GENERAL CHEMISTRY

Principles and Modern Applications 8 th EDITION

Petrucci • Harwood • Herring

Chapter 3: Chemical Compounds

3
Chemical Compounds CONTENTS
3-1 Types of Chemical Compounds and Their
Formulas

3-2 The Mole Concept and Chemical

Compounds

3-3 Composition of Chemical Compounds

3-4 Oxidation States: A Useful Tool in

Describing Chemical Compounds

3-5 Naming Compounds: Organic and

Inorganic Compounds

3-6 Names and Formulas of Inorganic

Compounds
3-7 Names and Formulas of Organic
Compounds
3-1 Types of Chemical Compounds and Their Formulas

• When atoms approach each other in a chemical reaction, the electrons of

the atoms interact to form chemical bonds.

• There are three fundamental kinds of chemical bonds between atoms-

covalent bonds, ionic bonds and metallic bonds.

• Covalent bonds, which involve a sharing of electrons between atoms,

give rise to molecular compounds.

• Ionic bonds, which involve a transfer of electrons from one atom to

another, give rise to ionic compounds

• Compounds are substances composed of more than one element,

chemically combined.

E. g. HCl, H2O, NH3

• Molecular Compounds
– A molecular compound typically consist of a small number of
nonmetal atoms (two or more nonmetal atoms) held together by
covalent bonds.

• Some elements exist as molecules rather than as atoms.

– Hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine,
sulfur and phosphorus all exist as molecules.

– H2, N2, O2, F2, Cl2, Br2, I2, S8 and P4

 Chemical Formulas

• Molecular compounds are represented by chemical formulas, symbolic

representation that indicate

Ø the elements present

Ø the relative number of atoms of each element

• In the formula for water, the constituent elements are denoted by their symbols.

• The relative number of atoms are indicated by subscripts.

 Some Common Types of Formulas
i. An empirical formula is the simplest formula for a compound. It shows
the types of atoms present and their relative numbers.
Acetic acid C2H4O2
Formaldehyde CH2 O
Glucose C6 H12 O6
empirical formula CH2O

• Compounds with different molecular formulas can have the same

empirical formulas and such substances will have the same percentage
composition.

• Generally, empirical formula does not tell us much about a molecule.

ii. A molecular formula is based on an actual molecule of a compound.
It gives the exact number of different atoms of an element in a molecule.
• In some cases, the empirical formula and the molecular formula are
identical (formaldehyde, CH2O).
• In other cases, the molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical
formula unit [C6H12O6 = (CH2O)6].

Compound M. Formula E. Formula Ratio of atoms in compound

Carbon dioxide CO2 CO2 1 C atom : 2 O atoms

Formaldehyde CH2O CH2O 1C atom : 2 Hatoms : 1 O atom

Acetic acid C2H4O2 CH2O 1 C atom : 2H atoms : 1 O atom

• Empirical and molecular formulas tell us the combining ratio of the atoms in the
compound, but show nothing about how the atoms are attached to each other.
 Structure and Condensed Formulas

iii. A structural formula shows the order in which atoms are bonded
together in a molecule and by what types of bonds.

• The covalent bonds in the structure formula are represented by lines

(¾). Each line represents one bond.

iv. A condensed structural formula is written on a single line.

• E.g. CH3COOH or CH3CO2H
• Methylpropane, C4H10,
Condensed formula can be written as CH3CH(CH3)CH3 or CH(CH3)3
H O
H C C O H
CH3COOH
H
structural formula condensed formula
 Several Representations of the compound acetic acid

Line-angle formula (line formula)

Condensed structural formula: CH3COOH or CH3CO2H

• In the molecular model, the black spheres are carbon, the red are oxygen
and the white are hydrogen.
v. Line-angle formula (also referred to as a line structure)

• Organic compounds are made up principally of carbon and hydrogen.

• Each carbon atom forms four covalent bonds.

 Structural Models

• Three-dimensional structure of molecules

Ø Ball-and-stick model, atoms are represented by small balls, and the
bonds between atoms by sticks.

Ø A space-filling model shows that the atoms in a molecule occupy

space and that they are in actual contact with one another.

Color scheme for use in molecular models

 Structural Models

To show three-dimensional structures of molecules is by structural models

ball-and-stick
type

space-filling
type
Visualization of
(a) butane,
(b) methylpropane and
(c) testosterone.
 Some molecules

H2O2 CH3CH2Cl P4O10

CH3CH(OH)CH3 HCO2H
 Ionic Compounds
• Atoms of almost all elements can gain or lose electrons to form
charged species called ions.
• Compounds composed of ions are known as ionic compounds.
• An ionic compound is compound made up of positive and negative
ions joined together by electrostatic forces of attraction.

+ Metals tend to lose electrons to form positively charged ions called

cations.
- Non-metals tend to gain electrons to form negatively charged ions
called anions.
 Ionic Compounds
• In an ionic compound, oppositely charged ions are attracted to each
other such that the compound has no net charge.

• Na atom loses 1e to become a Na+ ion

Cl atom gains 1e to become a Cl- ion.

• Each Na+ ion is surrounded by 6 Cl- ions.

Sodium chloride simply
Each Cl- ion is surrounded by 6 Na+ ions. consists of sodium ions
and chloride ions,
• The formula unit of an ionic compound is the regularly arranged.
smalest electrically neutral collection of ions.

• The ratio of ions in the formula unit is the same

as in the chemical formula.

• Simplest formula unit is NaCl.

• The situation with magnesium chloride is similar.
Ø Mg atom loses 2e to become a Mg2+ ion
Cl atom gains 1e to become a Cl- ion.
Ø To obtain electical neutral formula unit,
there must be 2 Cl- ion and 1 Mg2+.
Ø Simplest formula unit and chemical formula is MgCl2.

• Monatomic ion and Polyatomic ion

Ø Monatomic ion means that each consists of a single ionized atom.
Ex: The ions Na+ , Mg2+ and Cl- are monatomic.

Ø A polyatomic ion is made up of two or more atoms

Ex: The ion NO3- is polyatomic.
3-2 The Mole Concept and Chemical Compounds

If we know the chemical formula of a compound, we can determine its

formula mass.

• Formula mass
Ø the mass of a formula unit in atomic mass units (u)

• Molecular mass
Ø mass of a molecular compound
• For molecular compound H2O ,
Molecular mass H2O = 2 (atomic mass H) + (atomic mass O)
= 2 (1.00794 u) + (15.9994 u)
= 18.0153 u

• For ionic compound MgCl2 ,

Formula mass MgCl2 = (atomic mass Mg) + 2 (atomic mass Cl)
= 24.3050 u + 2 (35.453 u)
= 95.211 u

• For ionic compound Mg (NO3 )2 ,

F. mass Mg (NO3)2 =
= (atomic mass Mg) + 2 [(a. Mass N) + 3(a. mass O)]
= 24.3050 u + 2 [(14.0067 u) + 3(15.9994 u)]
= 148.3148 u
 Mole of a Compound
• A mole is an amount of substance that contains the same number of
elementary entities (atoms, ions, molecules or formula units) as the
number of atoms in exactly 12g of carbon-12.

• Mole of compound is an amount of compound containing Avorgadro’s

number (6.02214 x 1023 ) of formula units or molecules.
 Molar Mass
• Molar mass is the mass of one mole of compound.

ØM (g/mol 12C) = A (g/atom 12C) x NA (atoms 12C /mol 12C)

• One mole of compound is equal to

one mole of molecules of a molecular compound
or
one mole of formula units of an ionic compound.

• Molar mass is numerically equal to molecular mass or formula mass.

However, the units of molar mass are grams (g/mol).

Molecular mass CO2 = 44.01 u Molar mass CO2 = 44.01 g/mol

Formula mass KCl = 74.56 u Molar mass KCl = 74.56 g/mol

 Molar Mass

• Molar mass of H2O is 18.0153 g H2O/mol H2O.

1 mol H2O = 18.0153 g H2O = 6.02214 x 1023 H2O molecules

1 mol MgCl2 = 95.211 g MgCl2 = 6.02214 x 1023 MgCl2 formula units

1 mol Mg (NO3)2 = 148.313 g Mg(NO3)2
= 6.02214 x 1023 Mg(NO3)2 formula units
 Example
Relating Molar Mass, the Avogadro Constant, and Formula Units of an
Ionic Compound.

An analytical balance can detect a mass of 0.1 mg. What is the total
number of ions present in this minimally detectable quantity of MgCl2?
Example
 Mole of an Element
• The atoms of some elements are joined together to form molecule. These elements
are composed of molecules. The molecular elements

H2 O2 N2 F2 Cl2 Br2 I2 P4 S8

• For these elements, atomic mass or molecular mass, and molar mass can be
expressed in two ways.

• Hydrogen has an atomic mass of 1.008 u and a molecular mass of 2.016 u.

Its molar mass can be expressed as 1.008 g H/mol H or 2.016 g H2/mol H2.

Molar mass S8 molecules = 256.53 g/mol S8

Molar mass P4 molecules = 123.89 g/mol

P4
 3-3 Composition of Chemical Compounds

Halothane C2HBrClF3

Mole ratio nC/nhalothane

Mass ratio mC/mhalothane

M(C2HBrClF3) = 2MC + MH + MBr + MCl + 3MF

= (2 x 12.01) + 1.01 + 79.90 + 35.45 + (3 x 19.00)
= 197.38 g/mol
Example
“How many C atoms are present per mole of halothane?”
Conversion factor needed is 2 mol C/mol C2HBrClF3
Example
Using Relationships Derived from a Chemical Formula.
How many moles of F atoms are in 75.0-mL sample of
halothane (d=1.871 g/mL)?

mL → g → mol C2HBrClF3 → mol F

 Calculating Percent Composition from a
Chemical Formula

1. Determine the molar mass of the compound.

2. Determine the contibution of the given element to the molar mass.
3. Formulate the ratio of the mass of the given element to the mass of the
compound as a whole.
4. Multiply the ratio by %100 to obtain the mass percent of the element.

Number of atoms of
´ Molar mass of
element per formula
element
Mass unit
´ 100%
% element =
Molar masss of compound
Example

Calculating the Mass Percent Composition of a Compound

What is the mass percent composition of halothane, C2HBrClF3?

For 1 mole of compound, formulate the mass ratio and convert to percent:

Calculate the molecular mass

M(C2HBrClF3) = 197.38 g/mol

(2 ´12.01) g
%C = ´100% = 12.17%
197.38 g
Solution
(2 ´12.01) g
%C = ´100% = 12.17%
197.38 g
1.01g
%H = ´100% = 0.51%
197.38 g
79.90 g
% Br = ´100% = 40.48%
197.38 g
35.45 g
%Cl = ´100% = 17.96%
197.38 g
(3 ´19.00) g
%F = ´100% = 28.88%
197.38 g

The percentages of the elements in a compound should add up to 100.00%.

Establishing Formulas from Experimentally Determined
Percent Composition of Compounds

5 Step approach:

1. Choose an arbitrary sample size (100g).

2. Convert masses to amounts in moles.
3. Write a formula.
4. Convert formula to small whole numbers.
5. Multiply all subscripts by a small whole number to make the
subscripts integral.
Establishing Formula of 2-Deoxyribose from Experimentally
Determined Percent Composition

2.982
 Elemental Analysis (Combustion analysis)

• This is an experimental method for determining empirical formulas in the

laboratory.

• This method is used primarily for simple organic compounds (that contain
C, H and O).

• The organic compound is burned in oxygen.

• The products of combustion (usually CO2 and H2O) are weighed.
• The amount of each element is determined from the mass of products.
 Combustion analysis

y y
CxHyOz+ (x+ ) O2 = x CO2(g) + H2O(g)
2 2

(a) O2 gas passes through the combustion tube containing the sample being analyzed. This portion of the
apparatus is enclosed in a high-temperature furnace. Products of the combustion are absorbed as they
leave the furnace-water vapor by magnesium perchlorate, and carbon dioxide gas by sodium
hydroxide (producing sodium carbonate). The differences in mass of the absorbers, after and before the
combustion, yield the masses of H2O and CO2 produced in the combustion reaction.

(b) Combustion of ethanol. Each molecule of ethanol produces two molecules CO2 and three H2O
molecules. Combustion takes place in an excess of O2, so that O2 molecules are present at the end of
the reaction.
Molecular Formula: C6H8O6
 Oxidation States

Metals tend to Non-metals tend to

lose electrons. gain electrons.
Na → Na+ + e- Cl + e- → Cl-

Reducing agents Oxidizing agents

Oxidation state (oxidation number) is related to the number of electrons that an

atom loses or gains.

Consider NaCl. In this compound a Na atom, a metal, loses 1e to a Cl atom, a

nonmetal. The compound consists of Na+ and Cl- ions. Na is in a +1 OS and Cl- is
in a –1 state.
 3-5 Naming Compounds:
Organic and Inorganic Compounds
• If all compounds were referred to by a common or trivial name, such as
water(H2O), ammonia (NH3) or glucose (C6H12O6), we would have to
learn millions of unrelated names-an impossibility.
• A systematic method of naming compounds is known as a system of
nomenclature.
• Organic compound: compounds formed by C and H or C and H
together with oxygen, nitrogen.
• Inorganic compound: other than organic compounds.
We cannot give two substances the same name, yet we do
want some similarities in the names of similar substances.

These two compounds contain the same elements—lead

and oxygen—but in different proportions. Their names
and formulas must convey this fact:
Lead (IV) oxide Lead (II) oxide
PbO2 PbO
 3-6 Names and Formulas of Inorganic Compounds
Binary Compounds of Metals and Nonmetals
• Binary compounds are formed between two elements. One element is a
metal and the other is a nonmetal, the binary compound is usually made up
of ions, binary ionic compounds.

To name a binary compound of a metal and a nonmetal

• Write the unmodified name of the metal.
• Then write the name of the nonmetal, to end in ide.
• Ionic compounds made up of positive and negative ions, must be electrically
neutral. The total charge of the ions in a formula unit must be zero.
1 Na+ to 1 Cl- in NaCl
1 Mg2+ to 2 I- two in MgI2
2 Al3+ to 3 O2- in Al2O3

• The main-group metals and nonmetals form ions related to their group number.

• The transition metals may form several ions. For example, iron forms two ions,
Fe2+ and Fe3+. The first is called iron(II) ion, and the second is iron(III) ion.
Ø An earlier system uses two different word endings to distinguish between two
binary compounds containing the same two elements but in different proportions.
Ø In Cu2O, OS of copper is +1, and in CuO it is +2.
Ø Cu2O is assigned the name coprous oxide, and CuO is cupric oxide.

Ø FeCl2 is ferrous chloride, and FeCl3 is ferric chloride.

Ø the ous ending for the lower OS of the metal.

Ø the ic ending for the higher OS of the metal.
 Binary Compounds of Two Non-Metals

• If the two elements in a binary compound are both nonmetals, the

compound is a molecular compound.

Write the positive OS element first: HCl and not ClH.

HCl hydrogen chloride

• Some pairs of nonmetals form more than one compound.

Generally, we indicate relative numbers of atoms by prefixes: mono=1,
di=2, tri=3, tetra=4, penta=5, hexa=6, hepta=7, octa=8, nona=9, deca=10, and
so on.
SO2 = sulfur dioxide
SO3 = sulfur trioxide

H2O = water (dihydrogen monoxide)

NH3 = ammonia (H3N = trihydrogen mononitride)

B2Br4 = diboron tetrabromide

 Binary Acids
• Acids produce H+ when dissolved in water.
• They are compounds that ionize in water.
• The symbol (aq) signifies aqueous solution.
• Binary acids are certain compounds of H with other nonmetals.
• In naming binary acids, the prefix hydro- followed by the name of the
other nonmetal modified with an -ic ending.

• The most important binary acids are listed below.

HF(aq) = hydrofluoric acid
HBr(aq) = hydrobromic acid
HCl(aq) = hydrochloric acid
HI(aq) = hydroiodic acid
H2S(aq) = hydrosulfuric acid
 Polyatomic Ions
• Two or more atoms are joined together by covalent bonds
• These ions are commonly encountered, especially among the nonmetals.
1. Polyatomic anions are more common than polyatomic cations.
The most familiar polyatomic cation is the NH4+ ion .

2. Very few polyatomic anions carry the -ide ending in their names.
Only OH- (hydroxide ion) and CN- (cyanide ion) do.
The common endings are -ite and -ate, and some names carry prefixes, hypo- or per-.
Nitrite --NO2- Nitrate --NO3-
Hypochlorite ClO- Perchlorate ClO4-

3. An element common to many polyatomic anions is oxygen, usually in

combination with another nonmetal. Such anions are called oxoanions.
4. Certain nonmetals (such as Cl, N, P, and S) form a series of oxoanions containing
different numbers of oxygen atoms. Their names are related to the OS of the nonmetal
atom to which the O atoms are bonded, according to the following scheme.

Increasing oxidation state of nonmetal ClO- ClO2- ClO3- ClO4-

hypo___ite ___ite ___ate per___ate
Increasing number of oxygen atoms

5. All the common oxoanions of Cl, Br and I carry a charge of 1–.

6. Some series of oxoanions also contain varying numbers of H atoms and are named
accordingly. For example, HPO42- is the hydrogen phosphate ion and H2PO4-,
the dihydrogen phosphate ion.

7. The prefix thio signifies that a sulfur atom has been substituted for an oxygen atom.
(The sulfate ion has one S and four O atoms; thiosulfate ion has two S and three O
atoms.).

Sulfate SO42- Thiosulfate S2O32-

 Oxoacids
• The majority of acids are ternary compounds.
• They contain three different elements-hydrogen and two other nonmetals.
• If one of the nonmetals is oxygen, the acid is called an oxoacid.
• Naming oxoacids is similar to oxoanions, except that the ending ous is used
instead of ite and ic instead of ate.
 Some Compounds of Greater Complexity
• Some complex substances are known as hydrates. In a hydrate, each formula unit
of the compound has associated with it a certain number of water molecules.

• The formula shown below signifies six H2O molecules per formula unit of CoCl2.
CoCl2• 6 H2O
This compound is called as cobalt(II) chloride hexahydrate.
Its formula mass is CoCl2 + 6 H2O, 129.8 u + (6 x 18.02 u) = 237.9 u.

Effect of Moisture
18.02 g H2O
6 mol H2O x Blue anhydrous Pink hexahydrate
1 mol H2O
%H2O = x 100%
237.9 g CoCl2• 6 H2O CoCl2 CoCl2• 6 H2O
= 45.45% H2O
 3-7 Names and Formulas of Organic Compounds
• Organic compounds abound in nature
Fats, carbohydrates and proteins are foods.
Propane, gasoline, kerosene, oil are fuels.
Drugs and plastics are produced by chemical industries.

• Compounds containing only carbon and hydrogen are called hydrocarbons.

• The simplest hydrocarbon contains 1 C atom and 4 H atoms-methane CH4.

• Hydrocarbons containing only single bonds are called alkanes.

• Hydrocarbon molecules with one or more double bonds between carbon atoms
are called alkenes.

• The simplest of the alkenes is ethene; its name consists of the stem eth- and the
ending –ene.
Hydrocarbons
Visualizations of some hydrocarbons

Figure 3-9
 Isomers
• Isomers have the same molecular formula but have different
arrangements of atoms in space. Are the following pairs isomers?

C7H14

(b)

H
 Functional Groups

• Alcohols are molecules that contain a hydroxyl group (OH).

Visualizations of some alcohols

• Carboxylic acids are alkanes that also contain a
carboxyl group and are weak acids.

• The first carboxylic acid based on alkanes is

methanoic acid, HCOOH .

• In the systematic name, the methan- indicates one

carbon atom and the -oic acid indicates a
carboxylic acid.

• The simplest carboxylic acid containing 2 carbon

atoms is ethanoic acid, more commonly known as
acetic acid. The carboxyl group and
visualizations of two carboxylic acids