2.
The first and second lines of defence
2.1 First line of defence: Physical and chemical barriers
The outer layers of an organism’s body are the first line of defence. Most vertebrates have
similar physical defence systems. Physical barriers can range from skin to membrane
tissue, earwax, tears and digestive juices etc. We will take a closer look at some examples
of the physical barriers found in humans.
2.1.1 Skin
The skin is dry and contains a tough substance called keratin. The skin is made of several
layers of cells. On the outer surface, called the epidermis, the cells are dead and any
pathogens on them flake or rub off. There are also many populations of harmless
microorganisms on the skin. Any new foreign microorganisms must compete with them
before they become established on the skin and cause harm.
Basic diagram of human skin as a physical barrier.
Figure 3: Diagram of skin tissue as a physical barrier.
2.1.2 Membrane tissue
The cells of the membranes lining the digestive and respiratory tracts that open to the
external environment produce sticky mucus. Mucus traps any pathogen that is swallowed
or breathed in. Projections of the cell membranes of the cells that line the respiratory
passages, called cilia, move the trapped pathogens up in the throat to the oesophagus
where it is swallowed. The hydrochloric acid and enzymes in the stomach kill any pathogen
that is swallowed.
Basic diagram showing how cilia in the airways and hydrochloric acid can function as a
physical barrier.
Figure 4: Diagram showing the physical barriers found in the digestive and respiratory
tracts.
2.1.3 Cerumen (earwax)
The external canal of the ear is lined with modified sweat glands that produce a waxy
substance called cerumen (earwax). Cerumen provides a protective layer that prevents any
pathogen from living or growing in the external canal.
2.1.4 Saliva and tears
Saliva in your mouth and tears from your eyes contain an enzyme called lysozyme. This
enzyme maintains a moisture level in your mouth and eyes. Lysozyme will destroy most
pathogens entering your body from these external openings.
The outer layers work well to protect the body. However, sometimes, pathogens can get
into the inner tissues through wounds, cuts or scratches or because there are so many of
them. When this level of infection occurs, the second defence system will be activated.
2.2 Second line of defence: The innate or non-specific immune system
The innate system is the most basic of internal defence systems found in the body. It refers
to the instinctive immune system you were born with. It is non-specific because it attacks
any foreign matter entering your body. For example, a wooden splinter will contain bacteria
on its surface. If the splinter pierces your skin tissues, bacteria will have an entry point into
your body. The innate or non-specific immune system will jump into action immediately to
destroy and reject the foreign matter entering your body.
In vertebrates, including people, the body has many different ways to deal with pathogens
that get through the first defence system. In the second line of defence, the innate or non-
specific immune system, however, there will be groups of white blood cells and chemicals
at play to bring about immunity.
2.2.1 White blood cells
Some white blood cells are phagocytic. Phagocytic cells can ingest pathogens. Special
cells called macrophages occur in many tissues just below the skin or membranes.
Macrophages are phagocytes and will ingest and digest any pathogen that has broken
through the skin surface or membrane.
Basic diagram showing how a white blood cell can ingest a pathogen through phagocytosis.
Figure 5: Phagocytic white blood cell (macrophage) engulfing a pathogen.
2.2.2 Histamines (chemicals)
Chemicals, such as histamines, cause inflammation. Histamines are produced by
damaged cells, resulting in macrophages accumulating at the site of injury, which causes
inflammation.
These chemicals (histamines) do three things:
They cause the blood vessels in the affected area to dilate, increasing the blood flow. The
extra blood makes the affected area feel warm.
They make the capillary blood vessels permeable, so more fluid and white blood cells
move to the injury site. The increased amount of fluid in the tissue of the affected area
causes a swelling called oedema. The swelling and the chemicals cause the pain that a
person feels.
Oedema attracts phagocytic macrophages, which are speedily brought to the affected area
to ingest and digest pathogens. The pathogen may kill the phagocytic cells and tissue cells.
When this happens, the dead bodies of the pathogen, phagocytic cells and tissue cells
combine to form pus.
Image showing the process of swelling. When an unsterilised needle pierce skin tissue,
damaged cells will release hisamines. Histamines cause blood vessels to dilate that
increases blood flow to site of injury. Blood vessels become permeable, allowing white
blood cells into the tissue. The white blood cells engulf the pathogens.
Figure 6: Diagram illustrating macrophages and histamines working together.
Sometimes, even this second line of defence is not enough to stop pathogens from
infecting your body. This can happen when the stress of a wound or disease is too vast for
the innate immune system to provide sufficient support. When this happens, the adaptive
and specific immune system is engaged.
3. Third line of defence and immunisation
3.1 Third line of defence: The adaptive or specific immune system
The adaptive immune system is the third defence system in vertebrates. This system only
works on particular pathogens and there is a specific and slightly different response to
each kind. Unlike the static innate or non-specific immune system, the adaptive immune
constantly evolves (changes/improves). As you are exposed to new pathogens, the
adaptive immune system finds new ways to deal with invaders. Germs are continually
changing and, therefore, the adaptive immune system has to follow suit. Consequently, it
becomes specific in its way to deal with specific pathogens. White blood cells called
lymphocytes do this work. There are many different kinds of lymphocytes. The two main
types are T-lymphocytes (also called T-cells) and B-lymphocytes (also called B-cells). Each
responds to pathogens in different ways.
3.1.1 T-lymphocytes
The T-lymphocytes (or T-cells) cause a cell-mediated response to pathogens because your
body cells themselves provide immunity. This means that some body cells respond to
pathogens by fighting them. The killer T-lymphocytes, for example, move around the body
searching for cells that have been infected by pathogens or are cancerous. The infected
cells basically 'sacrifice' themselves by instructing the T-cells to destroy them, taking with
it the internal invader.
Each cell in our bodies has a small protein marker on the surface. White blood cells have
similar markers that can recognise our body cells from foreign cells. Infected or diseased
body cells will develop antigens on their surface membranes. Antigens are markers that are
used to indicate signs of internal cellular infection or disease. The antigens, therefore,
make T-cells aware of the pending threat. When the killer T-cells find a diseased cell, they
destroy it with enzymes.
Image showing how killer T-cells are involved in cell-mediated immunity.
Figure 7: Diagram illustrating cell-mediated response to pathogens.
3.1.2 B-lymphocytes (B-cells)
The B-lymphocytes cause an antibody-mediated response to infection because here,
antibodies give immunity. This occurs when the rate of infection is too high for the T-cells to
curb the infection.
Antibodies are chemicals made by B-lymphocytes to fight pathogens. Antibodies are
chemical markers released by B-cells. Antibodies can detect pathogens by identifying their
external antigens. Once an antigen is detected, antibodies will attach themselves to the
antigen, forming an antibody-antigen or immune complex.
Image showing how B-cells produce antibodies that provide antibody-mediated immunity.
Figure 8: B-cell producing antibodies.
An antibody-antigen complex will result in the following:
The antibodies change the surface of the pathogen so that it becomes harmless and
cannot multiply.
The antibodies send signals to the killer T-cells to seek and destroy any cell containing an
antibody-antigen complex.
There are many thousands of pathogens, some ancient like the Varicella virus that causes
chickenpox, and some very recent, like the Coronavirus. Each pathogen has its unique
antigen on its surface, which means that there must be thousands of different kinds of
antibodies for all the different types of antigens. Each antibody is made by a particular kind
of B-lymphocyte. Therefore, you need to understand that you have thousands of different
kinds of B-lymphocytes circulating in your body.
3.1.3 T-lymphocytes and B-lymphocytes working together
When a specific pathogen (a foreign particle) gets into your body, a special kind of
lymphocyte (helper T-lymphocyte) identifies it through its associated antigen. A helper T-
lymphocyte then chooses a particular B-lymphocyte to make the best antibody to fight off
the infection.
It may take some time to find a suitable B-lymphocyte, so sometimes, the antibody-
mediated immunity may be slow to work. Therefore, you may suffer some of the symptoms
of an illness for a while before you start to recover.
Important note
Think about the survivors infected with the Coronavirus during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Some, before vaccinations, showed severe signs of infection. After a couple of days,
however, they started showing signs of improvement. This can be summarised as follows:
New virus > new infection > new antigen > helper T-cell identifies appropriate B-cell > B-cell
makes appropriate antibodies > antibody-antigen complex > recovery.
When a suitable B-lymphocyte has been found, it starts to divide to make many new cells
called plasma cells, which travel in the bloodstream. Each plasma cell can release
thousands of antibodies per second to neutralise the antigens on the pathogen's surface,
that has invaded the body. When the number of invading pathogen cells reduces, you start
to feel better and recover from the illness.
At the same time as this is happening, memory cells are also produced from the B-
lymphocyte. Memory cells can be stored in the body for years. If the same kind of pathogen
invades your body again, the memory cells quickly make new plasma cells which will
produce antibodies to neutralise the antigens. This means that your body has built up
immunity to that particular pathogen and you will not suffer from that disease again. The
diagram below illustrates this process:
Image showing how a helper t-cell can recognise a pathogen.The helper t-cell will identify
the most appropriate b-cell to produce antibodies. The b-cell will divide, making plasma
cells. Plasma cells will produce thousands of antibodies to fight infection. b-cell will divide
to form memory cells. If same infection occurs in the futurem the memory cells will
become plasma cells to produce antibodies.
Figure 9: Process illustrating the adaptive immune system.
The adaptive immune system is the most complex of all three systems. This system, as the
name implies, constantly adapts to the introduction of new pathogens. It allows your body
to recover from infections throughout your lifetime.
At times, the immune system requires modern medical assistance through vaccinations for
a specific disease. Therefore, the process of immunisation for the protection of self and
others becomes necessary.
The video below will provide an overview based on the three immune defence systems
found in humans.
Video 1: Bodily defenses against disease. Click here to view the transcript for this video.
3.2 Immunisation
3.2.1 Acquired immunity
Often when people hear the word "immunisation," they immediately think of vaccinations.
Scientifically speaking, the terms ‘vaccination’ and ‘immunisation’ don’t quite mean the
same thing. Vaccines are only one part of immunisation.
Acquired immunity can be classified in two ways:
Naturally acquired immunity
Artificially acquired immunity
Naturally acquired immunity
Naturally acquired immunity occurs without immunisation (from a vaccine). It is acquired
either passively or actively.
Passive naturally-acquired immunity
Passive naturally acquired immunity occurs when antibodies are transferred from a mother
to her unborn baby (foetus) via the placenta. Passively, antibodies can also reach an infant
through their mother's breastmilk.
It was essential that nursing mothers, who tested positive for COVID-19, continued to
breastfeed their babies. This enabled the transfer of the Covid-19 antibodies that their
bodies were making while fighting off the virus, to their babies.
Active naturally-acquired immunity
Direct contact with pathogens stimulates the immune system to produce antibodies. This
is what happens every time you get sick and are able to recover without taking an antibiotic.
According to the “hygiene hypothesis,” (also known as the "sterile hypothesis ") the
problem with extremely clean environments, particularly for infants and toddlers, is that
they fail to provide the necessary exposure to germs which are required to “educate” the
immune system so it can learn to launch its defence responses to infectious organisms. In
other words, it compromises their ability to actively gain naturally-acquired immunity. This
is where the saying "Let kids eat dirt" comes from.
Artificially acquired immunity
Artificially acquired immunity occurs with vaccinations and other deliberate actions, such
as taking a weakened poliovirus given by mouth to immunise against polio. It is acquired
either passively or actively.
Passive artificially-acquired immunity
One kind of vaccination provides passive immunity because it does not use a person’s
immune system. Instead, antibodies produced in the body of another person or animal are
injected into the blood so they can work to neutralise the antigen of the pathogen straight
away. This can be life-saving when a disease, such as measles or mumps, develops too
quickly for natural immunity to work.
Active artificially-acquired immunity
This is what happens with the use of the common vaccine where the body is vaccinated
with a dead or weakened form of the pathogen. The body mounts an immune response to
this dead or weakened pathogen and immunity develops. Therefore, if the body is ever
exposed to the live pathogen in the future, it will be able to mount an immune response and
fight off the infection.
3.2.2 Vaccine immunisation
Key term(s)
Vaccination - The term used for physically getting a vaccine i.e. getting the injection or
taking an oral vaccine dose.
Immunisation - Refers to the process of both getting the vaccine and becoming immune to
the disease following vaccination.
Vaccine Immunisation is an artificial process whereby a person actively acquires immunity
against a particular pathogen through vaccinations.
During immunisation, a vaccine liquid is put into the body to cause a specific immune
reaction to the particular disease. This micro-dose of pathogens stimulates the immune
system to produce antibodies. Memory cells, known as B-lymphocyte cells, develop in the
blood. Then, when you are infected with the disease, the memory cells recognise the
pathogen which they have formed antibodies against. Your body is then able to defend
itself against that particular pathogen, more effectively.
Routine immunisation protects the individual and also prevents the spread of the disease.
Vaccines against the following diseases or infections are routinely administered:
Humans
Tuberculosis (TB)
Polio
Diphtheria
Tetanus
MMR: measles, mumps, rubella (German measles)
Domestic and farm animals
Rabies
Parvovirus
Distemper
Hepatitis
Rotavirus
3.2.3 Antibiotics
Antibiotics are medicines used to destroy bacteria. Before bacteria multiply and cause
symptoms, a well-functioning healthy immune system can typically kill them. White blood
cells will attack the harmful bacteria and, even if symptoms do occur, the immune system
can usually cope and fight off the infection.
Sometimes, however, the number of harmful bacteria becomes excessive and the immune
system cannot fight them all. Antibiotics are useful in this scenario. The first discovered
antibiotic was penicillin. Penicillin-based antibiotics such as ampicillin, amoxicillin, and
penicillin G are still available to treat a variety of infections.
Antibacterial drugs (antibiotics) have two possible modes of action
Bactericidal antibiotics kill bacteria by weakening the cell wall, causing it to burst.
Bacteriostatic antibiotics slow down or stop bacterial growth by inhibiting the metabolism
of bacteria. This helps the body's natural immune system to fight the bacterial infection.
Antibiotic resistance
Antibiotic resistance happens when germs like bacteria and fungi develop the ability to
defeat the drugs designed to kill them.
There are many known causes of antibiotic resistance, which are listed below:
Over-prescription of antibiotics.
Incorrect use of antibiotics i.e. prescribing antibiotics for a viral infection.
Patients not finishing the entire antibiotic course i.e. stopping after 3 days when they feel
better instead of continuing for the full five or seven days, as prescribed.
Overuse of antibiotics in livestock and fish farming.
Poor infection control in health care settings and the spread of bacteria amongst patients,
increase the need for antibiotic use.
3.2.4 Microorganisms in the future
As antibiotic research has advanced, some broad-spectrum antibiotics have been found to
be able to treat some infections caused by protists. Doxycycline is an example of a broad-
spectrum antibiotic that is an effective treatment against malaria, caused by chloroquine-
resistant protists. It is one of the most commonly used prophylactics for people travelling
into high-risk malaria areas.
Antibiotics are not effective against viruses as viruses don't have cell walls that can be
attacked by antibiotics. Viruses are surrounded by a protective protein coat impenetrable
to antibiotic agents.
Infections caused by fungi are treated with drugs known as antifungals.
It will be interesting to watch how future antibiotics, vaccines and antifungals are able to be
used to treat illnesses that may not yet have been discovered.
