with determination. He was sure that the Bolsheviks must win and wanted to
prove his ideas were right.
The Bolshevik revolution
Lenin made many new laws when the Bolshevik government was formed:
- All class divisions and privileges are abolished.
- All ranks in the army are abolished.
- Private property in land is abolished.
- Means of transport and production are now property of the Workers’ and
Peasants’ State.
- All banks are in the possession of the Workers’ and Peasants’ State.
- Workers’ and Peasants’ Government.
- According to the Soviets of People’s Commissars, magazines that oppose
the Workers’ and Peasants’ Government will be closed.
- The Cheka (Secret Police) are asked to arrest spies, speculators, organisers
of revolts, and buyers and sellers of arms.
Women were given equal rights, free education was planned and minorities were
given independence. Lenin tried to deal with the shortage of food by sending
soldiers to seize grain. This left the peasants without enough to live on. Lenin
defended this by the Marxist theory “Dictatorship of the Proletariat”. The Bolsheviks
claimed to represent the proletariat. Lenin passed the revolutionary decrees to win
the support of the peasants, as the Bolsheviks had few supporters in rural areas.
Assembly elections
This lack of support was seen in the elections for the Assembly. Many Russians
wanted free elections for their first real parliament. In the election, the Bolsheviks
won 175 seats out of 707 because most of them went to the Social Revolutionary
Party (SR), which had support among the peasants (Bolsheviks had little support
outside the cities). In the first Assembly session, Lenin ordered armed Bolshevik
Red Guards to surround the building. This assembly was closed and never allowed
to meet again. Lenin’s policy of the dictatorship of the proletariat made many
enemies: those who wanted the Tsar back and many who had once supported the
March Revolution.
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, 1918
Despite what Lenin thought, the Russians had opened peace talks with the
Germans after the revolution. They kept the talks going on for as long as they could,
hoping for the expected revolution. Germans lost patience and forced Trotsky
(Lenin’s representative) to sign the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, which was very harsh on
Russia but Lenin had to accept. The Treaty took away a big part of Russia’s
population, railway system, grain-producing area and industry. Britain and France
were angry with Russia for leaving the war because it was breaking the treaties
made before the FWW. This treaty gave Germany its troops back and Russian grain
eased the hunger in Germany caused by the naval blockade. Britain and France
wanted to open the Easter Front again, they made contact with the Blosheviks’
enemies within Russia.
The Civil war (1918-1921)
Russia suffered a terrible civil war. The Bolsheviks (“Reds”, Communist flag) were
attacked by their many enemies (“Whites”). Whites were: Tsarists and Liberals,
Social Revolutionaries and Anarchists (all types of government were wrong). The
Whites were helped by Britain, France, Japan and the USA, who wanted to open up
the Easter Front with Germany and crush the new Communist state. Trotsky put
together a Red army for the Bolshevik State to survive. It was hard because almost
all the officers of the Russian army were Tsarists. Fortunately for Trotsky, the Whites
did not act together. A Bolshevik commander ordered the Tsar and his family shot.
The foreign powers were sickened by the division among the Whites and they
withdrew their support, and the White forces crumbled away.
War Communism
Lenin’s government was prepared to win the war. His policy was called “War
Communism”: everyone (16-60) had to work. Strikes were illegal. The Red Army was
allowed to take any supplies it needed. Anyone suspected of any sign of opposition
could be arrested and shot by the Cheka.
Why did the Reds win the Civil War?
The main reasons for the Reds’ successes were that the White forces did not act
together, whereas the Reds were united under Trotsky’s command. The White
armies were too far to get supplies, while the Reds held the heartland of Russia so
their supply system was better. The Whites were hated more, even though they did
the same as the Reds (Whites were upper-class Russians because of the foreign
help, Reds seemed more patriotic). Men joined the Red Army to fight for Russia and
for Communism against the foreigners and Tsarists. The “War Communism”
ensured that Trotsky had the supplies he needed.
Famine, 1921
Russia was in a state of total collapse after the FFW and the Civil War. The land
wasn’t being farmed. Peasants couldn’t fight the Food Detachments, but they could
refuse to farm the land. They didn’t want to grow crops just to have them taken
away from them. People went into the countryside to look for food, and those who
stayed were too weak to work. Workers’ control brought chaos to factories and
railways. In addition, there was a drought. The sailors called for a third revolution,
more free elections, free speech and free trade unions. They supported Bolsheviks,
not the Whites; however, now they were disgusted with the rules of the War
Communism and the State of Russia. Trotsky ordered the Red Army to crush the
mutiny. It was a bloody battle.
New Economic Policy (NEP)
Lenin backed down from pure Communist/Marxist doctrine and let aspects of
capitalism return.
Was NEP a success?
Peasants were allowed to farm their own land, sell their own produce and hire
labourers. The government took a percentage of their produce as tax. The more
they produced, the more they could keep.
The kulaks (better-off peasants) appeared. This practice was against the principles
of Communism, but farming soon recovered. People were allowed to run small
businesses again. Lenin kept the “commanding heights of the economy” in the
hands of the state. These were the vital heavy industries: coal, iron, steel, shipping,
railways and banking. Some of the principles of Communism were broken.
Death of Lenin
Dora Kaplan (Social Revolutionary) fired several shots at Lenin. The doctors were
forced to leave two bullets in his body so he suffered a stroke, never fully recovered
and died.
Lenin organised the Bolshevik Party until it was ready for revolution, called for a
second revolution and led the Bolshevik state through difficulties. He was
responsible for setting up the Cheka and the labour camps. The horror was to come
under his successor, Stalin.
Stalin or Trotsky?
This struggle lasted four years. When Lenin died, Trotsky was the most able of the
Communist leaders because he had organised the October Revolution and the Red
Army. However, the other Communist leaders were afraid he would turn the
principles of the revolution to his own glory. So they ignored Lenin’s warning about
Stalin. At first, Stalin didn’t seem important; nevertheless, he had taken on the dull
and hard work of General Secretary of the Russian Communist Party. Trotsky
wanted to press on with “World Revolution”, and Stalin joined the group wanting to
establish Socialism in one country” first. Trotsky was dismissed and exiled from
Russia. Stalin was then able to remove all other leaders from key positions so that
he was in complete control.
Chapter 8: Stalin and Russia 1928-1939
Joseph gained complete control of Russia as General Secretary of the Communist
Party. Under Nicholas II (the last of Tsars) industry had grown up; however, with the
FFW and the civil war it had been set back. Most Russians were peasants and had
been given land by the Communists in the October Revolution.
The five-year plans
These series of plans were to modernise and make Russia an advanced industrial
and agricultural country. Peasants were holding back food in order to force prices
up, therefore Stalin wanted to bring the peasant under state control. The five-year
plans were made by Gosplan (planning office), who laid down production targets for
each industry to meet by the end of the five years. Factory managers had to
calculate targets for every workshop, every shift and every worker. In the first plan
only some industries reached their targets; however, when the second plan ended
the growth was even more amazing.
Agriculture
For this plan to work, there would have to be more cities and workers. The peasants
would have to provide food (for export too → foreign machines) and workers.
Collectivisation
Communists weren’t popular among peasants. The old Bolshevik Party had been
supported by workers and soldiers before the revolution. Under the NEP, farming
was run on capitalist lines. Stalin began putting collective (una grande con otras
chiquitas con todos los peasants) farms up, applying Communism to agriculture
(Lenin's idea) as part of the First Five-Year Plan. In theory, this single farm would run
more efficiently. Under Stalin, MTS (Motor Tractor Station) were set up. In the most
common type of collective (kolkhoz), the villagers pooled their lands, animals, tools
and machines. They worked the fields and they were paid and could keep
land/animals. In this way, collectivisation sounded like a good idea but it was
ignored that:
1 Collectives were set up at great speed
2 Collectivisation meant a great extension of state control and Communist Party
control over the peasants
The First Five-Year Plans required certain crops to be grown and given to the state
in certain quantities, regardless of the harvest (cosecha). Stalin called this the “First
Commandment”.
Attack on the Kulaks
Kulaks hated collectivisation so Stalin attacked them. Stalin said they were
“enemies of the state” and wanted to make the peasant jealous enough to accept
collectivisation. However, the peasants objected to state control of agriculture. The
kulaks were arrested and sent away, and the ones who resisted were killed.
Collectivisation went ahead ruthlessly: the kulaks disappeared and the ones who
resisted were put in labour camps or sent away. Famine soon spread throughout the
countryside. For stalin, however, agriculture had been brought under the control of
the state.
Industry
Production increased enormously even though targets weren’t always met. The
factories expanded their production; new towns, cities and industrial areas were
built. Some areas became industrialised and new factories were built out of foreign
invaders. New cities grew quickly.
How were people’s lives affected?
In order to reach their targets, Russians had to make superhuman efforts and they
had no choice. If workers complained, they were called saboteurs. Bad
workmanship was also punished. Women were also expected to work in factories.
Pay was low, and prices were high. The Five-Year-Plans concentrated on heavy
industry. Shops were empty, clothes were dull, etc. Since skilled workers were in
short supply, Stalin offered huge wages to foreign workers to come and work on
new schemes. At that time there was massive unemployment in Europe.
Stakhanov
He was a hero worker (coal-miner). Since he was a hero he was given extra
holidays, better housing and other privileges. This was called “Stakhanovism”, and it
occurred in other industries. For other workers, however, the targets were set even
higher and more effort was expected. This movement was against Communism.
Stalin’s dictatorship
Cheka (the secret police/NKVD) was set up by Lenin to deal with opposition. Its
power increased during the civil war. Anyone who was against the Plans or Stalin
could be arrested. To be a kulak was also a crime. Sentences were harsh. Labour
camps were set up, in where prisoners (Zeks) worked without being paid and fed
enough, and their safety was ignored. The millions of prisoners made a country
within the country of the USSR. Many millions of people were arrested by the police
and others disappeared. Thanks to the actions of the secret police, people were
scared into doing as they were told by Stalin.
Stalin’s purges
Russians who spoke their minds or were in the wrong class made up most of the
victims of the police. Stalin also used the police against leading Communists. He
wouldn’t accept any criticism and wouldn’t bear anyone else to be popular. Stalin
killed a Communist boss and covered it with an “accident”. He put the blame on
other leading Communists and, in this way, he started the first of his purges.
Bolsheviks were arrested, shot and tortured. After this, Stalin turned on the army
and the Party.
Stalin’s personality cult
Stalin didn’t want rivals for control of the country, and wanted personal credit for
the USSR’s successes. He was supposed to be the cause of every success so he
appeared everywhere (schools, streets, etc). The names of his rivals were removed
from official histories of the Revolution. He was called “father” of Russia by every
child. Only people loyal to him could survive. His dictatorship was just as complete,
and even more bloody, than Hitler’s.
Joseph Stalin (1879-1953): his life was hard as he was training to be a priest, he
rebelled and began to read protests books. He was expelled from the training
college. Stalin began to work as a Socialist organiser, encouraged strikes, wrote
articles and made speeches. He was arrested. He was a Bolshevik supporter but
played little part in Party matters. Stalin became General Secretary of the
Communist Party, and became powerful in Russia. Many people owed him a lot.
Lenin warned the Party about Stalin’s power, but they ignored him. After opposing
Trotsky, Stalin removed everyone. When Germany attacked the USSR, Stalin
defended his country. Later, Stalin built the USSR as a superpower, opposing the
USA.
—---------------------------------------Hitler—----------------------------------------
Chapter 6: The rise of Hitler

During FWW, Hitler was a corporal in the German army. Then, he became the
Chancellor (Prime Minister) of Germany.

Germany 1919-1923

Germans were confused and hurt after the war. There were four reasons, which
were why Hitler was able to play on in his rise to power.

1 Resentment over the war and the Treaty of Versailles

Thanks to the Allied naval blockade, Germans were short of food. The fighting had
not reached Germany when the war ended so the Kaiser didn’t announce the
defeats, only the victories, so when he abdicated and peace was asked, Germans
were shocked. The terms of the Treaty were another bitter blow for the Germans.
They had been proud of their army and navy so they couldn’t believe they lost.
Germans believed Germany must be great again.

2 The threat from Communism

Communists believed that after the Russian Revolution other revolutions would
come. In the chaos in Germany, the Communists seemed to be about to take over;
there were Communist revolutions everywhere (e.g. where Hitler lived). The German
government made a deal with the army, they crushed the Communists. The
Communist revolution in Germany failed, but the Communists were still strong and
people feared them. Hitler took advantage of that and won support for himself.

3 Suspicion of parliamentary government

With Berlin in chaos, the new democratic government met in Weimar (Weimar
Republic). Friederich Ebert was its first president. His government had to agree to
the armistice and sign the Treaty of Versailles. German patriots blamed them for the
disasters because they believed the politicians “stabbed the army in the back”. The
Communists also hated them for crushing their revolution. Germans had never
experienced any democracy, they believed the army and upper classes were the
rulers. There were several political parties in the Reichstag (Weimar parliament). A
party could form an overall majority only by coalitioning with another party;
however, these wouldn’t last long so many Germans mistrusted parliamentary
democracy. They were ready to try a dictatorship.

4 Economic crisis

The German economy was in great difficulties after the war. Unemployment was
high and there were few jobs for the soldiers. The Treaty took away from Germany
many important industrial areas, and made it pay reparations to the Allies. Since
Britain and France had borrowed money from the USA, which wanted to be repaid,
they wanted Germany to pay up. But because Germany couldn’t stand this, inflation
soon reached high levels. The French were angry so they sent troops into the
industrial areas in Germany to take their goods, but the workers were on strike. As a
result, the German currency became worthless. Many people blamed the Weimar
government again and many from the middle-class supported Hitler.

The Nazi Party in the early years

Hitler decided to go into politics. He met with the German Workers’ Party, which
had few members and no money. Hitler was made Committee Member 7 of that
party even though he had intended to set up his own. Since he joined it, soon he
was in control of that group. He changed the name to: National Socialist German
Workers’ Party (NSDAP/Nazi). He launched the Nazi Party’s 25 points program,
which contained a mixture of ideas: making Germany great again, to help working
people, against the Jews. These were from other parties mixed with Hitler’s, which
were:

1 Race (the Germans were superior and the master-race)

2 Anti-Versailles (against the terms)
3 Anti-Communist (national conflict was more important than class conflict)
4 Anti-Weimar, anti-democratic (dictatorship)

The new Nazi Party began to attract attention because the program offered
something for everyone, and because of the violence of his supporters. The SA
(Storm-troopers) were forces set up by Hitler within the Party to keep the order.
Later they prevented opponents from speaking.

Many men joined the Party and, later on, Hitler felt he had enough support to try to
seize the power. At a meeting, he announced he was taking over the government;
however, the police did not join so he failed to gain enough support. While he was
arrested he wrote a book describing his life and his beliefs. He learned he should
win power legally next time.

The Stresemann years 1923-1930

While Hitler was in prison, the German government improved the situation of the
country. The Foreign Minister (Gustav Stresemann) was important because most of
Germany’s problems were concerned with relations with other countries. At first, he
was Chancellor and introduced a new currency, which reduced inflation. German
industry began to pick up, and unemployment declined. With the Dawes Plan, the
USA lent money to Germany to pay for the reparations. Stresemann signed the
Locarno Pact, in which a point was that France, Belgium and Germany should keep
to the borders established in the Treaty, which reduced the tension between
countries. This led Germany to join the League of Nations the next year. This was
bad for the Nazis because there was no more anger. The Nazis had little support.
Hitler comes to power 1930-1933

After his low position, Hitler became Chancellor. The Wall Street Crash (1929) was a
period in which the USA plunged into Depression. The USA couldn’t keep the loans
to Germany, so the German economy was in trouble again. During this, the Nazis
promised full employment and a great Germany again. They also said that the Jews
and Communists were to blame. Germans became tired of the Weimar government
and blamed it for their defeat and the terms of the Treaty. The Weimar government
was unable to deal with unemployment and its politicians began to show their lack
of faith in democracy. The German Chancellors worked with President Hindenburg
in using his power to bypass the Reichstag and rule by presidential decree
(dictatorship). They had little support in the Reichstag and weren’t interested in
national interest. The 1930 election showed that the Weimar parties and
Communists lost. The Nazi votes went up.

Hitler gained more publicity by standing in the presidential elections; and in the
Reichstag elections, Nazis increased their vote and became the biggest single party.
The right-wing parties joined the Nazis to get into power, while the left-wing parties
didn’t want to work together. Hitler wasn’t the German ruler yet, because he didn’t
have an overall majority in the Reichstag. A leader of a right-wing politicians group
(Chancellor Franz von Papen) made an alliance with Hitler because he believed he
could use the Nazi’s popular support to increase his own power and it would be
safe for him to rule through Hitler. Hitler, however, wanted to try to win an overall
majority for the Nazis and called for new elections.

Hitler gains power

The Nazis regularly used violence at elections, but now they were in the government
and could control the police and newspapers. Opponents were beaten up and their
meeting wrecked. Nazi meetings received full protection. The Reichstag caught fire
when the Nazis tries to blame the Communists. Amid violence and bullying, the
election took place. The Nazis still didn’t have an overall majority but they joined
with the Nationalists, and now Hitler had gained control of Germany at last.

Chapter 7: Hitler’s Germany

Hitler wanted to set up the “Thousand Year Reich” based on his book, putting an
end to democracy and making himself dictator (ruthlessly but legally). He achieved
it.
Dictatorship
Hitler’s dictatorship was based on:
1 The enabling act: forcing Reichstag to pass the Enabling act. The Act gave Hitler
the legal power to make laws without consulting Reichstag. He banned opposition.
2 One party rule: the Nazi was the only legal political party because the others were
banned and trade unions abolished.
The night of the Long Knives
Hitler still wasn’t in control of the German army because it was suspicious of what
he planned to do. The army was also worried about the SA since the leader wanted
to make the SA more powerful so it would become a second German army. The
leader’s power competed against Hitler’s, who had to choose between the army
and the SA. But Hitler didn’t need the SA anymore so he sent killers (SS, Schutz
Staffel) to murder SA leaders and rivals (The night of the Long Knives)
The SS
The SS killed the SA. They were Hitler’s personal body-guards. They increased in
number and importance. The SS could never be a threat to Hitler like the SA. After
the night of the Long Knives, President Hindenburg died and Hitler took over the
position and also remained Chancellor. The army swore loyalty to him.
Life in Nazi Germany
The Nazis wanted to control the life of every citizen. This is “totalitarianism”
Propaganda
All aspects of life were controlled by the Nazis (books, newspapers). Books by Jews
and anti-Nazis were taken away and burned up. Hitler was shown as the saviour of
Germany.
Woman and Children
The Nazis said that women’s equality was one of the bad influences of the Weimar
Republic. They discouraged married women from working and they were expected
to stay at home. The Nazis concentrated on propaganda for children since they
were future citizens. They were expected to be tough and obedient. In school, the
curriculum was carefully controlled and Nazis' ideas had to be taught. Kids were
taught the inferiority of non-Aryan races. Children joined different leagues, in which
they sang Nazis’ songs, marched and went on work camps.
Opposition
Any kind of opposition to the Nazi state was considered treason. The secret police
(Gestapo) could arrest people, and imprison or execute them just on their
suspicions. Many Germans who didn’t accept Hitler’s dictatorship flew to other
countries. Others stayed in Germany to oppose him.
Economic life
After four years of Nazi rules, Germans were satisfied with Hitler. Hitler decreased
unemployment numbers by conscripting people into the Labour Corps but wages
were low and hours long. Workers protested but trade unions couldn’t do much
about it so employers prospered in these conditions. Another way in which
unemployment was reduced was by expanding the German army, navy and air
force. Hitler was preparing for war directly against the terms of the Treaty and
ordered equipment. This meant huge contracts with the steel and iron industries so
the German industry prospered and provided jobs. Hitler encouraged the growth of
the plastic and nylon industries to be self-sufficient in times of war. He also ordered
work to start on a cheap “people’s car”. For all of these reasons, Germans loved
Hitler.
Persecution of the Jews
Hitler believed that all non-Aryan races were inferior, and now he could put his
insane racial ideas into practice. Blacks and gipsies in Germany were attacked. But
the main victims of Hitler were the Jews. Hitler passed the Nuremberg Laws to
make life more difficult for the Jews. Later on, a German diplomat was murdered by
a Jew so the Nazis ordered an attack on Jews and their property. Jews were
forbidden to go to school or university. The Gestapo began to send them to
concentration camps, where they were forced to do slave labour and take part in
scientific experiments. Hitler began the “Final Solution” policy to kill all the Jews in
Europe. From all the countries conquered by Hitler, Jews were sent to concentration
camps and killed. At first, they wanted to shoot them but then they were gassed
and burnt.
Joseph Goebbels: he was the mastermind of the Nazi propaganda. He was a
leading figure, and he organised parades, demonstrations, among others. He was
declared Chancellor when Hitler committed suicide but he followed Hitler the next
day.
Dietrich Bonhoeffer: he trained as a Protestant minister in the German Lutheran
Church. He said religion was needed. From the beginning, he was against Nazism.
He led the Protestant protest movement against Hitler. His ideas lived on.
Chapter 12: Germany and the outbreak of the Second World War
Was Hitler to blame for the Second World War?
In the aims of his foreign policy, Hitler intended to unite all German-speaking
peoples (in one Reich), even though it was against the terms of the Treaty. He was
popular for his determination to reject the Treaty. Hitler wanted to build an empire
with all the Germans and acquire foreign territory (Lebensraum). This policy of
expansion would lead to war and Hitler’s plan for the Nazi state was that it should
be organised for war.
Who else was to blame?
Hitler didn’t have a detailed and clever “master-plan”. He had no idea when war
would come. He was good at creating opportunities but other factors had to play
their part: problems with the terms of the Treaty; many countries were suspicious of
the USSR; the French were always hostile to Germany; Britain was reluctant to
stand up to Hitler.
Steps to war, 1933-1937
1 Leaving the League, 1933
Hitler left the League of Nations because the League was born out of the Treaty.
2 Germany’s Neighbours
All Europe was united in opposing Hitler. The weaker countries with German
minorities (Hitler’s target) were linked in alliance to France.
3 Austria, 1934
The invasion of Austria was to unite all Germans into one state. Hitler ordered for
Austrian Nazis to kill the Austrian Chancellor and they invited him to become ruler of
Austria. The attempt failed when Mussolini (suspicious of Hitler) sent Italian troops
to the Austrian border to prevent a German take-over and since Germany was too
weak, Hitler backed down.
4 Rearmament
The rearmament of Germany was fast. Military service was introduced and new
weapons and tanks were provided. Pocket battleships and submarines were built.
All this, contrary to the terms of the Treaty. Britain considered the terms were too
harsh. The disarmament of Germany had not been followed by other powers.
Germany was still only building up its forces and didn’t yet represent a threat.
During the Depression of the 1930s, several countries were solving unemployment
problems. Hitler made a lot of propaganda out of the “unfairness” of Germany’s
position. An Anglo-German naval agreement was signed, in which Britain allowed
the German navy to grow but not more than the British navy. This agreement and
Mussolini’s invasion (Ethiopia) broke the agreement between France, Italy and
Britain (Stresa).
5 The Rhineland, 1936
Thanks to Ethiopia’s invasion, Hitler could reoccupy Rhineland which had been
demilitarised by the Treaty (no soldiers). He was, however, not confident because if
they met any opposition, they would have been withdrawn. Germany wasn’t strong
enough to oppose France, but the French didn’t do anything. France was divided
into several groups struggling for power and Britain wouldn’t help it. These and
other reasons added up to a lack of will to take the initiative.
6 The Spanish civil war
General Franco led an armed rebellion against the Spanish Republican government.
Hitler used this as an advantage. Hitler and Mussolini regarded the rebellion against
Communism. Both helped Franco. Spain was the first to feel a German bombing
raid. France and Britain did not intervene. Mussolini got closer to Hitler and they
signed the Rome-Berlin Axis alliance. Hitler also signed the Anti-Comintern Pact
alliance with Japan, against Russia; and later, Mussolini joined. German rearmament
continued and surpassed Britain and France. But Hitler was spending twice as
much as them. Britain and France began to rearm.
7 The annexation of Austria, 1938
Hitler ordered the Austrian Nazis to cause trouble inside Austria. The Chancellor
was forced to make Austrian Nazi ministers. The Chancellor ordered a reunion to be
held in Austria to see if Austrian wanted to be part of Germany. Before the reunion
could be held, German troops invaded Austria. This annexation is the Anschluss, a
piece of foreign territory added to Germany.
8 Czechoslovakia, 1938-1939
Czechoslovakia was the next country on Hitler’s list. The German-speaking fringe is
the Sudetenland. Hitler called the leader of the Nazis there to cause trouble.
Propaganda was anti-Czech and said Czechs persecuted Germans. But
Czechoslovakia was democratic and had alliances (F, R, B). Hitler continued to
threaten war.
9 Appeasement
The British Prime Minister (Chamberlain) stepped into the situation and wanted to
see if Hitler wanted peace. Hitler was willing to talk to get what he wanted without
fighting. He demanded Sudetenland and the Minister agreed because he thought he
could avoid war (appeasement). At the second meeting, Hitler pretended he was
about to go to war so Chamberlain and Mussolini called a third meeting, in which
representatives agreed to hand the Sudetenland over to Germany. Czechoslovakia
was weakened, and then Hitler marched into the rest of it, breaking his promises.
Chamberlain accepted and the British people wanted to avoid war, and they weren’t
prepared for war. If it couldn’t be avoided, at least postponed until they were
prepared. Some British sympathised with Hitler because of the Treaty of Versailles
and admired his anti-Communist stand (Russia was a greater menace). The worst
aspect of appeasement was that Chamberlain allowed the destruction of
Czechoslovakia in order to preserve peace. In the end, Chamberlain and Hitler
misunderstood each other: Chamberlain thought Hitler was trustworthy, honest, and
had reasonable requests to end the matter; Hitler thought the British would never go
to war. Later, the appeasement failed. Chamberlain joined France in alliance with
Poland and Hitler refused to believe that the British would go to war.
10 The Nazi-Soviet pact, 1939
Poland was Hitler’s next victim. The country which would stop Hitler from seizing
Poland was Russia; Stalin had been trying to join Britain and France (alliance against
Hitler) but these two refused because Russia was Communist. Stalin signed a
Non-Aggression Pact with Hitler. The Nazi-Soviet Pact contained secret clauses
agreeing to carve up Poland between them. This pact made the SWW inevitable,
because of Britain and France’s alliance with Poland. This pact lasted short because
Hitler attacked the USSR.
11 The outbreak of war
Hitler launched his attack on Poland and defeated it. Poland was divided up
between the two dictators (Stalin and Hitler). But then Britain and France declared
war on Germany.