BASICS OF COMPUTER AND

APPLICATION
Introduction

Computer architecture refers to the design and organization of a computer system, de ning how
hardware and software components interact. It involves processor design, memory hierarchy,
input/output systems, and instruction sets that determine a computer’s performance and
functionality.

Components of Computer Architecture

Computer architecture consists of three major components:

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU)

2. Memory (Primary and Secondary Storage)

3. Input and Output Devices

1. Central Processing Unit (CPU) S

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The CPU is the brain of the computer that performs calculations and executes instructions. It
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consists of the following units:

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a) Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU)

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• Performs arithmetic (addition, subtraction, multiplication, division) and logical

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operations (AND, OR, NOT, XOR).

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• Responsible for executing mathematical calculations.

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b) Control Unit (CU)

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• Manages and controls the execution of instructions.

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• Directs the ow of data between different components of the computer.

• Uses the instruction cycle (Fetch-Decode-Execute) to process commands.

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c) Registers

• Small, high-speed storage areas inside the CPU.

• Used to store temporary data and instructions during execution.

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 • Types of registers:

◦ Accumulator (ACC): Stores results of arithmetic and logic operations.

◦ Program Counter (PC): Holds the address of the next instruction to be executed.

◦ Instruction Register (IR): Holds the current instruction being executed.

◦ Stack Pointer (SP): Points to the top of the stack memory.

◦ General Purpose Registers: Store temporary data for execution.

d) Cache Memory

• High-speed memory located inside or near the CPU.

• Stores frequently accessed data to improve processing speed.

• Levels of Cache: L1 (fastest), L2, L3 (larger but slower).

2. Memory System
a) Primary Memory (RAM & ROM)

• Random Access Memory (RAM):

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◦ Volatile memory (loses data when power is off).
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◦ Stores currently active programs and data.

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◦ Types: Static RAM (SRAM) and Dynamic RAM (DRAM).

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• Read-Only Memory (ROM):

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◦ Non-volatile memory (retains data even when powered off).

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◦ Stores rmware and boot instructions (BIOS/UEFI).

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◦ Types: PROM, EPROM, EEPROM.

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b) Secondary Storage
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• Non-volatile storage devices for long-term data storage.

• Examples: Hard Disk Drives (HDDs), Solid-State Drives (SSDs), Flash Drives, Optical
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Discs (CD/DVD), Magnetic Tapes.

• SSDs are faster and more ef cient than HDDs but more expensive.

c) Virtual Memory

• A portion of the hard drive used as RAM when physical memory is full.
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 • Helps run large applications smoothly by swapping data between RAM and disk.

3. Input and Output Devices

a) Input Devices

• Used to send data to the computer.

• Examples: Keyboard, Mouse, Scanner, Microphone, Camera, Touchscreen, Joystick,

Barcode Reader.

b) Output Devices

• Used to display or produce results from the computer.

• Examples: Monitor (LCD, LED, OLED), Printer, Speakers, Projector, Plotter.

Types of Computer Architecture

1. Von Neumann Architecture

• Proposed by John von Neumann in 1945.

• Uses a single memory for storing both data and instructions.

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• Follows the Fetch-Decode-Execute cycle.
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• Found in most modern computers.

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2. Harvard Architecture
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• Uses separate memory for instructions and data.

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• Provides faster execution by allowing simultaneous instruction and data fetching.

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• Used in embedded systems, microcontrollers, and DSP processors.

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3. RISC vs. CISC Architecture

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• RISC (Reduced Instruction Set Computing):

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◦ Uses simple, small instruction sets.

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◦ Focuses on faster execution with fewer cycles per instruction.

◦ Examples: ARM, MIPS, PowerPC.

• CISC (Complex Instruction Set Computing):

 ◦ Uses complex, multi-step instructions.

◦ Requires fewer lines of code but takes more execution time per instruction.

◦ Examples: Intel x86, AMD processors.

4. Parallel and Distributed Computing

• Parallel Computing: Uses multiple processors (cores) simultaneously to execute tasks

faster. Found in multi-core CPUs and GPUs.

• Distributed Computing: Spreads computations across multiple computers over a network

or cloud environment.

• Used in supercomputers, AI training, cloud computing (AWS, Google Cloud).

Computer Performance Factors

1. Processor Speed (Clock Speed)

• Measured in GHz (Gigahertz).

• Higher clock speed = faster performance.

• Modern CPUs use multi-core architecture (Dual-core, Quad-core, Octa-core, etc.).

2. Bus Architecture
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• The communication system that transfers data between different components.

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• Types of buses:
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◦ Address Bus (carries memory addresses)

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◦ Data Bus (transfers data)

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◦ Control Bus (carries control signals)

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3. Pipelining
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• A technique used in modern processors to execute multiple instructions simultaneously.

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• Improves CPU ef ciency and speed.

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4. GPU (Graphics Processing Unit)

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• Specialized processor for handling graphics and parallel computing tasks.

• Used in gaming, AI, machine learning, and video processing.

5. Quantum Computing (Future Technology)

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 • Uses qubits instead of binary bits.

• Capable of performing complex calculations at unprecedented speeds.

• Companies like IBM, Google, and D-Wave are developing quantum processors.

Computer Architecture in India and Worldwide

India’s Contributions

• PARAM Supercomputers developed by C-DAC (Centre for Development of Advanced

Computing).

• TATA Swach Computing Platform for AI applications.

• Pratyush and Mihir – India’s high-performance weather forecasting supercomputers.

Global Advancements

• Intel, AMD, NVIDIA – Leading CPU and GPU manufacturers.

• Apple M-Series Chips – High-performance ARM-based processors.

• IBM and Google – Leading in quantum computing research.

• ARM Architecture – Used in smartphones, tablets, IoT devices.

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Input and Output Devices

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Introduction
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Input and output (I/O) devices are essential components of a computer system that facilitate
communication between the user and the computer. Input devices allow users to enter data and
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commands, while output devices display or deliver results from processing. These devices play a
crucial role in human-computer interaction.
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1. Input Devices
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Input devices are used to send data to the computer for processing. They convert human actions into
signals that a computer can interpret.
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Types of Input Devices

a) Keyboard
 • Primary input device for typing text, numbers, and commands.

• Types of keyboards:

◦ Mechanical Keyboard – Uses individual switches under each key.

◦ Membrane Keyboard – Uses pressure pads instead of mechanical switches.

◦ Virtual Keyboard – Software-based keyboard on a touchscreen.

◦ Ergonomic Keyboard – Designed for comfortable and injury-free typing.

• Example: Standard QWERTY keyboard, gaming keyboards with mechanical switches.

b) Mouse

• A pointing device used to control the cursor and interact with graphical elements.

• Types of mouse devices:

◦ Optical Mouse – Uses an LED light and sensor to detect movement.

◦ Laser Mouse – Uses a laser for higher precision.

◦ Wireless Mouse – Uses Bluetooth or RF technology.

◦ Trackball Mouse – Stationary device with a rolling ball.

• Example: Logitech, Razer gaming mice.

c) Touchscreen

• Acts as both input and output device.

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• Common in smartphones, tablets, and laptops.

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• Types of touchscreens:
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◦ Resistive – Uses pressure-sensitive layers.

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◦ Capacitive – Uses electrical conductivity of the human body.

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◦ Infrared & Optical – Detects touch using light sensors.

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• Example: Smartphone screens, ATM machines, kiosks.

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d) Scanner
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• Converts physical documents into digital format.

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• Types of scanners:

◦ Flatbed Scanner – Used for scanning books, documents.

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 ◦ Barcode Scanner – Reads product barcodes in retail stores.

◦ QR Code Scanner – Reads QR codes for digital payments.

◦ Handheld Scanner – Portable device for scanning documents.

• Example: Canon, Epson atbed scanners.

e) Microphone

• Captures audio input for recording or voice commands.

• Used in speech recognition, virtual assistants, and gaming.

• Types of microphones:

◦ Dynamic Microphone – Used for live performances.

◦ Condenser Microphone – Used in studios for high-quality sound.

◦ Lavalier Microphone – Small clip-on mic for interviews.

• Example: Blue Yeti, Rode condenser microphones.

f) Webcam

• Captures real-time video input.

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• Used for video calls, live streaming, and security surveillance.
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• Example: Logitech HD Webcam, in-built laptop webcams.

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g) Joystick & Game Controller

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• Used for gaming and ight simulations.

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• Types:
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◦ Joystick – Used in ight simulators and arcade games.

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◦ Game Controller – Used in consoles like PlayStation and Xbox.

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• Example: Xbox, PlayStation controllers.

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h) Biometric Devices
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• Used for authentication and security.

• Types:

◦ Fingerprint Scanner – Used in smartphones, attendance systems.

◦ Facial Recognition – Used in security systems.

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 ◦ Iris Scanner – Used in high-security environments.

• Example: Aadhar biometric scanners in India.

2. Output Devices
Output devices are used to display, print, or project the processed data from a computer.

Types of Output Devices

a) Monitor (Display Screen)

• Primary output device that displays text, images, and videos.

• Types of Monitors:

◦ LCD (Liquid Crystal Display) – Energy ef cient, widely used.

◦ LED (Light Emitting Diode) – Improved version of LCD.

◦ OLED (Organic LED) – Superior picture quality, used in smartphones and high-end
TVs.

◦ Touchscreen Displays – Act as both input and output devices.

• Example: Dell, Samsung LED monitors.

b) Printer
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• Converts digital documents into physical printouts.

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• Types of Printers:
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◦ Inkjet Printer – Uses ink cartridges, suitable for home use.

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◦ Laser Printer – Uses toner, faster and more ef cient.

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◦ Dot Matrix Printer – Uses impact printing, used in bill printing.

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◦ 3D Printer – Creates three-dimensional physical objects.

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• Example: HP, Canon inkjet printers.

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c) Speakers
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• Converts digital audio signals into sound.

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• Types of Speakers:

◦ Stereo Speakers – Common for music playback.

◦ Surround Sound Systems – Used in home theaters.

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 ◦ Bluetooth Speakers – Wireless connectivity.

• Example: JBL, Bose, Sony speakers.

d) Headphones & Earphones

• Personal audio output devices.

• Types:

◦ Over-Ear Headphones – Large, covers entire ears.

◦ On-Ear Headphones – Smaller, rests on ears.

◦ In-Ear Earphones – Fits inside the ear canal.

• Example: Apple AirPods, Sony headphones.

e) Projector

• Displays output on a large screen or wall.

• Used in classrooms, of ces, and movie theaters.

• Example: Epson, BenQ projectors.

f) Braille Display

• Output device for visually impaired users. S

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• Converts digital text into Braille characters.
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• Used in assistive technology.

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• Example: Refreshable Braille Displays.

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3. Input-Output (I/O) Devices

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Some devices serve both input and output functions.

• Touchscreen – Receives input via touch and displays output.

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• External Hard Drives & USB Drives – Allow data storage and retrieval.
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• Virtual Reality (VR) Headsets – Receive input (head movements) and provide immersive
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output.

• Network Cards & Modems – Facilitate data transfer between computers.

4. Role of Input and Output Devices in India and the World

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India’s Advancements in I/O Devices

• Aadhar Biometric System – Uses ngerprint and iris scanners for authentication.

• EVM (Electronic Voting Machine) – Used for elections.

• Digital Payment Devices – Biometric and QR code scanners for UPI transactions.

• ISRO’s Use of I/O Devices – Joysticks and control panels in space missions.

Global Advancements in I/O Technology

• Voice Assistants – AI-powered devices like Amazon Alexa, Google Assistant.

• AI-based Smart Cameras – Used in surveillance and facial recognition.

• Haptic Feedback Devices – Used in VR and gaming for immersive experience.

• Self-Driving Cars – Use multiple sensors and cameras for input-output processing.

Storage Devices

Introduction
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Storage devices are hardware components used to store and retrieve digital data. They can be
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categorized based on storage type, capacity, speed, and portability. Storage devices are essential
for operating systems, software, and user data, playing a critical role in computing systems.
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1. Types of Storage Devices

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Storage devices are primarily classi ed into:

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1. Primary Storage (Volatile Memory) – Fast, temporary storage used by the CPU.
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2. Secondary Storage (Non-Volatile Memory) – Permanent storage used for data retention.
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3. Tertiary Storage – Used for backup and archival purposes.

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4. Cloud Storage – Online storage services provided over the internet.

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2. Primary Storage Devices (Volatile Memory)

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Primary storage devices provide fast, temporary storage for quick data access by the CPU.

a) Random Access Memory (RAM)

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 • Stores data temporarily while the system is running.

• Faster than secondary storage.

• Types of RAM:

◦ SRAM (Static RAM) – Used in CPU cache, faster but expensive.

◦ DRAM (Dynamic RAM) – Used in system memory, cheaper but slower.

• Example: DDR4, DDR5 RAM modules (Kingston, Corsair, Crucial).

b) Cache Memory

• Small, ultra-fast memory located inside the CPU.

• Stores frequently accessed data for quick retrieval.

• Improves system performance.

• Example: L1, L2, and L3 caches in Intel and AMD processors.

c) Registers

• Smallest and fastest memory inside the CPU.

• Stores instructions and temporary calculations.

• Example: Accumulator, Program Counter in processors.

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d) Read-Only Memory (ROM)
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• Non-volatile memory used to store rmware and system instructions.

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• Types of ROM:
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◦ PROM (Programmable ROM) – Can be programmed once.

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◦ EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM) – Can be erased using UV light.

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◦ EEPROM (Electrically Erasable PROM) – Can be erased electrically.

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• Example: BIOS rmware in computers.

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3. Secondary Storage Devices (Non-Volatile Memory)

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Secondary storage retains data permanently, even after power loss.

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a) Hard Disk Drive (HDD)

• Magnetic storage device used in desktops and laptops.

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 • Spinning platters store data, accessed using a read/write head.

• Capacities: 500GB to 16TB.

• Example: Western Digital, Seagate HDDs.

b) Solid State Drive (SSD)

• Flash-based storage, faster than HDDs.

• No moving parts, reducing failure risks.

• Types of SSDs:

◦ SATA SSD – Traditional SSD, slower than NVMe.

◦ NVMe SSD – High-speed SSD connected via PCIe.

• Example: Samsung 970 EVO, Crucial MX500.

c) Hybrid Drive (SSHD)

• Combines HDD and SSD for better performance and storage capacity.

• Example: Seagate FireCuda SSHD.

d) Optical Discs

• Used for storing multimedia and software. S

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• Types:
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◦ CD (Compact Disc) – Up to 700MB storage.

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◦ DVD (Digital Versatile Disc) – Up to 4.7GB.

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◦ Blu-ray Disc – Up to 100GB.

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• Example: Sony, Verbatim DVDs.

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e) USB Flash Drive (Pen Drive)

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• Portable storage device using ash memory.

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• Capacities: 4GB to 1TB.

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• Example: SanDisk, Kingston USB drives.

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f) Memory Card (SD Card)

• Small, portable storage used in smartphones, cameras.

• Types: SD, microSD, SDHC, SDXC.

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 • Example: Samsung EVO, SanDisk Extreme microSD cards.

g) External Hard Drives

• Portable version of HDDs or SSDs for backup and storage expansion.

• Example: Seagate, WD My Passport.

4. Tertiary Storage Devices (Backup & Archival Storage)

Tertiary storage is used for long-term storage and backup.

a) Magnetic Tape Storage

• Used for data backup and archival.

• High capacity but slow access speed.

• Example: LTO (Linear Tape-Open) cartridges.

b) Cloud Storage

• Online storage service accessed via the internet.

• Examples: Google Drive, OneDrive, Dropbox, Amazon S3.

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5. Storage Devices in India and the World
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India’s Advancements in Storage Technology

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• ISRO’s Satellite Data Storage – Uses SSDs and magnetic tapes.

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• Aadhar Database Storage – Stores biometric data in secure servers.

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• Digital India Initiative – Promoting cloud-based storage for e-Governance.

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• Indian Institutes Working on Storage Tech – IITs developing next-gen SSDs.

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Global Developments in Storage

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• DNA Storage – Researchers storing data in DNA molecules.

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• Quantum Storage – Future tech for ultra-fast data storage.

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• Holographic Storage – Uses 3D holograms for high-capacity storage.

• AI-driven Storage Optimization – Predicts and manages storage needs ef ciently.

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 Networking

Introduction

Networking refers to the practice of connecting multiple computing devices to share resources and
data. It is the foundation of communication in IT infrastructure, enabling devices to connect locally
and globally.

1. Types of Networks
Networking can be classi ed based on geographical coverage and function:

a) Local Area Network (LAN)

• Covers a small area, such as a home, of ce, or school.

• Uses Ethernet cables or Wi-Fi for connection.

• Example: A network in a corporate of ce where all computers are connected to a central

server.

b) Metropolitan Area Network (MAN)

• Larger than a LAN, typically spans a city or large campus. S

• Uses ber optics or microwave links.
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• Example: A city-wide Wi-Fi network or cable TV network.

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c) Wide Area Network (WAN)

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• Covers large distances, connecting multiple LANs and MANs.

• Uses public or private communication channels ( ber optics, satellites, etc.).

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• Example: The Internet is the largest WAN.

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d) Personal Area Network (PAN)

• Covers a small personal space, usually a few meters.

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• Example: Bluetooth devices connecting to a smartphone.

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e) Virtual Private Network (VPN)

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• Provides secure remote access over the Internet.

• Uses encryption to protect data.

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 • Example: A company employee accessing of ce les securely from home.

2. Network Devices
Networking requires various hardware devices to function ef ciently.

a) Router

• Connects different networks and directs data packets.

• Example: Home Wi-Fi router.

b) Switch

• Connects multiple devices within a LAN.

• Example: Used in of ce networks to connect computers.

c) Modem

• Converts digital data to analog for Internet access.

• Example: DSL modem for broadband connection.

d) Hub

• Broadcasts data to all devices in a network. S

• Example: Used in small home networks.
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e) Repeater
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• Ampli es signals to extend network range.

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• Example: Used in large buildings to extend Wi-Fi coverage.

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f) Gateway
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• Connects networks using different communication protocols.

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• Example: A VoIP gateway that converts telephone signals to IP packets.

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3. Network Protocols
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Protocols de ne the rules for data communication over a network.

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a) Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP)

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 • Standard for Internet communication.

• Example: Web browsing and email services use TCP/IP.

b) HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP/HTTPS)

• Used for web communication.

• HTTPS adds encryption for security.

• Example: Accessing websites.

c) File Transfer Protocol (FTP)

• Transfers les between systems.

• Example: Uploading les to a web server.

d) Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)

• Sends emails.

• Example: Used by Gmail and Outlook.

e) Internet Protocol version 4 & 6 (IPv4 & IPv6)

• Assigns unique IP addresses to devices.

• Example: IPv4 uses 32-bit addresses, IPv6 uses 128-bit addresses for a larger range.
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f) Domain Name System (DNS)
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• Converts domain names into IP addresses.

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• Example: Translating "www.google.com" into an IP address.

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4. Types of Network Topologies

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Network topology refers to the physical or logical arrangement of devices.

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a) Bus Topology

• All devices connected to a single backbone cable.

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• Example: Used in small of ce networks.

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b) Star Topology
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• All devices connected to a central hub/switch.

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 • Example: Common in LANs.

c) Ring Topology

• Devices connected in a circular loop.

• Example: Used in some ber optic networks.

d) Mesh Topology

• Every device connects to every other device.

• Example: Used in military and critical communication networks.

e) Hybrid Topology

• Combination of different topologies.

• Example: Enterprise-level networks.

5. Network Security
With increasing cyber threats, securing networks is critical.

a) Firewall

• Monitors and controls incoming and outgoing traf c.

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• Example: A rewall blocking unauthorized access.

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b) Encryption
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• Protects data by encoding it.

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• Example: End-to-end encryption in WhatsApp.

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c) Antivirus & Anti-malware

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• Protects against malicious attacks.

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• Example: Norton, McAfee.

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d) Multi-Factor Authentication (MFA)

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• Adds extra security layers.

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• Example: OTP-based login systems.

e) Intrusion Detection Systems (IDS)

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 • Detects unauthorized access attempts.

• Example: Cisco IDS.

6. India’s Networking Advancements

• BharatNet Project – Providing broadband in rural India.

• 5G Deployment – India launched 5G services in 2022.

• National Supercomputing Mission – Enhancing India's computing infrastructure.

• ISRO’s GSAT Satellites – Enabling satellite communication networks.

• NICNET – Government’s secure network for of cial communication.

7. Global Networking Trends

• 6G Research – Future ultra-fast mobile networks.

• IoT Networking – Connecting smart devices globally.

• Cloud Networking – Virtualized networks for scalable computing.

• Quantum Networking – Future technology using quantum mechanics.

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• Arti cial Intelligence in Networking – Automating network management.
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Operating System
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Introduction
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An Operating System (OS) is system software that manages computer hardware and software
resources, providing essential services for applications. It acts as an interface between the user and
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the computer.
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1. Functions of an Operating System

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The OS performs several key functions, including:

a) Process Management
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 • Manages running applications (processes).

• Allocates CPU resources ef ciently.

• Example: Windows Task Manager allows users to monitor processes.

b) Memory Management

• Controls RAM allocation to processes.

• Prevents memory leaks and fragmentation.

• Example: Virtual memory in Windows uses part of the hard disk as extra RAM.

c) File System Management

• Organizes data storage and retrieval.

• Supports different le systems (FAT32, NTFS, ext4).

• Example: Linux uses the ext4 le system for better performance.

d) Device Management

• Handles input/output (I/O) devices like printers, keyboards, and USB drives.

• Uses drivers to enable hardware communication.

• Example: Plug-and-play support for USB devices. S

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e) Security & Access Control
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• Protects data with authentication methods (passwords, biometrics).

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• Prevents unauthorized access using rewalls and encryption.

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• Example: Windows BitLocker encrypts disk data.

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f) User Interface
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• Provides graphical user interfaces (GUI) or command-line interfaces (CLI).

• Example: Windows has a GUI, while Linux supports both GUI and CLI (terminal).
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2. Types of Operating Systems

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Operating systems can be classi ed into different types based on their functionality and use cases.

a) Single-User OS

• Designed for one user at a time.

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 • Example: Windows 10, macOS.

b) Multi-User OS

• Supports multiple users simultaneously.

• Example: Unix, Linux.

c) Real-Time OS (RTOS)

• Processes data in real-time for critical applications.

• Example: Used in medical systems, robotics, and aircraft control (VxWorks, RTLinux).

d) Batch Processing OS

• Executes batches of jobs without user interaction.

• Example: IBM Mainframe OS.

e) Distributed OS

• Uses multiple machines as a single system.

• Example: Google’s cloud-based OS infrastructure.

f) Mobile OS

• Designed for smartphones and tablets.

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• Example: Android, iOS.

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3. Popular Operating Systems

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a) Microsoft Windows
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• Most widely used desktop OS.

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• Supports extensive software and hardware.

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• Versions: Windows XP, 7, 10, 11.

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b) macOS
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• Exclusive to Apple computers.

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• Known for stability and security.

• Latest Version: macOS Sonoma.

c) Linux

• Open-source OS used in servers and personal computers.

• Variants: Ubuntu, Fedora, Kali Linux.

• Preferred for cybersecurity and programming.

d) Unix

• Used in enterprise environments.

• Basis for Linux and macOS.

• Example: IBM AIX, HP-UX.

e) Android

• Most popular mobile OS.

• Example: Runs on Samsung, OnePlus, and Google Pixel devices.

f) iOS

• Apple’s mobile OS.

• Known for security and optimized performance.

• Example: Used in iPhones and iPads.

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4. Operating Systems in India and the World

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India’s Contributions to OS Development

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• BOSS (Bharat Operating System Solutions) – A Linux-based OS developed by C-DAC

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for government use.

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• Indus OS – A regional mobile OS supporting Indian languages.

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• ISRO’s Space OS – Used in satellites and space missions.

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Global Trends in Operating Systems

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• Cloud-Based OS – Google Chrome OS offers cloud-centric computing.

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• AI-Integrated OS – Windows Copilot and AI-driven automation in macOS.

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• Quantum Computing OS – Research on OS for quantum processors.

• IoT-Based OS – TinyOS, FreeRTOS for smart devices.

 MS Of ce (Microsoft Of ce)

Introduction

Microsoft Of ce (MS Of ce) is a suite of productivity applications developed by Microsoft. It

includes software for word processing, spreadsheets, presentations, email management, and more.
First introduced in 1989, MS Of ce has become one of the most widely used of ce software suites
worldwide.

1. Key Applications in MS Of ce
MS Of ce consists of multiple programs designed for various tasks. Below are the most commonly
used applications:

a) Microsoft Word

• Used for: Word processing and document creation.

• Features:

◦ Text formatting, spell check, and grammar check.

◦ Table, charts, and images support.

◦ Mail merge for bulk document generation.

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◦ Collaboration tools for team editing.

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• Example: Writing reports, resumes, letters, and research papers.

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b) Microsoft Excel
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• Used for: Data organization, analysis, and calculations.

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• Features:
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◦ Formulas and functions for complex calculations.

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◦ Pivot tables for data analysis.

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◦ Charts and graphs for visualization.

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◦ Macros for automation.

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• Example: Financial budgeting, sales analysis, and attendance tracking.

c) Microsoft PowerPoint
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 • Used for: Creating presentations and slideshows.

• Features:

◦ Customizable themes and templates.

◦ Slide transitions and animations.

◦ Multimedia integration (images, audio, and video).

◦ Presenter mode and slide recording.

• Example: Business presentations, academic lectures, and training materials.

d) Microsoft Outlook

• Used for: Email communication and calendar management.

• Features:

◦ Email organization with folders and lters.

◦ Calendar scheduling and meeting invitations.

◦ Task and contact management.

◦ Integration with Microsoft Teams.

• Example: Of ce email management, scheduling meetings, and maintaining professional

contacts.

e) Microsoft Access
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• Used for: Database management and application development.

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• Features:
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◦ Table-based data storage.

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◦ Query system for data retrieval.

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◦ Forms and reports for user interaction.

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◦ Integration with SQL databases.

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• Example: Library catalog systems, customer records, and inventory management.

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f) Microsoft OneNote
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• Used for: Digital note-taking and collaboration.

• Features:
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◦ Handwritten notes and drawing tools.

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 ◦ Cloud synchronization across devices.

◦ Multimedia attachments (audio, video, and images).

◦ Collaborative editing and sharing.

• Example: Lecture notes, business meeting summaries, and personal journals.

g) Microsoft Teams

• Used for: Online collaboration and communication.

• Features:

◦ Video conferencing and screen sharing.

◦ Chat-based collaboration and le sharing.

◦ Integration with other Of ce apps.

◦ Task and work ow management.

• Example: Remote work collaboration, virtual meetings, and team discussions.

2. Versions and Cloud Integration

a) Microsoft Of ce Versions S
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MS Of ce has evolved over the years, with different versions available for different user needs:
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• MS Of ce 2010, 2013, 2016, 2019, 2021 – Standalone versions with one-time purchase.
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• Microsoft 365 (formerly Of ce 365) – Subscription-based model with cloud integration

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and regular updates.

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• MS Of ce Online – Free web-based version with limited features.

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b) Cloud Integration with OneDrive

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• Microsoft 365 integrates with OneDrive, allowing users to store and access les from
anywhere.
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• Enables real-time collaboration with multiple users.

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• Example: Team members editing a Word document simultaneously from different locations.
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3. MS Of ce in India and the World

Usage in India
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 • Widely used in government of ces, educational institutions, and businesses.

• Microsoft India provides regional language support, making Of ce accessible to non-

English speakers.

• Microsoft Teams played a crucial role during the COVID-19 pandemic for remote work
and online education.

Various Data Representation in Computers

Introduction

Data representation in computers refers to how data is stored, processed, and transmitted digitally.
Since computers operate using binary (0s and 1s), all types of data—numbers, text, images, audio,
and video—must be converted into a binary format for processing.

1. Types of Data Representation

Computers represent different types of data using speci c encoding techniques. Below are the key
types of data representation:

a) Number Representation

Numbers in computers are represented in different numeral systems:

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i) Binary Number System (Base-2)
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• Uses only two digits: 0 and 1.

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N

• The fundamental system for all computer operations.

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• Example: Decimal 5 is represented as 101 in binary.

AT

ii) Decimal Number System (Base-10)

AP
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• Uses digits from 0 to 9.

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• Commonly used by humans but internally converted into binary.

• Example: 125 remains the same in decimal but is 1111101 in binary.

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iii) Octal Number System (Base-8)

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• Uses digits 0 to 7.
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• Used in older computing systems (e.g., UNIX le permissions).

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 • Example: Binary 101110 is 56 in octal.

iv) Hexadecimal Number System (Base-16)

• Uses digits 0-9 and A-F (where A=10, B=11, ..., F=15).

• Widely used in computer memory addressing and color representation.

• Example: Binary 11001101 is CD in hexadecimal.

b) Text Representation

Computers represent text using different encoding standards:

i) ASCII (American Standard Code for Information Interchange)

• Uses 7 or 8 bits per character.

• Supports 128 characters, including letters, digits, and symbols.

• Example: 'A' is 65 in ASCII (Binary: 01000001).

ii) Unicode

• Supports multiple languages and symbols.

• Uses 16-bit, 32-bit, or variable-length encoding (UTF-8, UTF-16, UTF-32).

• Example: 'अ' (Devanagari) in Unicode is U+0905.

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iii) EBCDIC (Extended Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code)

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• Used in IBM mainframes.

N
I

• Example: 'A' is 11000001 in EBCDIC.

AT

c) Image Representation
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Images are represented using pixel-based color models:

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PR

i) Bitmap (Raster Images)

• Uses a grid of pixels.

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• Common formats: JPEG, PNG, BMP, GIF.

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• Example: A 1920x1080 image contains 2,073,600 pixels.

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ii) Vector Graphics

• Uses mathematical equations instead of pixels.

 • Common formats: SVG, AI, EPS.

• Example: Logos and illustrations use vector graphics.

iii) Color Models

• RGB (Red, Green, Blue): Used in digital screens.

• CMYK (Cyan, Magenta, Yellow, Black): Used in printing.

• Example: White in RGB is (255, 255, 255).

d) Audio Representation

Sound is stored as digital signals using sampling techniques:

i) Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)

• Converts analog audio into digital using sampling.

• Used in CDs and WAV les.

ii) MP3 Compression

• Uses lossy compression to reduce le size.

• Example: A song in WAV format (50 MB) can be compressed into MP3 (5 MB).

e) Video Representation
S
TE

Videos are stored as a sequence of images (frames) with audio:

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i) Frame-Based Representation
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I

• Each frame is a still image (24-60 FPS commonly used).

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• Example: A 60 FPS video shows 60 images per second.

AP

ii) Video Codecs

AJ
PR

• Compression techniques reduce le size.

• Common codecs: H.264, HEVC (H.265), VP9.

AN

• Example: 4K video in H.264 is about 20 GB per hour.

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2. Data Storage in Computers

Data is stored in different formats based on size and requirements:
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 Storage Unit Equivalent Example
Smallest unit (0 or Boolean values (True/
1 Bit
1) False)
1 Byte 8 bits One ASCII character
1 KB (Kilobyte) 1024 Bytes A short document le
1 MB
1024 KB A high-resolution image
(Megabyte)
1 GB (Gigabyte) 1024 MB A full HD movie
1 TB (Terabyte) 1024 GB Storage for large databases

3. Importance of Data Representation in Computing

• Ef cient Storage: Optimized formats reduce storage space.

• Faster Processing: Binary format ensures quick computation.

• Cross-Platform Compatibility: Standardized encoding (Unicode, ASCII) supports multiple

systems.

• Data Compression: Reduces le size while maintaining quality (JPEG, MP3, H.264).

• Error Detection: Error detection codes (parity bits, checksums) ensure data integrity.

4. Data Representation in India and the World S

India's Initiatives
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• Regional Language Computing: Unicode is used to support Indian scripts like Hindi,
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Tamil, and Bengali.

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• Digital India Initiative: Promotes data-driven services using ef cient representation

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techniques.
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• ISRO’s Chandrayaan Missions: Uses advanced data encoding for space communications.
AP
AJ
PR

Internet and Email

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1. Introduction
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The Internet is a global network connecting millions of computers for communication, data
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exchange, and services. It enables access to the World Wide Web (WWW), emails, online
banking, social media, and cloud computing.
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 An Email (Electronic Mail) is one of the most widely used Internet services, allowing users to
send and receive messages over a network.

2. Internet
a) What is the Internet?

• A global network of interconnected computers.

• Uses TCP/IP (Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol) for data transfer.

• Provides access to services like web browsing, email, online streaming, and cloud
computing.

b) History of the Internet

• 1969 – ARPANET (Advanced Research Projects Agency Network) was developed by the
U.S. Department of Defense.

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• 1983 – TCP/IP became the standard for communication.

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• 1991 – Tim Berners-Lee invented the World Wide Web (WWW).

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N
• 1995 – The Internet became available for commercial use.
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• 2020s – The Internet is widely accessible via broadband, ber optics, and 5G.
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c) How the Internet Works?

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• Servers store and distribute data.

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• Clients (users) access data using devices like computers and smartphones.

• Internet Service Providers (ISPs) provide access to the Internet.

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• Protocols (TCP/IP, HTTP, FTP, etc.) govern data transmission.

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d) Internet Services and Uses

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Service Description Example

Google Chrome, Mozilla
Web Browsing Accessing websites
Firefox
Email Sending and receiving messages Gmail, Outlook
Social Media Online networking and sharing Facebook, Instagram, Twitter
E-Commerce Online shopping Amazon, Flipkart
Watching videos, music, and
Streaming YouTube, Net ix, Spotify
games
Cloud Storage Saving les online Google Drive, OneDrive
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 Online
Managing nancial transactions SBI Net Banking, Paytm
Banking

e) Internet in India and the World

• India has the second-largest number of Internet users (after China).

• Jio revolutionized Internet accessibility in India with affordable 4G.

• Digital India initiative promotes online services.

• Global Internet Usage: Over 5 billion users worldwide.

3. Email (Electronic Mail)

a) What is Email?

Email is a digital messaging system that allows users to exchange messages instantly over the
Internet.

b) How Email Works?

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1. Sender composes an email using an email client (e.g., Gmail, Outlook).

2. The email is sent to the mail server. TE

O
N
3. The server routes the email to the recipient’s email provider.
I

4. The recipient retrieves the email from their inbox.

AT

c) Components of an Email
AP
AJ

• Email Address: A unique ID (e.g., [email protected]).

PR

• Subject Line: The topic of the email.

• Body: The main content.

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• Attachments: Files, images, or documents.

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• CC (Carbon Copy): Copies the email to additional recipients.

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• BCC (Blind Carbon Copy): Hides recipients from each other.

d) Email Protocols

Protocol Function Example

SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer
Sends emails Used by Gmail, Yahoo
Protocol)
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IMAP (Internet Message Access Accesses emails from multiple Used by Outlook,
Protocol) devices Thunderbird
Downloads emails to a single
POP3 (Post Of ce Protocol) Used by older mail clients
device

e) Popular Email Services

• Gmail (Google)

• Yahoo Mail (Yahoo)

• Outlook (Microsoft)

• Rediffmail (India-based service)

f) Uses of Email

• Personal Communication: Sending messages to friends and family.

• Business Communication: Of cial correspondence in of ces.

• Marketing: Promotional emails and newsletters.

• Education: Sharing assignments, study materials, and announcements.

• Government Services: Aadhaar updates, tax noti cations, etc.

g) Email Security S
• Use Strong Passwords to prevent hacking.
TE

• Enable Two-Factor Authentication (2FA) for extra security.

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N

• Beware of Phishing Emails that ask for personal information.

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• Use Spam Filters to block unwanted emails.

AP

• Encrypt Emails for privacy

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PR

Websites and Web Browsers

AN

1. Introduction
AG

The World Wide Web (WWW) is a system of interlinked web pages that can be accessed via the
G

Internet. Websites are digital locations where information, services, and multimedia content are
hosted. Web browsers are software applications used to access and interact with websites.
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2. Websites
a) What is a Website?

A website is a collection of web pages hosted on a server and accessible via a unique web address
(URL - Uniform Resource Locator). Websites are built using web technologies like HTML, CSS,
and JavaScript.

b) Types of Websites

Type Description Example

Personal blogs, portfolio
Static Websites Fixed-content sites with minimal interaction
websites
Content updates automatically based on user
Dynamic Websites Facebook, YouTube
input
E-commerce
Used for online shopping Amazon, Flipkart
Websites
Government
Provides government-related services India Post, IRCTC
Websites
Educational
Learning and academic content Coursera, NCERT
Websites
News Websites Provides news articles and updates BBC, Times of India
Social Media
Enables social networking Instagram, Twitter
Websites

c) Website Components

• Domain Name – The web address (e.g., www.google.com).

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• Hosting Server – Stores website data and serves it to users.

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• Frontend (Client-Side) – The visible part of the website.

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• Backend (Server-Side) – Handles data processing.

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d) How Websites Work?

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1. User enters a website URL in the browser.

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2. The browser sends a request to the web server.

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3. The server processes the request and sends the web page back.
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4. The browser displays the webpage using HTML, CSS, and JavaScript.
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e) Popular Websites
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• Google – Search engine.

 • Wikipedia – Online encyclopedia.

• YouTube – Video streaming platform.

• Amazon – E-commerce platform.

• Gmail – Email service by Google.

• IRCTC – Indian railway booking system.

3. Web Browsers
a) What is a Web Browser?

A web browser is a software application that allows users to access and interact with websites on
the Internet. It processes web pages and displays them in a readable format.

b) Popular Web Browsers

Browser Developer Key Features

Google
Google Fast, secure, and supports extensions
Chrome
Mozilla Firefox Mozilla Privacy-focused, open-source
Integrated with Windows, supports AI
Microsoft Edge Microsoft
features
Safari Apple Optimized for Apple devices
Opera
Opera Built-in ad blocker and VPN
Software
Brave
Brave Focuses on privacy and security
Software

c) How Web Browsers Work?

1. User enters a URL (e.g., www.google.com).

2. The browser sends an HTTP/HTTPS request to the web server.

3. The web server responds with HTML, CSS, and JavaScript les.

4. The browser renders and displays the web page.

d) Components of a Web Browser

• Address Bar – To enter website URLs.

• Rendering Engine – Processes and displays web pages.

• JavaScript Engine – Runs scripts for dynamic interactions.

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 • Cache Memory – Stores website data for faster loading.

• Security Features – Includes HTTPS support and pop-up blocking.

e) Internet and Browser Usage in India

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• Jio and Fiber Networks have increased Internet accessibility.

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• Google Chrome is the most used browser in India.

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N
• Government Websites like Digilocker and Aadhar services are accessed via browsers.

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AP
AJ
Computer Viruses
PR
1. Introduction
AN

A computer virus is a type of malicious software (malware) designed to replicate itself and spread
from one system to another, often causing damage to les, stealing data, or slowing down system
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performance. Viruses usually attach themselves to legitimate programs or les and activate when
the host program runs.
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2. Characteristics of Computer Viruses

• Self-replicating – A virus can create copies of itself.

• Attaches to Files/Programs – Requires a host le to spread.

• Can be Dormant or Active – Some viruses remain hidden until triggered.

• Causes Harm – Can delete les, steal data, or slow down a system.

• Spreads through various means – USB drives, emails, downloads, etc.

3. Types of Computer Viruses

Type Description Example
Boot Sector Infects the boot sector of a disk and activates when the
Michelangelo Virus
Virus system starts.
File Infector Attaches itself to executable les and spreads when they CIH (Chernobyl
Virus run. Virus)
Embedded in macro-enabled documents like MS Word/
Macro Virus Melissa Virus
Excel.
Polymorphic
Changes its code structure to avoid detection. Storm Worm
Virus
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 Disguised as a legitimate program but contains harmful
Trojan Horse Zeus Trojan
code.
Worms Self-replicating malware that spreads across networks. Mydoom
Ransomware Encrypts user data and demands a ransom. WannaCry
Spyware Secretly monitors user activities and collects information. DarkHotel
Adware Displays unwanted ads and redirects web traf c. Fireball

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4. How Computer Viruses Spread

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• Email Attachments – Malicious les sent via email.

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• USB Drives & External Devices – Infected devices transferring les.

AT
• Malicious Websites – Downloading infected les unknowingly.

AP
• Software Cracks & Pirated Software – Often contain hidden malware.

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• Infected Advertisements (Malvertising) – Ads spreading viruses on trusted sites.
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• File Sharing Networks & Torrents – Spreading malicious les among users.
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AG

5. Effects of Computer Viruses

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• System Slowdown – Consumes CPU and RAM resources.

• Data Corruption – Deletes, modi es, or encrypts les.

• Unauthorized Access – Hackers steal personal and nancial information.

• Network Congestion – Worms and botnets overload networks.

• Financial Loss – Ransomware demands payments to unlock les.

6. Famous Computer Virus Attacks

Virus Year Impact
ILOVEYOU 2000 Spread via email, caused billions in damages.
Mydoom 2004 Fastest-spreading email worm at that time.
Ransomware attack affecting hospitals and businesses
WannaCry 2017
worldwide.
Stuxnet 2010 Targeted Iran’s nuclear facilities.
Michelangelo
1991 Damaged systems worldwide on March 6.
Virus
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7. Preventing and Removing Computer Viruses
a) Prevention Strategies

• Use Antivirus Software – Install and regularly update antivirus programs (e.g., Windows
Defender, Norton, McAfee, Kaspersky).

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• Enable Firewalls – Blocks unauthorized access to the system.

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• Avoid Clicking Unknown Links – Do not open suspicious emails or links.

O
• Use Strong Passwords – Prevent unauthorized access to sensitive data.

N
• Keep Software Updated – Security patches x vulnerabilities.

I
AT
• Backup Important Data – Helps recover lost les due to virus attacks.

AP
• Scan External Devices – Always scan USB drives before opening les.

b) Virus Removal Techniques AJ

PR

• Safe Mode Scan – Boot the system in Safe Mode and scan for viruses.
AN

• Use a Bootable Antivirus Disk – Remove viruses that prevent normal booting.
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• Uninstall Suspicious Programs – Remove unknown or untrusted software.

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• Delete Temporary Files – Some viruses hide in cache and temp folders.

• Restore System to a Previous State – If infected, use System Restore.

8. Computer Viruses in India

• India ranks among the top 10 countries affected by cyber threats.

• 2017 WannaCry attack impacted several companies and government systems.

• India’s CERT-In (Computer Emergency Response Team) handles cyber threats and
attacks.

• Digital India movement has led to increased cybersecurity a wareness.

• Ransomware and Banking Trojans are major threats to Indian online banking users.

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