Introduction to Algorithms
Analysis of Algorithms
• Insertion sort
• Asymptotic analysis
• Merge sort
• Recurrences
Analysis of algorithms
The theoretical study of computer-program
performance and resource usage.
What’s more important than performance?
• modularity • user-friendliness
• correctness • programmer time
• maintainability • simplicity
• functionality • extensibility
• robustness • reliability
Why study algorithms and
performance?
• Algorithms help us to understand scalability.
• Performance often draws the line between what
is feasible and what is impossible.
• Algorithmic mathematics provides a language
for talking about program behavior.
• Performance is the currency of computing.
• The lessons of program performance generalize
to other computing resources.
• Speed is fun!
The problem of sorting
Input: sequence a1, a2, …, an of numbers.
Output: permutation a'1, a'2, …, a'n such
that a'1 a'2 … a'n .
Example:
Input: 8 2 4 9 3 6
Output: 2 3 4 6 8 9
Insertion sort
INSERTION-SORT (A, n) ⊳ A[1 . . n]
for j ← 2 to n
do key ← A[ j]
i←j–1
“pseudocode” while i > 0 and A[i] > key
do A[i+1] ← A[i]
i←i–1
A[i+1] = key
Insertion sort
INSERTION-SORT (A, n) ⊳ A[1 . . n]
for j ← 2 to n
do key ← A[ j]
i←j–1
“pseudocode” while i > 0 and A[i] > key
do A[i+1] ← A[i]
i←i–1
A[i+1] = key
1 i j n
A:
key
sorted
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 3 4 8 9 6
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 3 4 8 9 6
Example of insertion sort
8 2 4 9 3 6
2 8 4 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 4 8 9 3 6
2 3 4 8 9 6
2 3 4 6 8 9 done
Running time
• The running time depends on the input: an
already sorted sequence is easier to sort.
• Parameterize the running time by the size of
the input, since short sequences are easier to
sort than long ones.
• Generally, we seek upper bounds on the
running time, because everybody likes a
guarantee.
Kinds of analyses
Worst-case: (usually)
• T(n) = maximum time of algorithm
on any input of size n.
Average-case: (sometimes)
• T(n) = expected time of algorithm
over all inputs of size n.
• Need assumption of statistical
distribution of inputs.
Best-case: (bogus)
• Cheat with a slow algorithm that
works fast on some input.
Machine-independent time
What is insertion sort’s worst-case time?
• It depends on the speed of our computer:
• relative speed (on the same machine),
• absolute speed (on different machines).
BIG IDEA:
• Ignore machine-dependent constants.
• Look at growth of T(n) as n → ∞ .
“Asymptotic Analysis”
-notation
Math:
(g(n)) = { f (n) : there exist positive constants c1, c2, and
n0 such that 0 c1 g(n) f (n) c2 g(n)
for all n n0 }
Engineering:
• Drop low-order terms; ignore leading constants.
• Example: 3n3 + 90n2 – 5n + 6046 = (n3)
Asymptotic performance
When n gets large enough, a (n2) algorithm
always beats a (n3) algorithm.
• We shouldn’t ignore
asymptotically slower
algorithms, however.
• Real-world design
situations often call for a
T(n) careful balancing of
engineering objectives.
• Asymptotic analysis is a
useful tool to help to
n n0 structure our thinking.
Insertion sort analysis
Worst case: Input reverse sorted.
n
T ( n) = ( j ) = (n 2) [arithmetic series]
j =2
Average case: All permutations equally likely.
n
T ( n) = ( j / 2) = (n 2 )
j =2
Is insertion sort a fast sorting algorithm?
• Moderately so, for small n.
• Not at all, for large n.
Merge sort
MERGE-SORT A[1 . . n]
1. If n = 1, done.
2. Recursively sort A[ 1 . . n/2 ]
and A[ n/2+1 . . n ] .
3. “Merge” the 2 sorted lists.
Key subroutine: MERGE
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12
13 11
7 9
2 1
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12
13 11
7 9
2 1
1
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9
2 1 2
1
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9
2 1 2
1 2
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9
2 1 2
1 2
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9
2 1 2
1 2 7
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2
1 2 7
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2
1 2 7 9
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2
1 2 7 9
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2
1 2 7 9 11
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2
1 2 7 9 11
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2
1 2 7 9 11 12
Merging two sorted arrays
20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12 20 12
13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13 11 13
7 9 7 9 7 9 9
2 1 2
1 2 7 9 11 12
Time = (n) to merge a total
of n elements (linear time).
Analyzing merge sort
T(n) MERGE-SORT A[1 . . n]
(1) 1. If n = 1, done.
2T(n/2) 2. Recursively sort A[ 1 . . n/2 ]
Abuse and A[ n/2+1 . . n ] .
(n) 3. “Merge” the 2 sorted lists
Sloppiness: Should be T( n/2 ) + T( n/2 ) ,
but it turns out not to matter asymptotically.
Recurrence for merge sort
(1) if n = 1;
T(n) =
2T(n/2) + (n) if n > 1.
• We shall usually omit stating the base
case when T(n) = (1) for sufficiently
small n, but only when it has no effect on
the asymptotic solution to the recurrence.
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
T(n)
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
T(n/2) T(n/2)
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
cn/2 cn/2
T(n/4) T(n/4) T(n/4) T(n/4)
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
cn/2 cn/2
cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4
(1)
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn
cn/2 cn/2
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4
(1)
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4
(1)
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4
(1)
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn
…
(1)
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn
…
(1) #leaves = n (n)
Recursion tree
Solve T(n) = 2T(n/2) + cn, where c > 0 is constant.
cn cn
cn/2 cn/2 cn
h = lg n cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn/4 cn
…
(1) #leaves = n (n)
Total = (n lg n)
Conclusions
• (n lg n) grows more slowly than (n2).
• Therefore, merge sort asymptotically
beats insertion sort in the worst case.
• In practice, merge sort beats insertion
sort for n > 30 or so.
• Go test it out for yourself!
