Pathways of Personality

Development: Following
Lev Vygotsky’s Guidelines
Dmitry Leontiev, Anna Lebedeva,
Vasily Kostenko

Received in Dmitry Leontiev in personality development. 4. Person-

April 2017 Ph D., Dr. Sc., Professor, Head of Inter- ality development pathways in challeng-
national Laboratory of Positive Psycholo- ing conditions. In Vygotsky’s works per-
gy of Personality and Motivation, Nation- sonality was implicitly constructed as
al Research University Higher School of the most integral higher mental func-
Economics. E-mail: [email protected] tion, while self-mastery or self-regula-
Anna Lebedeva tion was its central feature. Vygotsky’s
Ph D., Senior Research Fellow, Interna- principle of mediation states that the
tional Laboratory of Positive Psychology structure of human activity is mediated
of Personality and Motivation, National by physical or mental tools that break
Research University Higher School of the S—R links and make it possible to
Economics. E-mail: anna.alex.lebedeva master one’s own behavior and men-
@gmail.com tal processes. By utilizing speech as a
Vasily Kostenko system of signs that enables the pro-
Research Fellow, International Labora- cess of mastering the psychosocial re-
tory of Positive Psychology of Person- ality, self-reflection makes a new basis
ality and Motivation, National Research for more complicated forms of higher
University Higher School of Econom- mental processes that possesses more
ics. E-mail: [email protected] degrees of freedom as compared with
the lower ones. The law of compensa-
Address: 20 Myasnitskaya St, 101000
tion is discussed in the context of ag-
Moscow, Russian Federation.
gravated conditions of personality de-
Abstract. The paper presents a theo- velopment, where personality answers
retical reconstruction of Lev Vygotsky’s to social boundaries, and thus achieves
project on theory of personality devel- alternative trajectories of development.
opment and highlights Vygotsky’s rel- The sociocultural paradigm is thus con-
evance and heuristic value for the per- sistent with modern thought on positive
sonality psychology of our days, espe- and personality psychology.
cially positive psychology. The authors Keywords: sociocultural psychology,
focus on several aspects of Vygotsky’s higher mental functions, self-regula-
heritage. 1. The general concept of per- tion, personality development, self-mas-
sonality within a non-classical frame- tery, compensation, aggravated devel-
work. 2. The idea of self-mastery as the opment, positive psychology.
central explanatory concept and its re-
lation to the modern concept of agency.
3. The role of self-reflective awareness DOI: 10.17323/1814-9545-2017-2-98-112

Voprosy obrazovaniya / Educational Studies. Moscow. 2017. No 2. P. 98–112

Dmitry Leontiev, Anna Lebedeva, Vasily Kostenko
Pathways of Personality Development: Following Lev Vygotsky’s Guidelines

Introduction Lev Vygotsky is nowadays acknowledged as one of the cornerstone

psychologists of the 20th century who played the critical role in intro-
ducing a sociocultural dimension into modern psychology. He is most-
ly known for being a developmental psychologist with a focus on the
development of cognitive functions. However, in the context of child
development issues, Vygotsky stressed that “only radical transcend-
ing the methodological limits of traditional child psychology can direct
us to the study of development of the highest psychological synthe-
sis than can be called with full reason the child’s personality. The his-
tory of cultural development of the child leads us to the history of per-
sonality development” [Vygotsky 1983a: 44]. In the final years of his
very short life he paid more attention to the issues of personality and
personality development, though failed to elaborate a comprehen-
sive theory. His fragmented ideas on personality have mostly been
published posthumously; no wonder that his contribution to this field
seems to be underestimated or even not read at all.
The aim of this paper is to reconstruct Vygotsky’s project on per-
sonality theory. It is less of a personality theory; however, it still main-
tains great heuristic value for the personality psychology of today.
We focus on several aspects of Vygotsky’s heritage: 1. The gener-
al concept of personality within a non-classical framework. 2. The idea
of self-mastery as the central explanatory concept and its relation to
the modern concept of agency. 3. The role of self-reflective awareness
in personality development. 4. Personality development pathways in
challenged conditions. All of these highlight the relevance of Vygot-
sky’s approach to the positive psychology of the 21st century.

Personality and The starting point of Vygotsky’s theory was the idea of the social na-
higher mental ture of the human mind; in other words, the idea of the principal differ-
functions ence between animal and human psychological functioning. While an
animal lives in the world of nature, all its functions, including psycho-
logical functions, are subject to natural laws alone. In the human being,
the natural evolutionary process is not abolished but rather comple-
mented with a developmental process of some other kind. Qualitative-
ly different social laws govern the process of the development of con-
sciousness in the course of social interaction. This idea was not new at
that time, although it was not widely accepted. Its sources were both
the French sociological school, especially the works of Pierre Janet,
on the one hand, and the philosophical works of Marx and Engels, on
the other. Being very enthusiastic about Marxism, as the methodolog-
ical foundation for the new post-crisis psychology, Vygotsky shared
Marx’s idea that the human essence lies in social relations, “brought
inside and transformed into personality functions, representing the
dynamic parts of its structure” [Vygotsky 1984a: 224].
The concept of higher psychological functions, introduced by Vy-
gotsky, expressed this idea in the most articulate form. It was as-

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sumed that besides natural psychological functions (e. g., perception,

memory, attention, etc.) analogous to those existing in animals, there
are specifically human twin psychological functions—object percep-
tion, voluntary attention, mediated memory, etc.—developing through
the mastery of distinctively human instrumental ways of organizing
one’s own psychological processes. A. R. Luria [1969] best summa-
rized the distinctive features of higher psychological functions, spe-
cifically during the course of social interaction, as: (1) social by their
origin, (2) mediated by their structure, and (3) voluntary, and deliber-
ate because of their functioning abilities.
The general genetic law of development of the higher psychologi-
cal functions was articulated by Vygotsky in the following way: “Every
function in the cultural development of the child enters the stage twice,
on two planes—first the social, then the psychological; at first, as a
form of cooperation between persons, as a collective and interpsy-
chological category, then as a means of individual behavior, as an
intrapsychological category” [Vygotsky 1984a: 223]. This citation
depicts the essence of the process called interiorization, the emer-
gence of an individual psychological function through the internali-
zation of the original function (i. e., its transference into the mental
plane), changing from the outer control over this function to the inner
control. Vygotsky [1989] stated that “for us to speak about the exter-
nal process means to speak of the social. Any higher psychological
function was external. This means that it was social before becoming
a function; it was a social relation between two people. The means of
acting upon oneself is originally a means of acting on others and the
action of others on one’s personality” [Vygotsky 1989: 56].
According to Vygotsky, originally, the human child is not an agent
of development, he or she gradually becomes the agent of their own
development through the acquisition of social “sign tools”. If we con-
sider the mother-child unit, at the first stage of development the moth-
er reacts towards the child, at the second stage the child acquires the
idea of communicating their wishes and acts in the corresponding way
towards his or her mother, at the third stage the child uses the same
strategy to act towards him/herself in an external observable way, and
the fourth stage comes when the former child, now grown up, acts to-
wards him/herself in an internal way, unobservable from the outside.
The principle of “interiorization”, introduced by Vygotsky, states
that human mental functions develop genetically from external pro-
cesses, which were originally distributed between individuals. Mental
attention grows from pointing at something by another person, mem-
ory from distant communication, volition by obeying another person’s
commands, and so on. Once interiorized, a higher psychological func-
tion becomes subject to voluntary control. A. Asmolov [1986/87] has
stressed that the interiorization process is not merely a transposi-
tion of a function inwards, but rather the process of building the inner
(mental) structure of consciousness. The word “interiorization” should

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Dmitry Leontiev, Anna Lebedeva, Vasily Kostenko
Pathways of Personality Development: Following Lev Vygotsky’s Guidelines

thus be considered as a metaphor depicting the result rather than the

process of development of higher psychological functions.
Lev Vygotsky’s thoughts consistently combine an explanation of
development as an essentially internal process with the consideration
of the social situation of development as one of the leading develop-
mental mechanisms. In his view, the social situation of development
is an age-specific system of relations between a child of a certain age
and the social reality that “defines strictly lawfully the child’s way of liv-
ing, or his/her social being” [Vygotsky 1984b: 259]. Personality devel-
opment cannot be isolated from the general mental development, and
the latter is, in fact, a psychosocial process, in many respects condi-
tioned by the external social situation. This statement follows the idea
that “the human psychological nature is a sum-total of social relations
transferred inwards and transformed into personality functions, or dy-
namic parts of its structure” [Vygotsky 1984a: 224].

Self-mastery Mediated structure is the second indication of higher psychological

through functions. Vygotsky’s idea of the voluntary nature of specifically hu-
mediation man forms of mental activity is based on the idea of the specific struc-
ture of these processes. As derivatives of social activity, higher mental
processes maintain the principal features of human intentional activ-
ity, first of all, its tool-mediated nature.
This helps to explain the mechanism of voluntary regulation of
higher mental functions. The principle of mediation states that the
structure of human activity is mediated by tools—be it physical tools
or mental signs—that break the S—R link and make it possible to mas-
ter one’s own behavior and mental processes.
Using tools while interacting with nature has been considered an
essential characteristic feature of a human being long before Vygot-
sky. However, according to Vygotsky, human beings actively deal with
their own nature in the same way. Higher mental functions are mediat-
ed in a similar way by special “mental” tools. Moreover, it is the medi-
ated structure of higher mental functions that causes them to be de-
liberate, self-controlled, and self-organized. That is especially true
for volition as a form of such a relation. “Voluntary action begins only
when mastering one’s own behavior with the help of symbolic stimuli”
[Vygotsky 1984a: 50]. The most comprehensive of such symbolic sys-
tems created by human culture (though not the only one) is language.
Thus, it is not surprising that various aspects of language functioning,
and related issues (the genesis and forms of speech, inner speech
and thinking, concept development, meaning and sense, etc.), be-
came Vygotsky’s main research interest in the late 1920s, just after
the idea of higher mental functions had evolved into a research pro-
gram (see [Vygotsky 1934/1987]).
When one is making some effort traditionally described as volition
or, in newer terms, when one feels self-determined, autonomous, and

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authentic, in no way is one a self-sufficient entity. On the contrary, one

needs some external point of support in order to transform the exter-
nal reality, according to the well-known idea by Archimedes: give me
the point of support, and I will turn the Earth upside down. This is the
best symbol of the idea that it is mediation that givesus self-determi-
nation and self-control. “It is impossible to relate directly to oneself;
however, indirectly it is possible” [Vygotsky 1989: 61]. Any effort must
be a mediated effort in order to be effective; mediation multiplies ef-
fort in human action, as in mechanics and technology.
For Vygotsky, self-mastery or self-regulation was the key feature
of personality. Though Vygotsky never tried to give a strict definition
of personality or a systematic analysis of this problem, he pointed out
that the concept of personality, historical as it is, “covers the totality of
behavior, specified by the attribute of mastery” [Vygotsky 1983a: 315].
“Only when we see the mastery over one’s own behavior,”—wrote Vy-
gotsky elsewhere, —“can we speak of the shaping of personality” [Vy-
gotsky 1984: 225]. In the above citations, as well as in many other
places, Vygotsky treated personality analogously to higher mental
functions, applying both concepts to the same scheme of a genetic
explanation. “Mastery,” with respect to personality, essentially meant
for him the same as deliberate control over one’s mental processes.
It seems as if Vygotsky considered personality to be the most integral
“higher mental function”.
Vygotsky’s idea of mastering one’s own behavior, as the distinc-
tive feature of personality, was not original. However, it was in no way
speculative, like most other theorizing in this field. What makes this
idea really important in Vygotsky’s case is its solid experimental ba-
sis. Psychological mechanisms of mastering one’s behavior repre-
sented the subject matter of the 12th chapter of his “History of de-
velopment of higher mental functions” [1983a: 83]. Vygotsky started
with the traditional notion of human choice, considering it to be the
key issue for the problem of mastering one’s behavior. The most cru-
cial point related to human choice is the situation of the ‘Buridan’s
ass’, which represents the choice between several equally attrac-
tive alternatives. According to the medieval tale, the animal died un-
able to choose between two equal bales of hay lying at the same dis-
tance from each other. Vygotsky stated that a human being would
solve this problem by making a choice, or drawing the solution from
a hat. In Vygotsky’s experiments, children had to solve similar prob-
lems by “choosing” between different motives, with different options
available. Based on these experiments, Vygotsky listed several con-
ditions allowing the children to make their own choices. In these cas-
es, a child masters his/her behavior by creating additional mediational
stimuli. Vygotsky himself evaluated his experiments described above
as proof of the possibility to solve purely philosophical problems, and
to empirically trace the genesis of human free will during experimen-
tal psychological investigations.

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Dmitry Leontiev, Anna Lebedeva, Vasily Kostenko
Pathways of Personality Development: Following Lev Vygotsky’s Guidelines

Self-reflection One of the most influential mediating instances of human conduct

and inner is conscious awareness, or self-reflection. Vygotsky analyzed this
dialogue important issue in his final lecture on adolescent pedology [Vygot-
sky 1984a: 220–242], referring to the publications of his contempo-
rary, German educational psychologist Adolph Busemann, that are all
but forgotten these days [Busemann 1925; 1926]; however, Vygotsky
found some very inspiring points in them. “What is used to be called
the self is nothing but self-awareness (…) a new behavior of the per-
son becomes behavior-for-oneself, the person becomes aware of
oneself as a definite unity” [Vygotsky 1984a: 227].
Vygotsky considered Busemann’s great merit to be his overcom-
ing the nature-nurture convergence paradigm by William Stern and
introducing a new agentic factor—the adolescent’s person. An im-
portant point is the differentiation between the acting person and the
reflecting person. “If we look at the significance of self-reflection for
mental life at large, we shall see a profound difference between a non-
reflective, naïve personality structure, on the one side, and a reflective
one, on the other” [Vygotsky 1984a: 238].
The general genetic law of development mentioned above, the law
of interiorization, suggests that reflective self-awareness also devel-
ops the same way. Here Vygotsky also refers to Busemann who de-
scribed six directions of the development of self-reflection, starting
from external acting upon the parts of one’s body that can be found
even in lower animals [Ibid.: 228]. However, with social relations, hu-
man communication plays a more important role in the development
of self-awareness, this is why Vygotsky, following Busemann, defined
self-awareness as social awareness, transposed inwards [Ibid.: 239].
By utilizing speech as a system of signs that enables the process of
mastering the psychosocial reality, self-reflection makes a new basis
for more complicated forms of higher mental processes that possess-
es more degrees of freedom as compared with the lower ones.
This is the point where Lev Vygotsky’s cultural historical account
converges with Mikhail Bakhtin’s dialogical one. Bakhtin’s focus was
the dialogical nature of consciousness, in what is sometimes termed
autocommunication in contemporary studies. Autocommunication
makes the ontological basis of self-awareness as its cognitive side.
The term “autocommunication” unites various forms of intraperson-
al dialogue. Inner dialogue suggests two or more semantic centers
or intentions. During the inner dialogical activity, a person can repre-
sent various points of view (e. g., the interviewer and the interviewee,
the past Self and the future Self, the judge and the defendant). While
Bakhtin [1984] revealed multivoicedness of human consciousness,
discussing the heterarchical (democratic or anarchic) polyphony of
“inner speakers”, a hierarchical view on relating to oneself is also pos-
sible [Leontiev, Salikhova 2010], which is more in line with Vygotsky’s
idea of self-mastery. Present-day empirical studies of self-reflective
processes demonstrate their role as the inter-level moderators capa-

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 FOLLOWING THE INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM “LEV VYGOTSKY AND MODERN CHILDHOOD”

ble of modifying the structure of relations between different levels of

regulation [Karpov 2004].
From a sociocultural viewpoint, inner dialogue is considered as
an interiorized external dialogue. It was empirically shown, e. g., that
there is a mutual overflow of internal and external dialogues that is es-
pecially noticeable in childhood [Kuchinsky 1988]. The possibilities for
an adult in the creation of inner dialogue considerably extend owing to
the cognitive development and general purposefulness of dialogical
activity. At the same time, there are also conflicting forms of inner dia-
logical activity, which can support and develop the inner conflict [Oleś
2009; Astretsov, Leontiev 2016].

Personality The existence of aggravated conditions, i. e. any kind of physical, so-

development in cial, material or other deficit, presents a challenge to personality de-
aggravated velopment. The latter can be notably inhibited due to the fact that
conditions: the searching for and implementing alternative developmental trajecto-
bypass pathways ries require bigger time expenses. Personal features resulting from
such collisions with the social world emerge despite difficult vital cir-
cumstances rather than by virtue of harmonious developmental back-
ground. Being connected to a cultural context, the same personality
features may become both a sign of mental health, and a form of over-
compensation due to some deficiency. Such a situation “does not set
borders to developmental opportunities but rather requires investing
extra efforts and resources, as compared to situations of regular de-
velopment” [Leontiev 2014: 98].
If we take into account the development of personality, treating
norms as typical and abnormalities as atypical loses its sense. The
same developmental conditions can be experienced as facile by one
person and as difficult by another one. The criterion of such discrep-
ancies is partly socially determined but also rooted in individual de-
velopmental history.
According to Vygotsky, a biological developmental deficit (defect)
is only a prerequisite of its secondary manifestation, a social “disloca-
tion”. Secondary consequences of biological deficits imply problems
with the acquisition of culturally typical higher forms of behavior. At
the same time, the developmental delay or impediment plays a role of
“damming” and causes an increase in the concentration of psycholog-
ical energy at the point of deficiency [Vygotsky 1927]. The impediment
“is not only the main condition of goal achievement, but also an indis-
pensable condition of the emergence and existence of the goal itself”
[Vygotsky 1983b: 158]. In other words, the existence of an impediment
generates a condition of need, which in turn acts as an energy source
of compensation processes. The latter account for the further com-
plication of higher mental functions, from infancy onwards.“The law
of compensation is equally applicable to the normal and complicated
development” [Vygotsky 1983b: 10], which in both cases proceeds in

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 Dmitry Leontiev, Anna Lebedeva, Vasily Kostenko
Pathways of Personality Development: Following Lev Vygotsky’s Guidelines

the conditions of inevitable collisions with restrictions. These obsta-

cles generate alternative developmental trajectories.
The situation of physical disability itself cannot be considered as
strictly determining hindered psychological well-being (see [Leon-
tiev, Aleksandrova, Lebedeva 2017]). A. N. Leontiev [1978] pointed out
that the same physical features can be differently related to person-
ality proper, and differently built into the structure of activity. It is the
person that defines the influence of physical disability on subjective
well-being and psychological health.
This statement was confirmed in our studies of students with dis-
abilities [Lebedeva 2012]. Different personality variables in this group
did not reveal the same correlations as those in a control group.
However, satisfaction with life measures did not differ between the
groups. We explained this in terms of Vygotsky’s “bypass pathways”
of development. The term refers to alternative developmental trajec-
tories and cultural instruments that implement the current tasks of
development bypassing disability conditions. According to Vygotsky,
difficult life circumstances lead to “radical reorganization of all per-
sonality that brings new mental forces to life and directs them” [Vy-
gotsky 1983b: 563]. Moreover, it is not obligatory that favorable con-
ditions will lead to positive consequences, and vice versa. Owing to
the fact that the person is capable of manifesting one’s autonomy
through the responses tochallenging life circumstances, a person
achieves an opportunity not to lose but to find the source of creative
energy in difficult circumstances, and to reorganize their personali-
ty and their life

Conclusion: Vygotsky pointed out the necessity for a “positive” view on psycholog-
Cultural-historical ical development both in aggravated conditions:
roots of positive
psychology “… the new point of view prescribes the consideration of not only
the child’s negative characteristic, not only his/her “minuses”, but
also a positive offprint of his/her personality presenting first of all
the picture of complicated bypass pathways of development” [Vy-
gotsky 1983b: 173],

and normal ones:

“Empirically based study reveals that the negative content of the de-
velopment in breaking periods is just the reverse, or shadow side
of positive personality changes that make the main and principal
meaning of any critical age” [Vygotsky 1984b: 253].

These quotations suggest that Vygotsky’s views belonged to prede-

cessors of the theoretical agenda of the 21st century known as pos-
itive psychology that stresses that the development of positive pro-

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FOLLOWING THE INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM “LEV VYGOTSKY AND MODERN CHILDHOOD”

cesses are the key to psychological sanity and wholeness at all the
levels [Seligman 2002]. However, the positive psychology of today de-
parted from positive emotions and positive character traits (strengths
and virtues) before it shifted the emphasis to more profound and
complicated processes of self-regulation and psychological resil-
ience (see e. g. [Sheldon, Kashdan, Steger 2011]). Vygotsky’s em-
phasis of self-mastery is highly relevant to the latter. Indeed, con-
temporary views on self-regulation have much in common with the
cultural-historical approach. Some of Vygotsky’s followers in the USA
treat self-regulation through the prism of the concept of higher men-
tal functions [Kinnucan, Kuebli 2013]. The cultural-historical approach
states that self-regulated activity initially emerges as an interpsycho-
logical process, gradually transforming itself to the reduced intrapsy-
chological regulation. At every stage these processes are mediated
primarily by signs.
The specificity of Vygotsky’s version of nonclassical positive psy-
chology as the psychology of emerging mastery over oneself and over
one’s psychological functioning is precisely expressed in his own slo-
gan of height psychology. “Our word in psychology: away from sur-
face psychology—a phenomenon in consciousness is not equal to
being. But we oppose ourselves also to the depth psychology. Our
psychology is height psychology (it defines person’s “heights”, rath-
er than “depths”)” [Vygotsky 1982: 166]. Interestingly enough, Victor
Frankl in 1938 independently of Vygotsky (the above quotation was
written in 1933 and not published until 1968) expressed his views in
identical terms: “Existential analysis is something opposite to the so-
called… depth psychology. Depth psychology forgets that its oppo-
site is height psychology, rather than surface psychology… “Only hu-
man heights are human being” (Paracelsus)” [Frankl 1987: 86]. Frankl
identified height psychology with his existential analysis, and Vygot-
sky with his cultural-historical psychology of higher mental functions
and deliberate actions. Both viewed the human being in terms of mul-
ti-level organization, where the lower levels are fully causally deter-
mined by uncontrollable physiological and psychological mechanisms,
while through the higher levels the human being may master one’s
own behavior.
It follows that the person’s developing capacity to take control
over one’s own development and well-being and to invest oneself
in these processes should be treated as the central issue of the ad-
vanced version of positive psychology. Vygotsky’s cultural-historical
approach allows us to establish theoretically consistent relationships
between the ideas of 80 years ago and the views of the psychology of
personality of this century. New developmental challenges allow us
to make sense of Vygotsky’s heritage in a present-day context and
contribute to the integration of diverse theories within a common the-
oretical field.

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Dmitry Leontiev, Anna Lebedeva, Vasily Kostenko
Pathways of Personality Development: Following Lev Vygotsky’s Guidelines

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