Pathological Degradation in Commercial Buildings: Impacts
on Structural Durability
Degradación patológica en edificios comerciales: impactos en
la durabilidad estructural
ABSTRACT: Pathological degradations in commercial buildings compromise their structural
and functional durability, making identifying and mitigating these failures crucial. This study
analyzed a commercial building in João Pessoa, in northeast Brazil, focusing on the structural
assessment of columns through visual inspection and standardized tests, including the
sclerometric index, carbonation depth, and corrosion potential. The results indicated advanced
carbonation, with depths exceeding the nominal cover layer and variations in surface resistance.
Additionally, variations in the surface resistance of the concrete and electrochemical potentials
indicative of active corrosion were identified. The degradation was attributed to weathering,
material quality, and execution flaws. The application of compatible repair mortars, protective
coatings, and periodic structure monitoring are recommended.
KEY WORDS: Durability; Commercial buildings; Carbonation; Corrosion.
RESUMEN: Las degradaciones patológicas en edificaciones comerciales comprometen su
durabilidad estructural y funcional, haciendo esencial la identificación y mitigación de estas
fallas. Este estudio analizó una edificación comercial en João Pessoa, en el noreste de Brasil,
centrándose en la evaluación estructural de pilares mediante inspección visual y ensayos
normalizados, incluyendo el índice esclerométrico, la profundidad de carbonatación y el
potencial de corrosión. Los resultados indicaron una carbonatación avanzada, con profundidades
superiores a la capa de recubrimiento nominal, favoreciendo la corrosión de las armaduras.
Además, se identificaron variaciones en la resistencia superficial del concreto y potenciales
electroquímicos indicativos de corrosión activa. La degradación se atribuyó a las inclemencias
del tiempo, la calidad de los materiales y fallas en la ejecución. Se recomienda la aplicación de
morteros de reparación compatibles, revestimientos protectores y un monitoreo periódico de la
estructura.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Durabilidad; Edificios comerciales; Carbonatación; Corrosión.
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1. INTRODUCTION
In the contemporary urban context, the quality and durability of commercial buildings are vital
not only for the functionality of urban centers but also for the safety and well-being of their
occupants. However, various factors, whether anthropogenic or natural, constantly challenge the
durability of these buildings, giving rise to pathological manifestations responsible for the
degradation process of these developments (1).
Pathological manifestations can arise due to low-quality materials reducing the structure's
intrinsic useful life. However, they can also arise from design flaws, mistakes during
construction, and a lack of regular maintenance. These problems are often attributed to
negligence, disregard for harmful agents, or a lack of understanding of degenerative processes
(2). In this context, understanding their origins and symptomatic indicators is crucial to
implementing measures that minimize this problem.
In this context, it is necessary to analyze not only the facades of buildings but also their internal
structure. Due to direct exposure to environmental agents, the building systems that make up the
facades may present more accelerated degradation than the protected parts of the building (3). In
addition, the height of the building and the lack of regular inspections are other factors that can
contribute to accelerated degradation of the building envelope (4).
Visual analysis is a fundamental element in assessing the degree of deterioration of buildings
and understanding the mechanisms that generate degradation (3). In this context, visual
inspection of facades is of great importance since the facade system plays a crucial role in
protecting the building against external agents of degradation and contributing significantly to
the functional and aesthetic comfort of users (5).
A typical damage in commercial buildings caused by external factors is corrosion of
reinforcement, which can be caused mainly by carbonation of concrete or contamination by
chlorides, resulting in the formation of expansive corrosion products that exert internal pressure
on the concrete, leading to the appearance of cracks, displacements and, eventually, the
separation of the surface layers. Furthermore, reinforcement corrosion can accelerate the
degradation of other adjacent materials, compromising the functionality and safety of the
building. Therefore, early detection and mitigation of corrosion are essential to ensure the
longevity and stability of urban buildings (6, 7, and 8), considering that interrupting their
activities due to structural issues can generate considerable economic impacts.
Therefore, this work aims to analyze the external and internal degradation mechanisms in a
commercial construction site located in the city of João Pessoa, capital of the state of Paraíba.
More specifically, it seeks to diagnose the conditions of the facades and structural elements of
the building through visual analyses and tests, such as sclerometric index, carbonation depth,
and corrosion potential, guiding restoration interventions that ensure their durability and quality.
In addition, possible causes and impacts on the useful life of the building and commercial
operation will be discussed.
2. STUDY AREA
The research was carried out in a building in the city of João Pessoa, located in the coastal area
of Paraíba, more precisely in the Miramar neighborhood on Avenida Senador Ruy Carneiro, as
shown in Figure 1.
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Figure 1 - Location map of the building under study
Figure 1 illustrates the location map of the municipality of João Pessoa, highlighting the
project that is the subject of this study, demarcated by the red polygon. It can be seen
that the building is located in an area approximately 2.3 km from Tambaú beach, a
region with heavy vehicular traffic that, according to NBR 6118, is classified as
environmental aggressiveness class II, moderate urban (9). According to NP EN 206 as
XC3, that is, moderately humid carbonation-induced corrosion environment (10). The
building under analysis is a commercial structure comprising three floors: a basement, a
ground floor, and an upper floor.
It is worth noting that the construction was carried out with reinforced concrete
structures, using slabs, beams, and pillars for structural support. The seals are made of
standard ceramic bricks arranged in two rows, providing greater robustness to the
sealing elements. The flooring system is composed of non-slip ceramic coating, while
the ceilings are made of plaster.
The building's date of origin remains uncertain due to a lack of historical records;
however, satellite images from October 2005 can be obtained through Google Earth Pro.
Throughout its useful life, it has changed use, serving as a medical clinic and a lighting
store. In 2022, the building underwent renovation processes. However, signs of
degradation persist on its facade, as illustrated in Figure 2.
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Figure 2 - North facade in 2022 (a); North facade in 2024 (b, c)
Figure 2 illustrates changes to the building's front façade between 2022 and 2024, with
restoration efforts underway to address pathological issues. The ground floor, an open retail
space, features full-height glass panels and an entry door but no solar shading. Figures 3a and 3b
highlight the interior, where the pillar edges have been chiseled for visual inspection of passive
reinforcement.
Figure 3 - Internal view of the ground floor from the front to the north (a); Internal view of the
ground floor from the rear to the west (b)
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3. METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES
3.1 Visual analysis
Visual inspection, a critical step in the assessment process, is typically conducted as a
preliminary procedure, where possible components or systems susceptible to damage are
identified. This process involved checking the interior and exterior of the building, with the
perception of the professional responsible for the analysis recorded through images. However,
during the external assessment, limitations of neighboring buildings prevented the analysis of
the rear and right-side facades, resulting in the analysis being concentrated on the front and
left-side facades.
The internal visual analysis was specifically directed at the ground floor, where structural
components such as pillars and sealing elements were examined in detail. The goal was to
identify any signs of deterioration that could affect the integrity of the building.
3.2 Pillar sampling
To delimit the study sample, the methodology used initially involved surveying and mapping
structural elements like pillars on all floors, numbering them from 1 to 17, as shown in Figure 4.
Figure 4 - Ground Floor Plan
Subsequently, for sampling the pillars, a preliminary visual analysis was performed to look for
obvious signs of corrosion. However, none were found. Given this, a non-probabilistic sampling
method was used. The selection of structural elements was based on specific criteria such as a
more significant number of free faces, avoiding pillars with objects that could interfere with the
tests, predicted loading, and visible differences in humidity compared to other pillars. Based on
these criteria, pillars P2, P11, and P12 were selected for analysis.
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3.3 Surface hardness test with reflection sclerometer
The Rebound Index (RI) test, defined by NBR 7584, assesses concrete surface hardness at a
depth of 20–30 mm (11). While simple, its accuracy is influenced by surface uniformity,
humidity, carbonation, and structural rigidity (7) (12). Carbonation-induced CaCO₃ formation
can overestimate RI values by increasing surface hardness (13). Despite its limitations, the test
helps determine if further analysis is needed per NBR 6118 (9). Conducted according to NBR
7584 (11), the test involved drying, cleaning, and applying 16 impacts on a 200x200mm area
arranged in a 4x4 matrix with 30mm spacing. After impact, the indicator pointer on the rebound
hammer scale directly provides the EI. With the correlation abacus in hand, it was possible to
establish the resistance of the tested concrete in Mpa.
3.4 Carbonation depth test
The carbonation process is a chemical reaction that impacts reinforced concrete structures. It
occurs when carbon dioxide (CO₂) penetrates the concrete pores through aqueous diffusion,
forming carbonic acid (H₂CO₃). This acid reacts with calcium hydroxide (Ca(OH)₂) from
cement hydration, reducing the concrete's alkalinity. The reaction produces water (H₂O), which
evaporates, and calcium carbonate (CaCO₃), which remains in the concrete (12).
Concrete's alkalinity provides chemical protection to reinforcement through a passivating film
that inhibits corrosion. However, as concrete loses Ca(OH)₂ molecules, its pH drops from 12.5
to below 9 (14 and 15). This reduction in alkalinity compromises the protective film, exposing
the reinforcement to oxidation, primarily due to carbonation (8).
To analyze the carbonation depth, it was measured on-site; the surfaces were tested using the
colorimetric method (16). The test consisted of treating a recently broken surface with a solution
of phenolphthalein diluted in alcohol in the proportion of 1 g of phenolphthalein to 100 ml of
alcohol. The procedures for performing the carbonation depth test are shown in Figure 5.
Figure 5 - Schematic of the carbonation depth test
As shown in Figure 5, in the first stage, the coating of the selected pillars was roughed out.
Then, in the second stage, the areas for applying the phenolphthalein solution were delimited,
and the coverings were removed to expose the reinforcement of the structures. Finally, in the
third stage, the delimited areas were air-dried and cleaned with a brush to receive the application
of phenolphthalein. After a few minutes, the carbonated thickness was read.
According to (17), when phenolphthalein is used, the most alkaline regions have a violet color.
However, the solution remains colorless when applied to less alkaline areas, as illustrated in
Figure 6.
6
Figure 6 - pH values indicated by the phenolphthalein solution (adapted from Granato, 2002)
Thus, after applying the phenolphthalein solution, measurements were taken to obtain
information about the nominal coverage of the reinforcement and the carbonation depths.
3.5 Corrosion potential test
The corrosion potential measurement method evaluates the negative charge generated by the
movement of electrons released by ferrous ions moving through the electrolyte formed in the
concrete, thus providing detailed information on the corrosion status of the reinforcement (18).
This process is essential to identify areas with a greater corrosion probability and implement
appropriate preventive measures. The procedures for performing the corrosion potential analysis
are shown in Figure 7.
Figure 7 - Diagram of the electrical potential test
The method of measuring potentials in concrete structures allows the evaluation of the
reinforcement behavior, provided that the potential ranges established by ASTM C 876 (19) are
followed. This standard specifies using the copper sulfate electrode for the evaluation according
to the criteria presented in Table 1.
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Table 1 - Corrosion potential x Probability of corrosion (adapted from ASTM 876, 2022)
Copper sulfate Probability of corrosion
More negative than -350mV Greater than 90%
More positive than -200mV Less than 10%
From -200 to -350mV Uncertain
Therefore, using this standardized method ensures that the results obtained are reliable and
allow an accurate analysis of the corrosion condition of the concrete reinforcement.
4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results of this research were divided into four analyses: i) Visual analysis of pathological
manifestations, ii) Sclerometric index, iii) Carbonation depth, and iv) Corrosion potential. This
approach was essential to understand the influence of environmental factors on the degradation
of the building and the need for specific interventions to mitigate such problems. Each of the
analyses will be detailed below.
4. 1 Visual mapping of damage to the facades
The inspection was carried out in November 2024 using a 12-megapixel camera. During the
technical evaluation, four distinct types of pathological manifestations were identified:
efflorescence (Figure 8), deterioration (Figure 9), moisture (Figure 10), and paint delamination
(Figure 11), all of which impact the establishment's structure. Table 2 presents the visual
aspects, analysis, and suggested interventions for these damages.
Table 2 - Visual analysis of the damage found
Visual aspects of the damage Analysis Proposed solution
Figure 8
This type of pathological
manifestation is commonly caused by It is necessary to minimize
the presence of moisture in masonry local humidity and remove
coverings. The coverings contain a the efflorescence by
concentration of salts that are brushing or washing, waiting
transported from within the material for the surface to dry, and
to the surface, forming a whitish crust repainting (21).
(20).
Figure 9
This damage significantly To restore the building's
compromises the structure's integrity, it is recommended
aesthetics, functionality, and safety. It that the damaged sections be
can also result in infiltration, controlled demolished and
increased humidity, and deterioration the corroded reinforcement
of the coatings and the underlying treated with corrosion
structure. inhibitors.
8
Figure 10
Degradation associated with humidity, To remedy this type of
regardless of its source, is generally damage, after the source of
caused by liquids infiltrating infiltration has been repaired,
structural components, which can be a waterproofing coating
easily identified through a visual should be applied to the
inspection of the building (22). affected surface.
Figure 11 According to (23), this condition can
be the result of several factors, such as For the intervention, it is
adhesion failures during the initial necessary to scrape or brush
application, prolonged exposure to the the area to remove all loose
elements, the presence of humidity, parts, clean the area, apply
the action of chemical or biological the primer, and then apply
agents, structural movements or the new paint (23).
inadequacies in the formulation or
quality of the coating material.
4.2 Analysis of the rebound index
Figure 12 presents the individual indices collected from each test area. Readings deviating by
more than 10% from the average were excluded, and the final average was adjusted accordingly.
Following NBR 7584 guidelines, at least five valid points were obtained for each face, ensuring
test validation. However, due to architectural constraints, the rear face of Column P2 could not
be analyzed.
9
Figure 12 - Compressive resistance in MPa adjusted by the abacus
After the adjustments, the pillars maintained an average resistance between 20 MPa and 25
MPa, a common resistance for concrete in works of this size, considering the period in which
they were built at the beginning of the century.
Also, according to NBR 6118 (9), to maintain the quality and durability of urban works, urban
works with a low risk of deterioration are classified as "aggressiveness class II-moderate",
where the minimum recommended concrete resistance is 25 MPa, but 9 of the 11 samples
obtained demonstrated resistance lower than the minimum required by NBR 6118, which
requires 25 MPa, and by the more rigorous NP EN 206 (10), which requires a minimum of 30
MPa. This effect may contribute to the attack of other deleterious phenomena in the structure.
Regarding the orientation of the faces, no significant variations were detected between the
resistances of the same element, where the most significant variation was in P11 between N and
S, followed by 9% between E and W in P2 and 8% for E and W in P12. Using the reflection
sclerometer to evaluate the compressive resistance, although with a potentially high level of
uncertainty, becomes viable in this case. This is because it simplifies the investigation process,
saves time, and preserves the integrity of the structural elements by complying with an initial
investigation.
4.3 Analysis of carbonation depth
The results of the phenolphthalein solution spray test to define the carbonation depth in the
selected pillars are shown in Table 3.
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Table 3 - Results of the carbonation depth test
Pillar Orientation Depth (mm) Coverage (mm)
E 20.08 27.91
P2
N 22.30 12.86
N 10.51 6.95
P11
W 19.20 19.58
W 20.01 6.67
P12
S 17.06 8.81
Based on the data presented in Table 4, it is possible to evaluate the carbonation depths of the
nominal reinforcement cover for each column and its respective faces. On the east faces of
Column 02 and west faces of Column 11, the measured carbonation depth was 20.08 mm and
19.20 mm, respectively, while the nominal reinforcement cover was 27.91 mm and 19.85 mm,
as can be seen in Figure 13.
Figure 13 - Carbonation depth measurement: East face of P2 (a) and West face of P11 (b)
Although carbonation did not entirely affect the covers, the reinforcements already showed
signs of corrosion. Carbonation depth and speed depend on factors like concrete porosity, which
is linked to its strength (24), information not specified in the project. Since the reinforcement is
near the exposure limit, preventive measures are recommended to mitigate future corrosion risks
(14). For the other pillars, the carbonation depth exceeded the nominal cover of the columns, as
shown in Figure 14.
11
Figure 14 - Carbonation depth measurement: East face of P2 (a) and West face of P11 (b)
This condition exposes the reinforcement to the risk of corrosion due to the decrease in the pH
of the medium surrounding the reinforcement to levels at which passivation cannot be
maintained, facilitating the onset of the corrosive process, as described by (25). Similarly, the
carbonation depth suppressed the nominal cover of the reinforcement on both orientations of
P12 and P2.
4.4 Corrosion Potential Analysis
In Table 4 below, the results obtained after applying the corrosion potential test are recorded
across the entire height of the pillar, starting with data from the top of the column to its base.
Tabela 4 - Resultados do ensaio de potencial de corrosão em mV (Ecorr)
Average readings (mV)
Orientation P2 P11 P12
E -489.7 -476.7 -471.8
N -505.8 -460.1 -472.5
W -479.2 -466.7 -471.2
The evaluated structures showed average corrosion potential values ranging from -471.2 mV to
-505.8 mV. According to C 876 (19), column P2 has a corrosion probability above 90% due to
its exposure to infiltrated masonry. Columns P11 and P12 also exceed 90% at the ends, though
the middle zone remains uncertain. A trend of more negative values suggests possible chloride
12
contamination, which may have compromised the passive layer (20) (26) (27). A qualitative
analysis using silver nitrate spraying is recommended to confirm this.
5 CONCLUSIONS
This study examined pathological manifestations in a commercial building in João Pessoa,
Paraíba. It identified infiltration, humidity, efflorescence, and coating deterioration, which were
exacerbated by parapet and masonry issues.
The sclerometric index analysis revealed that most pillar samples fell below the resistance
standards of NBR 6118 (25 MPa) (9) and EN NP 206 (30 MPa) (10), raising durability
concerns. Carbonation depth analysis indicated reinforcement corrosion despite sufficient cover,
influenced by humidity and the water/cement ratio. It is important to note that carbonation is a
natural phenomenon. However, it can be prevented and/or remedied through measures, such as
using additives capable of reducing the porosity of the concrete and/or waterproofing the
structure and regular maintenance of the structures.
Corrosion potential results confirmed a high probability of corrosion, emphasizing the need for
preventive and corrective measures to ensure structural integrity.
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