MANUFACTURE OF LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE

A PROJECT REPORT

Submitted by

MUTHUPRAKASH .MS

(Reg. no: 810020239026)

in partial fulfilment for the award of the degree

of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY
IN

PETROCHEMICAL TECHNOLOGY

UNIVERSITY COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING (BIT CAMPUS)

ANNA UNIVERSITY

TIRUCHIRAPPALLI - 620 024

ANNA UNIVERSITY: CHENNAI 600 025

MAY 2024
BONAFIDE CERTIFICATE
This is to certify that the dissertation entitled “MANUFACTURE OF LINEAR
ALKYL BENZENE” in TAMILNADU PETROPRODUCTS LIMITED is a
bonafide work carried out by MUTHUPRAKASH MS ([Link]. 810020239026)
under my direct supervision in partial fulfilment of the requirements of the award of
degree of Bachelor of Technology in Petrochemical Technology to Anna University-
BIT Campus.

[Link], M.E., Ph.D., Dr. S. VENKATESAN, [Link].,

PROFESSOR, HEAD OF THE DEPARTMENT,

Department of Petrochemical Technology, Department of Petrochemical Technology,

University College of Engineering, University College of Engineering,

BIT Campus, Anna University, BIT Campus, Anna University,

Tiruchirapalli-620024. Tiruchirapalli-620024.

Examined on :

INTERNAL EXAMINER EXTERNAL EXAMINER

DECLARATION
I hereby declare that the work entitled “MANUFACTURE OF LINEAR ALKYL
BENZENE” is submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of
the degree in [Link]., University College of Engineering, BIT Campus Anna
University, Tiruchirappalli, is a record of my own work carried out by me during
the academic year 2023 – 2024under the supervision and guidance of
[Link] M.E.,Ph.D. Professor, Department of Petrochemical
Technology, BIT Campus, Anna University, Tiruchirappalli.

(Signature of the Candidate)

[Link].810020239026

I certify that the declaration made by the above candidate is true.

(Signature of the Guide)

[Link] M.E.,Ph.D

PROFESSOR

Department of Petrochemical Technology,

University College of Engineering, BIT Campus,

Anna University, Tiruchirappalli.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A truthful, heartfelt and a deserved acknowledgement come from one’s heart to convey the real
influence others have on one’s work.
I express our sincere gratitude to our head of the department and our project guide
[Link] M.E., PhD, Professor for giving us the provision to do the project and
guiding us throughout and giving us the opportunity to present the main project. We also express
our sincere thanks to all other staff members for their help and encouragement.

Our special thanks to Mr. Sundaramaran HR Manager who gave us permission to carry out this
project at TPL (Tamilnadu Petroproducts Limited ), Chennai. We thank Mr. Narendran Senior
Technician and Mr. K. Mohanasundaram and other Trainees and employees in TPL who helped
us during project.

I render my heartfelt thanks to all the employees at TPL, Chennai who have spent their time in
helping me to understand the technical aspects of the plant despite their work. Without
encouragement and support of these people our endeavor would never been a success.
ABSTRACT

Linear Alkyl Benzene is a cost effective and biodegradable intermediate in the production of
detergents and surfactants. Recently, due to the spread of the corona virus and the high global
need for detergent, the production of LAB is essential.

The aim of our project includes comprehensive study of the existing plant operations and
operating conditions in Linear Alkyl Benzene plant. This project is done in Tamil Nadu Petro
Products Limited. Our Objective is to optimize the existing equipment such as heat exchangers,
distillation column. The first step is to verify that the existing equipment is being used to its
fullest advantage by examining operating data to identify equipment bottlenecks. The common
goals to achieve optimization is to minimize cost and to maximize efficiency. The project
includes a detailed study of the operating parameters and operating conditions that needs to be
modified and the inclusion of additional unit operations in such a way that the existing process is
optimized. The crucial revamp conditions taken into considerations are feed flow rate and water
flow rate to the shell side, tube side flow rates and heat duty of the Shell and Tube Heat
Exchanger.
The report consists of the various manufacturing processes, the reason for solution of a particular
process and the product used. Also the material balance and energy balance for 274 tons/day
product of Linear Alkyl Benzene have been made, the design of equipment along with the cost
estimation plant location and plant layout, process safety and control systems are studied in this
project work.

[Link] TABLE OF CONTENTS PG

NO
1 INTRODUCTION 1

2 PROPERTIES OF LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE 4

3 TYPES OF PROCESS 8

4 SELECTION OF PROCESS 9

5 PROCESS DESCRIPTION 12

6 MATERIAL BALANCE 15

7 ENERGY BALANCE 27
8 DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS 45

9 PROCESS ECONOMICS 62

10 PLANT LOCATION 74

11 MATERIAL SAFETY 77

12 HANDLING AND STORAGE 78

13 CONCLUSION 84

14 REFERENCE 86
 CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
INTRODUCTION

1.1 COMPANY PROFILE

Tamilnadu Petroproducts Limited(TPL) was born in the year 1984 with the objective of
setting up a world class Linear Alkyl Benzene(LAB) manufacturing faculty. TPL grew in
strength by thinking differently laying down a fundamental platform for financial strength
and responding to customer requirements with innovative products and services. The
company’s strong emphasis on continuous upgradation of technology to match the state of art
has been the prime reason for its success in realizing its full potential and its confident march
into the competitive future.

TPL’s excellent track record and its achievements in a short time frame stand out distinctly,
propelled by continuous upgradation of technology, nurturing talent and focussing on utmost
customer satisfaction. It was promoted by the TIDCO. In October 1984, TIDCO inducted
SPIC as a joint sector associate in setting up a project for the manufacture of 50,000 tonnes
per annum of Linear Alkyl Benzene(LAB).

The company posted a profit of 46.71 crore in the fiscal year 2017–18, declaring a dividend
for 2017–18

Tamilnadu Petroproducts Ltd (TPL)a corporate star, was established with the objective of
setting up a 50,000 MTA Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB) project. Over more than a decade, TPL
grew in strength, thinking differently, harnessing the resources by laying a fundamental

1
platform for financial strength and responding to customers innovatively by bringing in new
products and [Link] has also diversified into manufacture of Epichlorohydrin (ECH), a
key raw material for producing Epoxy Resins. The product range of the company includes
Linear Alkyl Benzene- Grades : SL-352 and [Link] Alkylate (LAB
Byproduct).[Link] Soda / Chlorine / Hydrochloric Acid / Ammonium
Chloride / Sodium Hypo chlorite.
TPL commenced its operations with a Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB) facility in 1988 with
technology from UOP, USA. The LAB manufacturing facility is integrated with the
production unit of intermediate, Normal Paraffin. The feedstock, kerosene and fuel oil
required are pumped through dedicated pipelines ensuring safe handling & minimizing
transportation risks.

TPL has achieved ISO 14001 Certification for its Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB) Division
plants in line with its vision to promote a cleaner and safer environment.
LAB finds extensive application in the manufacture of domestic detergents, institutional and
industrial cleaners. The LAB market for TPL is evolving on a stable market platform,
growing day-to-day with a dominant market share for its brand “SUPERLAB”.
It is not an exaggeration to state that around 40% of the detergents used in households for
fabrics washing constitute TPL’s products. The per capita consumption of LAB used in the
detergents in the country has a very large latent potential from the current level, as India is
one of the largest consumer markets in the Asia-Pacific Region with an emerging economic
outlook. Further the ready acceptance of TPL’s LAB by industry majors in several parts of
the world has resulted in a sizeable export market. TPL also produces Heavy Alkylate and
Spindle Oil as byproducts from LAB manufacture.

1.2 LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE

Linear Alkyl Benzene is the basic raw material for the production of some of the most widely
used detergents. LAB was introduced as a substitute for non-biodegradable branched alkyl
benzene. Generally LAB accounts for one-third of the active ingredients used in detergents.
Demand for laundry detergents, dishwashers, industrial and house hold cleaners accounts for
around 70 %, 15 % and 15 % respectively of the total LABS supply. Synthetic detergent
became popular due to lower price of raw material, price stability and effectiveness and
biodegradable nature. Synthetic detergent in this stage is one of the largest chemical industry,
we can say and the synthetic, and that has been only possible because of the coming of the
2
refinery and the petro chemical complexion. A detergent is a surfactant or a mixture of
surfactants having cleaning property in dilute solution, commonly detergent refers to alkyl
benzene sulfonate, a family of the compound that are similar to soap, but are less affected by
hard water. In case of the hard water use of the soap, for cleaning purposes was not effective,
but with the coming of the detergent improved the cleaning process.

CHAPTER 2
PROPERTIES OF LINEAR
ALKYL BENZENE
2.1 PROPERTIES OF LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES

Physical state and appearance Colourless Liquid.

Molecular formula C6H5CnH2n+1
Molecular Weight 246.43 g/mole
Color Clear Colorless.
Boiling Point 290°C (554-770°F)
Melting Point -70°C (-94°F)
Critical Temperature 501°C (933.8°F)
Specific Gravity 0.8687 at 15.5 °C (Water = 1)
Vapor Pressure 0.013 hPa (at 25°C)
Water/Oil Dist. Coeff. 7.5 – 9.12 at 25 °C

3
Solubility Insoluble in water.
Density 863 kg/m3
Odour Slight Aromatic
Flash Point >130 °C
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

1. Low vapor pressure: This means LAB doesn't readily evaporate at room temperature.
2. Good solvent properties: LAB can dissolve oils and greases, making it a valuable
component of detergents.
3. Surfactant properties: LAB molecules have both hydrophobic (water-hating) and
hydrophilic (water-loving) parts, allowing them to lower the surface tension of water
and emulsify oils and dirt.
4. Moderate reactivity: LAB can react with strong oxidizing agents and strong acids.
5. Low volatility: Limited evaporation at room temperature.
6. Mild irritant: Can cause skin and eye irritation upon prolonged contact.
7. Sulfonatability: Ability to react with sulfur trioxide (SO3) to form Linear
Alkylbenzene Sulfonates (LAS), the primary active ingredient in detergents. Good
sulfonatability is desirable.
8. Biodegradability: Relatively high compared to older detergent ingredients, making it
an environmentally friendly choice

CHAPTER 3

4
 TYPES AND SELECTION
OF PROCESS
3.1 TYPES OF PROCESS

• Detal Process

• Friedel-Crafts Alkylation

• Oligomerization of Ethylene

• HF Alkylation

Detal Process

● This is a newer process that uses a solid catalyst instead of HF. The Detal process is
more environmentally friendly than the HF process, but it is also more complex and
expensive.

● The Detal process is still under development, but it has the potential to become the
dominant method for LAB production in the future.

Friedel-Crafts Alkylation

● This process involves the chlorination of n-paraffins to monochloroparaffins, followed

by alkylation with benzene using aluminum chloride (AlCl3) as a catalyst.

● The main drawbacks of this process are the use of AlCl3, which is also a hazardous
material, and the generation of chlorinated byproducts.

Oligomerization of Ethylene

● This process involves the oligomerization (partial polymerization) of ethylene to

produce linear alkenes, which are then alkylated with benzene to produce LAB.

● This process is still in the early stages of development, but it has the potential to be a
more sustainable alternative to the other methods.

5
HF Alkylation

● This is the traditional process, and it involves the dehydrogenation of n-paraffins (linear
alkanes) to internal olefins, followed by alkylation with benzene using hydrofluoric acid
(HF) as a catalyst.
● The HF process is relatively simple and efficient, but it has several drawbacks, including:

○ The use of HF, which is a hazardous and corrosive material.

3.2 SELECTION OF PROCESS

HF ALKYLATION

HF Alkylation is the traditional process, and it involves the

dehydrogenation of n-paraffins (linear alkanes) to internal olefins, followed by alkylation
with benzene using hydrofluoric acid (HF) as a catalyst.

Feedstock availability and composition: Different processes handle various feedstocks like
propylene, butylene, or mixed C3/C4 streams differently. Analyze your available feedstock
and desired product composition.

Desired product characteristics: Consider octane rating, yield, and presence of impurities in
the final product. Different processes might specialize in specific outcomes.

Capital and operating costs: HF alkylation processes can vary significantly in complexity
and equipment requirements, affecting initial investment and ongoing operational expenses.

Environmental regulations and footprint: Stringent regulations surround HF use and waste
disposal. Evaluate the environmental compliance and footprint of each option.

Safety and risk management: HF is a hazardous material, so robust safety protocols and
risk management plans are crucial. Consider the inherent safety risks and complexity of each
process.

Existing infrastructure and expertise: If you have existing equipment or personnel trained
on a specific process, adapting to a new one might require additional investment and training.

6
 CHAPTER 4
PROCESS FLOW
DIAGRAM
4.1 FLOWSHEET

7
8
 CHAPTER 5
PROCESS DESCRIPTION

9
PROCESS DESCRIPTION

The UOP detergent alkylation process is a catalytic process to continuously alkylate benzene
with linear mono olefins to form the desired end product, Linear Alkyl Benzene (LAB). The
LAB produced can readily be sulfonated to yield finear alkyl benzene sulfonates which are
surface active compounds (surfactants). These when combined with various builders
(inorganic salts) form the synthetic detergents (powders or cake form).

REACTOR SECTION

The Alkylation reaction is carried out in a two stage reactor settler system. This section
consists of a static mixture, reaction cooler, 1st stage Alkylation mixer, 1st stage Acid settler,
2nd stage Alkylation mixer and 3rd stage Acid settler. Both the reactors are provided with
sieve tray for thorough mixing and the whole reactor settler system is operated with liquid
full. Both the settlers separates the hydrocarbon phase from the acid phase due to density
difference.

I STAGE ALKYLATION MIXER

It is a vertical vessel with dished ends having a dimension of 1800 mm ID, and 20800 mm
height. This reactor is provided with 30 nos. of Sieve Trays for good mixing between the acid
and hydro carbon phases. The Alkylation reaction almost completed in this reactor. This
reactor operates liquid full.

II STAGE SETTLER

It is a horizontal vessel with dished ends having a dimension of 3200 mm ID, 14200 mm
height and weighs 25.5 Mt. Purpose of this settler is to separate acid and hydrocarbon phases
from 1st Stage Reactor effluent. A Radioactive level indicating instrument is employed to
indicate the interface level between acid and hydrocarbon.

HF SETTLER

It is a horizontal vessel with dished ends having a dimension of ID 1800 mm and 5000 mm
height. In HF Settler benzene and acid phases will be separated and recycled back to Reactor
section. Benzene to 1st stage Reactor and HF to II stage Reactor. HF Settler operates liquid
full and a displacement type level instrument is used to indicate the interface level between
the Acid and Benzene.

10
HF STRIPPER

It is a column with dished ends having a dimension of 1524.2400 mm ID, height 21000 mm
and weights 16.4 MT. It is provided with 30 nos. of Trays. The function of this column is to
separate the HF acid from the Reactor Products. The liquid leaving the column bottom are
essentially tree of HF acid. The entire reactor circuit pressure will be controlled by pressure
controller located at the bottom of the column.

PARAFFIN COLUMN

It is a packed bed having 3 beds having dimensions of 1200/3200/5100 mm ID, 35700 mm

Height and weighs 116.5 MT. Function of this column is to separate the paraffin from the
Alkylation products. Major quantity of paraffin is recycled to Pacol Unit via paraffin Alumina
treater and some quantity of paraffin is taken for flushing. Any paraffin slip at the bottom of
the column will affect the specification of LAB and any carryover of LAB in the overhead
will go to Pacol Reactor along with recycle paraffin and tend to coke and deactivate the pacol
catalyst. This column is operated under vaccum.

RERUN COLUMN

It is a packed column having 3 beds having dimension of 2400/800 mm ID.27300 mm height

and weighs 37.2 MT. The final split between LAB and heavy alkylate is performed under
vacuum in this column. This column is a packed column containing a contact condenser at
the top. Some loss of Lab with the heavy alkylate must be accepted in order to have LAB
meeting Bromine Index specification and the bottom stream usually contains above 10%
LAB.

RECOVERY COLUMN

It is a packed bed having 2 beds having dimensions of1200.610 mm ld, 15200 mm height and
weighs 9.9 MT. Function of this column is to recover the lighter LAB which has slipped
along with heavy alkylate from rerun column bottom. column operates under vacuum.

CHAPTER 6
11
 MATERIAL BALANCE
MATERIAL BALANCE
The existing LAB plant of TPL is designed to produce 274 tons/day of LAB using n-paraffin
as feedstock. It is found that 1 ton of n-paraffin is consumed to produce 1.40 tons of LAB
approximately. Since the section under our study is the back end (PACOL and Alkylation
unit), we carry out material balance based on mole fraction observed.

5.1 OVERALL MATERIAL BALANCE

Basis: 90,000 tonnes per annum of Linear Alkyl Benzene

Running hours: 8000 (per annum)

Production of LAB per day = 274 tons/day

=11.41 tons/hour

5.1.1 Stoichiometry for detergent alkylation unit

Basis: 274 tons/day of LAB as product

11416.67 kg/hr of LAB

Components Reacted And Products Formed In Alkylation Unit

Mole of LAB= Mass of LAB

Mol wt of LAB

=11416.67/239 = 47.76kgmol

HF
Monoolefins + Benzene Linear Alkyl Benzene

As per stoichiometry : 1mol of monoolefins reacts with 1mol of benzene and 1

mol of HF to give 1 mol of LAB.

Monoolefins reacted = 47.76 kgmol

12
Benzene reacted= 47.76kgmol

Benzene fed= 47.76*10= 477.6kgmol

Compounds Mol Reactants Products

wt

kgmol Mass(Kg/hr) Mass% kgmol Mass(Kg/hr) Mass%

n-paraffins 163 370.61 60409.43 57.10 370.61 60409.43 57.10
monoolefins 161 47.76 7689.36 7.26 0 0 0
Diolefins 159 2.77 440.43 0.41 0 0 0
Benzene 78 477.6 37252.8 35.21 424.29 33094.62 31.28
LAB 239 0 0 47.76 11414.64 10.78
HA 315 0 0 2.77 872.55 0.82
TOTAL 105792.02 99.98 105791.24 99.98

HF acid reacted= 47.76kgmol

LAB Formed= 47.76kgmol

Diolefins + Benzene Heavy Alkylate

As per Stoichiometry: 1mol of Diolefins reacts with 2mol of Benzene to give 1mol of HA

Diolefins reacted= 47.76/17.181 = 2.77kgmol

Benzene reacted= 2*2.77= 5.55kgmol

Heavy alkylate formed= 2.77kgmol

Benzene totally reacted= 47.76+5.55= 53.31kgmol

Benzene unreacted= 477.6-53.31= 424.29kgmol

N-paraffins fed= 47.76*7.760= 370.61kgmol

N-paraffins left from paraffin column= 60409.43kg/hr

= 1449.6tons/day

Monoolefins fed= 7689.36kg/hr

= 184.32 tons/day
13
Diolefins fed= 440.43kg/hr

= 10.56tons/day

N-paraffins fed from PACOL unit= 1449.6+184.32+10.56

=1644.48tons/day

N-paraffins reacted= 1644.48-1449.6= 194.88 tons/day

Benzene fed= 37252.8kg/hr

=894tons/day

Benzene left from benzene column= 33094.62kg/hr

=794.16tons/day

Benzene reacted= 894-794.16

= 99.84tons/day

LAB formed= 11414.64kg/hr

=274 tons/day

HA formed= 872.55kg/hr

=20.88tons/day
5.1.2 HF recovery Unit

. HF acid and impurities of hydrocarbon such as n-octane, etc are present in the mixture.
These are from acid settler and are sent to HF recovery column to achieve highly purified HF
acid to again use it as a catalyst in static mixer

Total Material Balance :

Feed (F) = Distillate(D) + Bottom product(B)

Feed = 14860+297

Feed = 15157 Kg/hr

Material Balance For HF:

F*XHF = D*XDHF + B*XBHF

14
 XHF = Mass fraction of HF in feed

XDHF = Mass fraction of HF in distillate

XBHF = Mass fraction of HF in bottom product

HF Recovery column

15157(XHF) = 0.99(14860) + 0.03(297)

XHF = 0.971

Material Balance For Impurities:

X IMPURITIES (15157) = 0.97(297)

X IMPURITIES = 0.0190

5.1.3 HF stripper Column

The top part of the acid settler contains LAB, HA, benzene, paraffins and traces of HF. These
are sent to HF stripper column where HF and traces of benzene are obtained above in the
distillate and are sent to HF settler where HF and benzene are separated based on density. The
bottom product contains LAB, HA, paraffins and benzene.

15
 HF Stripper Column Total
Material Balance :
F= D+G

F= 13768+132532.4

F= 146300.4 Kg/hr

material balance for benzene:

XBenzene *146300.4= 2929.5*0.884 + (0.217* 132532.4)

XBenzene = 0.216 material

balance for paraffin:

XPARAFFIN *146300.4 = 0.67*132532.5

XPARAFFIN = 0.60

material balance for LAB:

XLAB*146300.4= 0.083*132532.4

16
 XLAB= 0.07518 material

balance for HA:

XHA*146300.4= 0.00515*132532.4

XHA = 0.00466 material

balance for hydrocarbon:

XHC*146300.4= 132532.4*0.0137

XHC= 0.0124 material

balance for HF:

XHF*146300.4= 13768*0.115

XHF= 0.010

3.1.5 Benzene Column

LAB, HA, Benzene and paraffins are sent as feed to benzene distillation column from
bottoms of HF stripper column. At the top benzene is obtained as distillate and at the bottom
LAB, HA and paraffins are obtained. This distillation column contains trays.

Total Material Balance :

F= 102812.4+29720

F= 132532.4 Kg/hr

17
 Benzene Column

material balance for paraffin:

XPARAFFIN *132532.4= (0.03*29720)+(0.867*102812.4)

XPARAFFIN =0.67

material balance for benzene:

XBenzene *132532.4= 0.97*292720

XBenzene = 0.217 material

balance for LAB:

XLAB*132532.4= 0.108*102812.4

XLAB= 0.083

material balance for HA:

XHA*132532.4= 102812.4*0.00665

XHA = 0.00516 material

balance for hydrocarbon:

XHC*132532.4= 102512.4*0.0117

XHC= 0.0137

5.1.6 Paraffin Column

LAB, HA and paraffins are sent to paraffin packed distillation column as feed from benzene
column. At the top paraffins are obtained as distillate and sent to PACOL unit where as LAB
and HA are obtained as bottoms.

Total Material Balance :

F= 11812.4+67340

F= 79152.4 Kg/hr

18
material balance for paraffin:
XPARAFFIN *79152.4= (0.98*67340)

XPARAFFIN =0.833

material balance for LAB:

XLAB*79152.4= 0.942*11812.4

XLAB= 0.140 material

balance for HA:

XHA*79152.4= 0.0579*11812.4

XHA = 0.00864

Paraffin Column

5.1.7 Rerun Column

LAB, HA are sent to rerun column as feed from the bottoms of paraffin column. Rerun
column is a packed distillation column where at the top LAB is obtained as desired product

19
and are stored in storage tanks. Traces of LAB, impurities and HA are obtained as the bottom
product.

Total Material Balance :

F= 11416.6+395.8

F= 11812.4 Kg/hr

material balance for LAB:

XLAB*11812.4= 0.97*(11416.6)+ 395.8*(0.1358)

XLAB= 0.942

material balance for HA:

XHA*11812.4= 0.03*(11416.6)+365.8*(0.864)

XHA = 0.00579

Rerun Column

20
5.1.8 Recovery Column

HA, impurities and traces of LAB are sent to recovery column as feed from the bottoms of
Rerun column. Recovery column is a packed distillation column at which on the top spindle
oil with composition of 70% LAB and 30% HA are obtained as distillate. HA of 97% are
obtained as bottom product.

Total Material Balance :

F= 62.5+333.33

F= 395.8 Kg/hr

Recovery Column

Material Balance For LAB:

XLAB*395.8= 0.70*(62.5)+ 333.33*(0.30)

XLAB= 0.1358

Material Balance For HA:

21
 XHA*395.8= 0.97*(62.5)+333.33*(0.03)

XHA = 0.864

MATERIAL BALANCE FLOWSHEET

22
23
 CHAPTER 7
ENERGY BALANCE

24
 ENERGY BALANCE

The general energy balance equation is given by:

Q1(feed) + Q2(reboiler heat suppy) = Q3(heat removed) + Q4(distillate) + Q5(bottom)

ENERGY BALANCE FOR HYDROCARBON FEED COOLER

Feed composition (Inlet Temperature)= 65°C

The energy balance fo the Hydrocarbon feed cooler is as follows.

Hydocarbon feed cooler Inlet

[Link] Components Flow rate Cp Q=mCpdT

Kg/s KJ/KgK KW
1 n-paraffins 18.93 2.21 1673.412
2 Mono olefins 3.11 2.19 272.43
3 Di olefins 0.18 2.18 15.69
4 Benzene 77.67 1.92 5965.05
TOTAL 7926.58KW

Product Composition (Outlet Temperature= 52°C)

Hydrocarbon feed cooler Outlet

[Link] Components Flow rate Cp Q= mCpdT

Kg/s KJ/KgK KW
1 n-paraffins 18.93 2.21 1129.55
2 Mono olefins 3.11 2.19 183.89
3 Di olefins 0.18 2.17 10.54
4 Benzene 77.67 1.92 4026.41
TOTAL 5350.39KW

Energy losses = Qin- Qout

= 7926.58-5350.39

= 2576.19KW

28
Energy gained by tube side (cooling water) = 2576.19 KW Energy

input= Energy output+ Energy losses

7926.58= 5350.39+ 2576.19

7926.58 = 7926.58

ENERGY BALANCE FOR STATIC MIXER

Feed composition (Inlet Temperature)= 52°C

The energy balance fo the Static mixer is as follows.

Hydocarbon feed mixer Inlet

[Link] Components Flow rate Cp Q=mCpdT

Kg/s KJ/KgK KW
1 n-paraffins 18.93 2.20 1124.44
2 Mono olefins 3.11 2.17 182.21
3 Di olefins 0.18 2.15 10.44
4 Benzene 93.20 1.92 4831.48
5 HF 33.67 2.80 2545.45
TOTAL 8694.02KW
29
Product Composition ( Outlet Temperature= 75°C)
Hydrocarbon Feed mixer Outlet

[Link] Components Flow rate Cp Q= mCpdT

Kg/s KJ/KgK KW
1 n-paraffins 18.93 2.21 2091.76
2 LAB 3.16 2.1 331.8
3 HA 0.18 2.13 19.17
4 Benzene 9.32 1.92 894.72
5 HF 33.67 2.80 4713.8
TOTAL 8051.25KW

Energy losses = Qin- Qout

= 8694.02-8051.25

= 642.77KW
Energy liberated out as heat = 642.77KW Energy input=
Energy output+ Energy losses 8694.02= 8051.25+
642.77

8694.02KW = 8694.02KW

ENERGY BALANCE FOR HEAT EXCHANGER

Feed composition (Inlet Temperature= 168°C

The energy balance fo the HF stripper feed heat exchanger is as follows.

HF Stripper Feed Heat exchanger Inlet

[Link] Components Flow rate Cp Q=mCpdT

Kg/s KJ/KgK KW
1 n-paraffins 18.93 2.21 5982.44
2 Mono olefins 3.11 2.19 973.95
3 Di olefins 0.18 2.18 56.11
TOTAL 7012.5KW

Product Composition (Outlet Temperature= 65°C)

31
 HF Stripper Feed Heat exchanger Outlet

[Link] Components Flow rate Cp Q= mCpdT

Kg/s KJ/KgK KW
1 n-paraffins 18.93 1.95 1476.54
2 Mono olefins 3.11 1.86 231.38
3 Di olefins 0.18 1.82 13.10
TOTAL 1721.02KW

Energy losses = Qin- Qout

= 7012.5-1721.02

= 5291.48 KW

Energy gained by tube side (HF) = 5291.48 KW Energy input=

Energy output+ Energy losses 7012.5= 1721.02+

5291.48

7012.5=7012.5

ENERGY BALANCE FOR HF RECOVERY COLUMN.

HF acid and impurities of hydrocarbon such as n-octane, etc are present in the mixture. These
are from acid settler and are sent to HF recovery column to achieve highly purified HF acid
to again use it as a catalyst in static mixer

Calculation of specific heat (cp): Cpf=

(0.80*2.80)+(0.20*2.1)

= 2.24+0.42 = 2.66 KJ/KgK

Cpd= (0.995*2.80)+(0.005*2.1)

=2.786+0.010

=2.796 KJ/KgK
Specific heat capacity of components

[Link] Components Specific heat capacity (KJ/KgK)

1 HF 2.80

32
 2 Iso octane 2.1
Cpb=(0.005*2.8+(0.995*2.1)

= 0.014+2.089

= 2.10KJ/KgK

Heat in

Q1= m*Cp*dT m=

114766Kg/hr

= 31.87 kg/s

Cpf= 2.66 KJ/KgK

dT= 50-25 =25°C Q1=

31.87*2.66*25 Q1=

2119.35 KW

Q2 (Reboiler heat supplied) m=

23.21kg/s

Cp= 2.2 KJ/KgK

dT= 95-75= 20°C

Q2= 23.21*2.2* 20 Q2=

1021.31KW

Heat out

m= 20.88kg/s

cp=2.79 KJ/KgK

dT= 40-25= 15°C dT= 40-32 = 8°C

Q3= 20.88*2.79*15

Q3= 873.82KW

33
Q3= 873.82 KW Q4

m= 18.15kg/s

λ = 67.67 KJ/Kg

Q4=8.15*67.67

Q4= 1228.28KW

Q5

m= 10.99Kg/s

Cpb=2.10 KJ/KgK

dT= 70-25 = 45°C

Q5= 10.99* 2.10*45 Q5=

1038.55KW

Heat in =Q1+Q2

= 2119.35+ 1021.31

= 3140.66KW

Heat out= Q3+ Q4+Q5

= 873.82+1228.28+1038.55

= 3140.66KW

Heat in = Heat out

ENERGY BALANCE FOR BENZENE COLUMN

LAB, HA, Benzene and paraffins are sent as feed to benzene distillation column from bottoms
of HF stripper column. At the top benzene is obtained as distillate and at the bottom LAB, HA
and paraffins are obtained. This distillation column contains trays.

Calculation of specific heat (cp):

Cpf= (0.67*2.21)+(0.083*2.7)+(0.0051*3.2)+(0.23*1.92)
= 1.48+0.22+0.016+0.44

= 2.15 KJ/KgK
34
Cpd= (0.97*1.92)+(0.03*2.21)

=1.86+0.06

=1.92 KJ/KgK

Cpb= (0.14*2.7)+(0.025*3.2)+(0.83*2.21)

= 0.37+0.08+1.83

= 2.28KJ/KgK
Heat in

Q1= m*Cp*dT m= 132532.4Kg/hr

= 36.81 kg/s

Cpf= 2.15 KJ/KgK

dT= 185-25 =160°C Q1=

36.81*2.15*160 Q1=

12662.64 KW

Q2 (Reboiler heat supplied) m=

16.28kg/s

Cp= 2.2 KJ/KgK

dT= 320-265= 55°C

Q2= 16.8*2.2* 55

Q2= 1970.74KW

Heat out

m= 9.32kg/s

cp=1.92 KJ/KgK
dT= 102-25 = 77°C dT= 73-32 = 41°C

Q3= 9.32*1.92*77

Q3= 1377.6KW
35
Q4

m= 8.25kg/s
λ= 239.94 KJ/Kg Q4=

8.25*239.94 Q4=

1979.52KW Q5

m= 21.98Kg/s

Cpb = 2.28 KJ/KgK

dT= 250-25 = 225°C

Q5= 21.98* 2.28*225

Q5= 11275.74KW

Heat in =Q1+Q2

= 12662.64+ 1970.74

= 14633.38KW

Heat out= Q3+ Q4+Q5

= 1377.6+ 1979.52+ 11275.74

= 14633.38KW

Heat in = Heat out

ENERGY BALANCE FOR PARAFFIN COLUMN

LAB, HA and paraffins are sent to paraffin packed distillation column as feed from benzene
column. At the top paraffins are obtained as distillate and sent to PACOL unit where as LAB
and HA are obtained as bottoms.
CALCULATION OF SPECIFIC HEAT (cp)

Feed

Cpf = (0.85*2.21) +(0.14*2.7 )+(0.01*3.2)

=1.8785+0.378+0.032

36
 Cpf =2.28KJ/KgK

Top product

Cpd = (0.995*2.21)+ (0.005*2.7)

= 2.1989+0.013

Cpd= 2.21KJ/KgK

Specific heat and latent heat of components

[Link] Components Specific heat Latent heat of

capacity
vaporization
(KJ/KgK)
(KJ/Kg)

1 n-paraffins 2.21 151.7

2 LAB 2.7 194.2

3 HA 3.2 270.1

Bottom product

Cpb= (0.94*2.7)+(0.06*3.2)

= 2.538+0.192

Cpb =2.73 KJ/KgK

Heat In:

Q1(Feed)

Q1= m*cp*dT

m= 87493Kg/hr =24.30Kg/s

cp = 2.28KJ/KgK dT=

160-25 =135°C

Q1= 24.30*2.28*135
=7479.54 KJ/s

Q1= 7479.54KW (feed)

37
Q2(Reboiler heat supply)

Q2= m*cp*dT m=

2.53kg/s cp=2.2KJ/KgK

dT= 320-265 =55°C

Q2=

2.53*2.2*55

Q2 =306.46KW ( Reboiler heat supply)

Heat Out:

Q3= m*cp*dT + m*λ

m= 17.79 kg/s

cp= 2.21KJ/KgK

dT= 93-60 = 33°C dT=73-32 = 41°C

Q= 17.79*2.21*33

Q3=1297.42KW

Q4(Distillate)

Q4= m*λ

m= 17.79kg/s cp=

151.7 KJ/kg

Q4= 2673.47KW (Distillate)

Q5(Bottoms)
Q5= m*cp*dT m=

6.50kg/s cp=

2.73KJ/KgK dT=

240-25= 215°C

Q5= 6.50*2.73*215

38
Q5= 3815.17KW (Bottoms)

Heat in= Q1+Q2

=7479.54KW + 306.46KW

Heat in =7786KW

Heat out= Q3+Q4+Q5

= 1297.42+2673.47+3815.17

Heat out =7786KW

Q1+Q2 = Q3+Q4+Q5

7786KW= 7786KW

HEAT IN = HEAT OUT

ENERGY BALANCE FOR RERUN COLUMN

LAB, HA are sent to rerun column as feed from the bottoms of paraffin column. Rerun
column is a packed distillation column where at the top LAB is obtained as desired product
and are stored in storage tanks. Traces of LAB, impurities and HA are obtained as the bottom
product.

Calculation of specific heat (cp): Cpf=

(0.942*2.7)+(0.057*3.2)

= 2.54+0.18

= 2.72 KJ/KgK

Cpd= (0.97*2.7)+(0.03*3.2)

=2.61+0.096

=2.70 KJ/KgK

Cpb= (0.1358*2.7)+(0.864*3.2)

= 0.36+2.76

= 3.12KJ/KgK

39
Heat in

Q1= m*Cp*dT

m= 11812.4Kg/hr

= 3.28 kg/s

Cpf= 2.72 KJ/KgK

dT=190-25=165°C

Q1=3.28*2.72*165

Q1= 1472.06 KW

Q2 (Reboiler heat supplied)

m= 7.77kg/s

Cp= 2.2 KJ/KgK

dT= 320-240= 80°C

Q2= 7.77*2.2* 80

Q2= 1368.97KW

Heat out

m= 3.61kg/s cp=2.70 KJ/KgK

dT= 160-25 = 135°C

Q3= 3.61*2.70*135

Q3= 1315.84KW

Q4 m=
3.17kg/s

λ= 454.06 KJ/KgK

Q4= 3.17*454.06

Q4= 1439.39KW

Q5

40
m= 0.10Kg/s

Cpb= 3.12 KJ/KgK

dT= 300-25 = 275°C

Q5= 0.10* 3.12*275

Q5= 85.8KW

Heat in =Q1+Q2

= 12662.64+ 1970.74

= 2841.03KW

Heat out= Q3+ Q4+Q5

= 1315.84+ 454.06+ 85.8

= 2841.03KW

Heat in = Heat out

ENERGY BALANCE FOR RECOVERY COLUMN

HA, impurities and traces of LAB are sent to recovery column as feed from the bottoms of
Rerun column. Recovery column is a packed distillation column at which on the top spindle
oil with composition of 70% LAB and 30% HA are obtained as distillate. HA of 97% are
obtained as bottom product.

Calculation of specific heat (cp): Cpf=

(0.1358*2.7)+(0.864*3.2)

= 0.36+2.76

= 3.12 KJ/KgK

Cpd= (0.70*2.7)+(0.30*3.2)

=1.89+0.96

=2.85 KJ/KgK

Cpb= (0.03*2.7)+(0.97*3.2)

41
 = 0.08+3.10
= 3.18KJ/KgK

Heat in

Q1= m*Cp*dT

m= 395.8Kg/hr

= 0.10 kg/s

Cpf= 3.12 KJ/KgK dT=200-

25=175°C

Q1=0.10*3.12*175

Q1= 54.6KW

Q2 (Reboiler heat supplied) m= 37kg/s

Cp= 2.2 KJ/KgK

dT= 360-285= 75°C

Q2= 0.37*2.2* 75

Q2= 62.41KW

Heat out

m= 0.02kg/s

cp=2.85 KJ/KgK

dT= 180-25 = 155°C

Q3= 0.023*2.85*155
Q3= 10.16KW

Q4

m= 0.017kg/s

λ=982.35KJ/KgK

Q4=0.017*982.35

Q4= 16.7KW
42
Q5

m= 0.09Kg/s Cpb=

3.18 KJ/KgK dT=

340-25 = 315°C

Q5=0.09* 3.18*315
Q5=90.153KW

Heat in =Q1+Q2

= 54.6+ 62.41

= 117.01KW

Heat out= Q3+ Q4+Q5

= 10.16+ 982.35+ 90.153

= 117.01KW

Heat in = Heat out

ENERGY BALANCE FLOWSHEET

43
44
 DESIGN OF EQUIPMENTS DESIGN OF SHELL AND TUBE
HEAT EXCHANGER

A shell and tube heat exchanger consists of a shell with bundles of tubes inside it. One fluid
runs through the tubes and another fluid flows over the tubes (through the shell) to transfer
heat between the two fluids. The set of tubes is called a tube bundle, and may be composed
of several types of tubes: plain, longitudinally finned, etc.

The parameters of the heat exchangers are given below.

[Link] Properties Value

1. Shell side fluid N-Paraffins

2. Tube side fluid HF acid

3. Shell Inlet Temperature(°C) 168

4. Shell Outlet Temperature(°C) 65

5. Tube Inlet Temperature(°C) 52

6. Tube Outlet Temperature(°C) 132

7. Shell Mass Flowrate (Kg/hr) 80528

8. Tube Mass Flowrate(Kg/hr) 114766

9. Length of Tubes(mm) 4000

10. Outer Diameter of Tubes(mm) 20

11. Inner Diameter of Tubes(mm) 16

12. Material Used for Tubes Monel-400

13. No. of Passes in Shell Side 2

14. No. of Passes in Tube Side 4

Parameters of shell and tube heat exchangers Mean

Temperatures

Mean Temperatures of HF acid = (135+52)/2 = 92°C

Mean Temperatures of n-paraffins= (168+65)/2 = 116.5°C

Properties of the fluids at their mean temperature

45
 [Link] Property HF acid n-paraffins

1. Temperature 92°C 117°C

2. Specific heat 2.385KJ/Kg°C 2.64 KJ/Kg°C

3. Thermal 0.025 W/mK 0.14W/mK

Conductivity

4. Density 980 Kg/m3 750 Kg/m3

5. Viscosity 0.01* 10-3 P 0.016P

Using Kern’s method of Design

Heat Duty

Heat Duty, Q= m*cp* ΔT

= 114766* 2.385*(132-52)/3600

= 6082.56KW

Mass Flowrate of N-paraffins

Mass Flowrate, mn-paraffins = Q/cp*ΔT

= 6082.56/2.64*(168-65)

= 22.36 Kg/s

= 80528 Kg/hr

Logarithmic Mean Temperature Difference

LMTD is calculated as, ΔTLMTD = (T1 – t1 ) – ( T2 – t2 )

ln [(T1-t1)/(T2-t2)]

= (65-52)-(168-132)

ln [(65-52)/(168-132)]
46
 = -23/-1.018

= 22.5 =23

Corrected ΔTLMTD = ΔTLMTD * ft

= 23* 0.92

= 21°C

Heat Transfer Area

Heat Transfer Area is calculated as A= Q/(U* ΔTLMTD) Assume U= 800 W/m°C

Area, A= 6082.56* 10-3/(800*21)

= 362.05m2

Number of Tubes

Number of tubes is found using the formula, N=

Total area of heat transfer

Single tube area

= 362.05/πd0L

= 362.05/ 3.14* 0.02*4

=1441 tubes (approx)

It is given that the shell and tube heat exchanger is a 2:4 pass heat exchanger, thus we are
using a triangular pitch for the 4 pass tube side.

K1= 0.175 , n1= 2.235

Bundle Diameter

Bundle diameter, Db = d0 (N/K)1/n

= 0.02(1441/0.175)1/2.235

47
 = 9.791 m

Bundle spacing

Bundle spacing, Ds= Bundle diameter + Bundle clearance

= 9.791 + 1.658

= 11.449m

Baffle Spacing

Baffle Spacing, Bs= Ds/5= 11.449/5

= 2.2898 m
Tube Pitch

The tube pitch is calculated as, Tube

pitch, Pt= 1.25*d0

Pt = 1.25* 20

= 25mm

Cross Flow Area

The Cross flow area is given by, CFA =

(Pt- d0/Pt) Ds + Baffle spacing

= (0.025-0.02/0.025)11.449 + 2.289

= 4.578 m2

Cross flow area for single shell = 4.578/2 = 2.289 m2

Velocity of N-Paraffins in Shell

Side The velocity is calculated by,

Us= mass flowrate of n-paraffins

Density of n-paraffins* cross flow area

= 22.36/750* 2.289

= 0.013 m/s
48
Equivalent Diameter

The equivalent diameter is given by,

De = 1.10(Pt2- 0.917 d 02 )/d0= 1.10( 0.0252-

0.917(0.022))/0.02 = 0.014m

Shell Side Coefficient

The shell side coefficient is given by, (hide/Kf) = j R

P 0.33
H e r

Reynolds number= De* Us* density of n-paraffins

µn-paraffins

= 0.014* 0.013* 750

2.27*10-6

= 60100

Prandtl number, Pr= Cp* µ/k

= 2.64*(2.27*10-6)/0.14

= 4.28

JH = 2.6 * 10-3

Hs = 2.6*10-3 * 60100 * 4.280.33*0.14

0.014

Hs = 2524.78 W/m2°C

Tube Cross Sectional Area (TCSA)

2
The tube cross sectional area is, TCSA= π/4 * di

= 3.14/4 * 0.0162
49
 TCSA = 2.0* 10-4 m

Total Flow Area

The Total Flow Area is calculated as, Total

Flow area= N* TCSA

= 1441*2.0* 10-4

= 0.2882 m2

50
 HF Mass Velocity

HF Mass Velocity = HF mass flow rate

Total flow area

= 110.61 Kg/sm2

Density of HF = 980 Kg/m3

HF Linear Velocity

HF Linear velocity is calculated as, u =

HF mass velocity/ density of HF

= 110.61/980

u =0.1128 m/s

Tube Side Coefficient

The tube side coefficient is calculated as, (hidiKf) =

j HR P e r0.33 (µ/µ HF )

Reynolds number Re= density of HF* u* di

µHF

= 17,68,70

Prandtl number, Pr= Cp*µ/K

= 2.385* 10-6/0.0025

= 9.54
L/di = 4000/16

= 250

51
Neglecting (µ/µHF) term JH = 3.3 * 10-3

Substituting the values in the above equation, Hi =

3.3*10-3* 17,68,70* 9.540.33 *0.025

0.016

= 307.139/0.016

Hi = 1919.63 W/m2°C

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient

Fouling Factor of HF = 5000 W/m2°C

Fouling Factor of N-Paraffins = 4000 W/m2°C

Heat transfer Coefficient of Monel 400(Kw) = 15 W/m2°C

1 = 1 + 1 + d0 ln (d0/di) + d0 + d0 * 1

U0 h0 hod 2Kw di* hid di hi

= 1 + 20*10-3 ln (20/16) + 20 + 20 * 1
16*4000 16 * 1919.62

1/U0 = 1.1937 * 10-3 W/m2°C

U0 = 837.73 W/m2°C, which is well above the assumed value.

Pressure Drop on Tube Side

The pressure drop on tube side is calculated as below, Where,

JH = 3.3* 10-3

L/di = 4000/16 = 250

Density of HF = 980 Kg/m3 Ut = 0.1128 m/s

ΔP = [8jH(L/di)(µ/µHF)-0.14 + 2.5]ρ (ut2/2)

Neglecting the viscosity correction term

ΔP = [ 8*3.3*10-3(250)+2.5]* (980*0.11282/2) ΔP =

36.30 Kpa
52
Pressure Drop on Shell Side

The pressure drop on shell side is calculated as below, Linear velocity

Us= 0.013 m/s

JH = 2.6 *10-3 Ds

= 11.449 m

De = 0.014m L=4m

Bs= 2.2898m

ΔPs= 8jH*(Ds/de) * (L/Bs) *(ρu 2/2)(µs /µn-paraffn)-0.14

Neglecting the viscosity terms

ΔPs= 8*(2.6*10-3)*(11.449/0.014)*(4/2.2898)*(750*0.0132/2) ΔPs= 77.58 Kpa

Design Summary of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

The design summary of the shell and tube heat exchanger is given below.

Design Summary of Shell and Tube Heat Exhanger

Heat Load 6082.56 KW

Surface Area 362.05 m2

Area of Tube 0.2512 m2

Number of Tubes 1441 tubes

Bundle Diameter 9.791 m

Bundle Clearance 1.658 m

Shell Spacing 11.449 m

Shell Side Coefficient 2524.78 W/m2°C

Tube Side Coefficient 1919.62 W/m2°C

Overall Heat Transfer 800W/m2°C

Coefficient(Theoretical)

Overall Heat Transfer Coefficient( 837.73 W/m2°C

Experimental)

53
 Pressure drop Shell Side 77.58 kPa

Pressure drop Tube Side 36.30 kPa

Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger Diagram

The design diagram of the shell and tube heat exchanger is shown below.

4m

HF acid out n-paraffin in

HF acid in n-paraffin out

Design Diagram of Shell and Tube Heat Exchanger

Design of Binary Distillation Column

A Process in which a liquid or vapor mixture of two or more substances is separated into its
component fractions of desired purity .Based on the fact that the vapor of a boiling mixture will
be richer in the components that have lower boiling points . A consumer of enormous amounts
of energy in terms of cooling and heating . A large contributor to plant operating costs, maybe
more than 50%

PARAMETER OF DISTILLATION COLUMN

54
 Parameter of Distillation Column

Feed Composition (weight fraction) 0.75 of n-paraffin

0.25 of benzene

Feed Flow Rate 150000 kg/hr

1170.18 kmol/hr

Mole Fraction of Top Product 0.97 of benzene

0.03 of n-paraffin
Mole Fraction of Bottom Product 0.97 of n-paraffin
0.03 of benzene

Molecular Weight of components Benzene= 78 kg/kmol

N-paraffin= 163 kg/kmol
Feed Temperature 280oC

Top Temperature 102oC

Bottom Temperature 250OC

Operating Pressure 1.2 atm

Column Temperature 250o C

Feed Condition Saturated Liquid

Material Balance
F= D+B

B= F-D

150000*0.25 =D*0.97 + (150000-D)*0.03 D = 35106.3 kg/hr

DISTILLATE =443.03 kmol/hr

B=114893.7 kg/hr

BOTTOM PRODUCT = 48.383 kmol/hr

Mole Fraction of Feed(XF) = (25/78)/((25/78)+(75/163))

= 0.410579345

Mole Fraction of Distillate(XD)= 0.985416017 Mole

Fraction of Distillate(XB)= 0.060707635

55
 ANTOINE’S EQUATION CONSTANTS

Compound A B C

Benzene 6.0306 1211 -52.35

n-paraffin 6.134 1462.3 -58.05

Column Temperature 250 oc

ANTOINE’S EQUATION

A,B,C- Antoine’s Constant

P - Vapour Pressure (mmhg)

Pbenzene = 0.908107825 mmhg Pn- paraffin=0.226699547

mmhg

Relative Volatility

Relative Volatility(α)= Pbenzene /Pn-paraffin

α = 4.005776977

McCabe Thiele Method EQULIBRIUM

CURVE DATA

X Y=α*xD/(1+(α-1)*xD)

00

0.1 0.307999821

0.2 0.500360801

0.3 0.631914698

0.4 0.727558888

0.5 0.800230812

0.6 0.857319485

56
 0.7 0.903351882

0.8 0.94125632

0.9 0.973010898

11

q(Feed) = Saturated Liquid= 1 = 90o

From Graph

Minimum Refux Ratio(Rmin )=0.8 Relflux

Ratio = 1.5*Rmin

Relflux Ratio=1.2

Slope=1.567171229

Intercept= -0.034431624

Number of stages from graphical method is 8 stages excluding Reboiler. And the feed tray located
from 5th tray from top.

PLATE EFFICIENCY

The plate efficiency is calculated using O’Connell’s correlation given in [Link],

Coulson & Richardson Chemical Engineering Design.
57
The correlation is as follows

Eo= 51 – 32.5 log(αµa)

Where,

Eo - Plate Efficiency in %

µa – molar average liquid viscosity in cP α -

relative volatility

Eo= 51- 32.5*log(4.00577697*0.13505)

Eo= 42.323%

CALCULATION OF ACTUAL NUMBER OF STAGES

Actual number of stages(N)=(Total Number of Theoretical Stages)/(plate Efficiency)

N= (9-1)/0.4232

Actual number of stages(N)= 17 + Reboiler

Height of The Column

Assuming the tray spacing to be 24 inches which is equal to 0.6096m, the height of
the tower is found using the following correlation:-

H = (number of stages – 1)*tray spacing + 2*tray spacing

H= (17-1)*0.6096 +2*0.6096 H=

9.7536+1.2192

H= 10.97 m

Height of the tower is found as 10.97 m

58
REFLUX RATIO FLOW RATE AND VAPOUR

Tray Column

R = L/D

1.2 = L / 443.03

L = 531.63 kmol/ hr G = L + D

G = 531.63 + 443.03

G = 974.66 kmol/ hr

Tray area calculation

Ratio of the actual vapour flow rate to the vapour mass velocity gives the tray area A t

Actual vapour Flow rate(G)= 170223.42lb/hr At

G/Gf = 170223.42/16599.3

= 10.254 ft2

Therefore the tray area At is found to be 0.94m2

Total column area

Tray area is 88% of the total column area A and 12% is down-comer area Therefore

A = At/0.88 = 10.254/0.88 = 11.65 ft2

Therefore the total column area A is 1.082m2

Column diameter

The column area A is can be calculated by A

59
 = (π/4) * D2

D = [(4 * A)/π] 0.5

= [(4 * 11.65)/π]0.5= 3.851 ft

= 1.174m

Therefore the column diameter D is found to be 1.174 m

DESIGN SUMMARY OF BINARY COLOUMN

FEED FLOW RATE 1170.18 kmol/hr

DISTILLATE PRODUCT 443.03 kmol/hr

BOTTOMS PRODUCT 48.383 kmol/hr

REFLUX FLOW RATE 531.63 kmol/hr

REFLUX RATIO 1.2

NUMBER OF PLATES 17+Reboiler

PLATE EFICIENCY 43.0%

TRAY SPACING 24 inches

TRAY AREA 0.94 m2

TRAY TYPE SIEVE TRAYS

COLUMN AREA 1.082 m2

COLUMN HEIGHT 10.97 m

COLUMN DIAMETER 1.174 m

60
 CHAPTER 6
PROCESS ECONOMICS

61
 PROCESS ECONOMICS 6.1 COST ESTIMATION FOR
NEWLY INSTALLED EQUIPMENT’S

The cost estimation is done for the newly installed and the modified equipment’s on account
of the project in the linear alkyl benzene production plant. The cost estimates for the new HF
stripper feed heat exchanger and new benzene packed distillation column are performed. Due
to flow rate changes in the distillate and bottom, the product purity is affected in the plant for
which a Reboiler and knock- out vessel are introduced to make up for the loss.

HF Stripper Feed Heat Exchanger

This is the new heat exchanger which is being installed to recover the waste heat. The temperature
drop in this heat exchanger is from 168C to 65C.

Specifications for HF Stripper Feed Heat Exchanger

Parameters Specifications

Total number of tubes 1441

Length of each pass, m 4

Life span 20 years

Size, mm 3500- 3700

Type Shell andTube , AES(Horizontal)

Inlet flow rate, Kg/hr 115000

Design pressure, Kg/cm2g 30

Design Temperature, °C 180°C

Material of Construction Shell : 1.25 Cr – 0.5 Mo Tube :

Monel 400

( 66% Ni, 31.5% Cu)

62
 Shell type E type

Baffle type Cross type

The estimated cost for the HF Stripper Feed Heat Exchanger = Rs 10,00,000

Distillation column
The specifications for the distillation column are listed below.

Specifications for Distillation column

Parameters Specifications

Operating Pressure, Kg/cm2g 31.5

Operating temperature, °C 350

Vessel capacity, cubic feet 902

Corrosion allowance, mm 3

Catalyst type Raschig rings

Catalyst size, mm 38

Catalyst life, years 5

Material of construction
Shell: ASTM SA-204 Grade “A”

Head: ASTM SA-204 Grade “P1”

Support type Skirt

The roughly estimated cost for the distillation column and packings used

= Rs 90,00,000

Knock- Out Vessel (In the Back-End)

Specification for knock-out vessel

63
 Parameter Specifications

Operating Pressure, Kg/cm2g 35

Operating Temperature, °C 400

Vessel Capacity, cubic feet 850

Corrosion allowance, mm 3

Orientation Vertical

Life span, years 25

Material of construction Shell: ASTM SA-204 Grade “A”

Head: ASTM SA-204 Grade “P1”

Support type Skirt

The estimated cost for Knock-out vessel = Rs. 70,00,000
Fin Fan Cooler Specifications for Fin Fan Cooler

Parameter Specifications

Air Inlet temperature 32

Air flow rate 23

Design temperature 100

Design pressure 35

Type Forced draft

Material of construction Cu- 65% Al – 35%

The estimated cost for fin fan cooler = Rs 5,00,000

64
6.2 COST ESTIMATION FOR THE PRODUCTION OF LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE

Cost Estimation is the process of approximating the cost of a project. In this chapter, the cost required
for the production of 90,000 tonnes per annum of LAB is calculated.

Fixed Capital Investment

The fixed capital investment can be calculated by using the below formula. It is the capital amount
needed to supply the necessary plant needs and facilities for manufacturing.

Fixed capital investment = Purchased equipment cost + Direct cost + Indirect cost

Purchased Equipment Cost

The total estimated equipment cost in crores = Rs. 2.593 crores

Equipment Cost
[Link] Name of the Quantity Total cost (in
Approximate cost
equipment
of equipment Lakhs)

(in Lakhs)

1. Pumps 1.5 11 16.5

2. 10 1 10
Shell and Tube
heat exchanger

3. 90 1 90
Distillation
column

4. Knock out drum 70 1 70

5. Condenser 7 2 14

6. Reboiler 55 1 55

65
 7. Fin fan cooler 5 1 5

8. Valves 0.4 90 38.8

Total 299.3

Direct Costs

The cost which is directly incurred by the company for the production process is known as
direct cost . A direct cost can be considered a variable cost if it is inconsistent and changes
amounts often. The following table gives the list of direct costs.

Direct Costs
[Link] Contents % of PEC Amount in
Crores

1. Installation cost 8.3 0.246

2. Piping cost 40 1.185

3. Electrical cost 10 0.296

4. Building cost 4.6 0.136

5. Land cost 0.9 0.0267

6. Instrumentation 20 0.5926
cost

7. Service facilities 13.8 0.409

Total 2.8913

Indirect Costs

The cost which was not directly related to the manufacturing process is called as indirect cost.
It includes such as engineering, accidental cost, legal expenses, contingency, etc.

Indirect Costs

66
 [Link] Contents % of PEC Amount n
Crores

1. Design and 10 0.296

engineering

2. Construction 11 0.3259
expenses

3. Contractor’s fee 1.8 0.053

4. Legal expenses 4 0.1185

5. Contingency 7.3 0.216

costs
Total 1.0094
Fixed Capital Investment

Fixed capital investment (FCI) = Purchased equipment cost + Direct cost + Indirect cost

FCI = 2.993 + 2.963 + 1.0094

= 6.9654 Crores

6.3 DEPRECIATION

The decrease in the value of the property due to physical deterioration, technological advances and
economic changes is known as depreciation.

Original value = Purchased equipment cost + installation cost + piping cost + Building cost

= 2.993 + 0.246 + 1.185 + 0.136

V =4.56 Crores Salvage

value = 5% 0f FCI

= 5% of 6.9654

Vs = Rs. 0.3482 Crores

Depreciation rate (i) = 8%

Salvage value(n) = 20 years

67
The depreciation value is found using sum of sinking fund method,

( Taking a = 1 and calculating depreciation for the first year)

Depreciation value = (V-Vs)*(((1+i)a-1)/((1+i)n-1))

= (4.56-0.3482)*(((1+0.08)1-1)/((1+0.08)20 -1))

= Rs 0.0884 Crores.

6.4 ANNUAL INCOME

Annual income is the total value of income earned during one financial year before deducting
applicable taxes. A fiscal or financial year is April 1 st to March 31st of the next year. A majority of the
annual income calculation relies on fiscal year calculation.

Basis : 822 tons/ year of LAB

No of working days per year = 300 days

Production rate of LAB = 2740 kg/day Cost of

LAB per Kg = Rs 116

So, gross sale for 1 year,

Total income = 116*2740*300 = 9.5 Cr

Total annual income = Rs 9.5 Cr

6.5 TOTAL PRODUCTION COST

Production cost can include a variety of expenses, such as labor, raw materials, consumable,
manufacturing supplies, and general overhead. Total product costs can be determined by
adding together the total direct materials and labour costs as well as the total manufacturing
overhead costs. The total production cost is calculated as

Total Production cost = Direct production cost + Fixed charges + Plant overhead cost.

Total direct product cost

Total direct product cost is calculated as sum of raw material cost and direct product cost.

68
Total direct product cost = Raw material cost + Direct product cost

Raw material cost

Raw material Cost per Kg Quantity per year Amount

Rs Tons Crores

N-Paraffins 340 47 1.6

Benzene 94 74 0.7

Cost of N-Paraffins for 156.67 kg = Rs 1,60,00,000 Cost of Benzene

for 246.66 kg = Rs 70,00,000 Total = 16000000 + 7000000

Raw material cost = Rs 2.3 Cr

Direct product cost – I

Content % of Raw material cost Amount (Cr)

Operating labour cost 15 0.345

Utilities 20 0.46

Patents and royalties cost 15 0.345

Total Rs 1.15Cr

Direct product cost – II

Content % Amount (Cr)

Laboratory cost 15( labor cost) 0.52

Maintanence and repair cost 15 ( equipment cost) 0.24

69
 Total Rs 0.76 Cr

Total direct product cost = Raw material cost + all direct product cost

= 2,30,00,000 + 1,91,00,000

= Rs 4.21 Cr

Plant overhead cost

Plant overhead cost is the sum of all the indirect costs which are incurred while
manufacturing a product. It is added to the cost of the final product along with the direct
material and direct labor costs.

Plant overhead cost

Content capital Amount (Cr)

% of fixed

investment cost

Depreciation cost 1.7 0.18

Insurance cost 4 0.5

Local taxes 3 0.25

Medical and safety 5.2 0.31

Total Rs 0.79 Cr

Total Product cost = Total direct cost + Plant overhead cost

= 4,21,00,000 +79,00,000

= Rs 5 Cr

70
6.6 NET PROFIT

The gross earnings are determined from the overall product obtained from LAB production plant
of TPL. The net profit is obtained as a fixed percentage of the gross earnings.

Income tax = 35% of net profit

Gross Profit = Annual income – Total production cost

= 9.5 – 4.5

= 5 Crores

Net Profit = ( gross profit – depreciation) – (gross profit * Income tax)

= ( 5-0.0884) – (5*0.35)

= Rs 3.16 Crores

6.5 PAYBACK PERIOD

Total Investment = Rs. 6.5654 Cr Payback

Period = Total Investment

Net Profit + Depreciated value

= 6.9654

3.16 + 0.0884

= 2.14 years

= 2 years and 1month.

PLANT LOCATION

The location of the plant can have a crucial effect on the overall profitability of a project, and
the scope for future expansion. Many factors must be considered when selecting a site. The
principle factors are:

1. Location, with respect to the marketing area

2. Raw material supply.

71
3. Transport facilities

4. Availability of labor.

5. Availability of suitable land.

6. Environmental impact and effluent disposal

7. Local community consideration.

8. Climate.

9. Political and strategic consideration.

PLANT LAYOUT

The economic construction and operation of a process anit will depend on how well the plant
equipment specified on the process flow sheet and laid out. The principle factors to be
considered:

Economic consideration: construction and operation cost

1. The process requirement.

2. Convenience of operation

3. Safety.

4. Future expansion.

5. Modular construction.
COST:

The cost of construction can be maintained by adopting a layout that gives the shortest run of
connecting pipes between equipment, and adopting the least amount of structural steel work.
However, this will not necessarily be the best arrangement for operation and maintenance.

PROCESS REQUIREMENT

All the required equipment's have to be placed properly within process. Even the installation
of the auxiliaries should be done in such a way that it'll occupy the least space. The plant has
to be closely located to the raw material resources.

OPERATION:

72
As the plant handles toxic and inflammable materials the operation should be carried out with
full safety precautions. Equipment that needs to have frequent operation should be located
convenient to the control room. Valves, sample points, and instruments should be located at a
convenient position and height. Sufficient working space and headroom must be provided to
allow easy access to equipment.

MAINTENANCE:

Heat exchangers need to be sited so that the tube bundles can be easily withdrawn for
cleaning and tube replacement. Vessels that require frequent replacement of catalysts or
packing should be located on the outside of buildings. Equipment that requires dismantling
for maintenance, such as compressors and large pumps, should be under cover.

RAW MATERIAL SUPPLY:

The location of the raw materials of an industry contributes more towards the choice of plant
site than any other factor. This is especially noticeable in those industries in which the raw
materials are inexpensive and bulky and are made more compact and obtain a high bulk
value.

MARKETS AND TRANSPORTATION:

The existence of transportation facilities has given rise to many of the greatest trade centers
of the world. A location should be chosen, if possible, which has several competitions that
will help to maintain low rates and given better services.
POWER AND FUEL SUPPLY:

The fuel best plan is to locate near a larger coal field if coal is the primary fuel or to tie up by long
term contracts sufficient gas/oil to ensure the continuity of operation over a long term.

WATER SUPPLY:

Water for industrial purposes can be obtained from two general sources, the plant's own
sources or principle supply if the demands for water are large. It is more economical for the
industry to supply its own water such that a supply may be obtained from drilled rivers, lakes,
damned streams before a company enters up on any project, it must ensure itself as
insufficient supply of water for all industries. Sanitary and fire demands both present and
future Water nature quality is as diverse as the sites and regions from which it is.

Water temperature and chemical characteristics such as organic and inorganic contaminants,
the relative prices are of greatest economic importance in determining the value of water to
73
the chemical industry. The relative importance of each of these depends upon the service for
which the water is wanted.

LABOR:

Before locating any particular location a careful study of the supply of available labor must be
made. Factors to be considered in labor studies are supply. Kind, diversity, intelligence, wage scale,
regulations, efficiency and costs.

The layout will bed one by the (unit areas) concept method which is particularly well adopted to
large plant layout. Unite areas are often delineated by means of distant process phase and

operational producers by reasons of contamination and by satisfy consideration requirement.

Thus the delineation of the shape and extent of a unit area and of interrelationships of each
area in a master plot plan is one of the first takes of layout planning.

MATERIAL SAFETY
A safe and comfortable working environment is an essential part of efficient production.
Operating and maintenance personnel should give careful consideration for safe practices.
The following points are given from the point of view of potential hazards involved in
operating a plant where LAB is manufactured.

7.1 BENZENE

Hazards Identification

Flammable liquid. Harmful if swallowed, inhaled or absorbed through skin. Affects central nervous
through prolonged exposure.

Potential Health Effects

Inhalation:

Can cause severe respiratory disorder if inhaled.

Ingestion: Potential for aspiration if swallowed. Skin

contact:

Benzene is an irritant to skin if contacted. Can be absorbed through skin with symptoms paralleling
those from ingestion.

74
Eye contact:

Benzene is irritant to eye if contacted directly.

First Aid Measures:

Inhalation:

Benzene If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing give artificial respiration. If there is
difficulty in breathing give oxygen give medical aid. Get medical attention immediately.

Eye contact:

Flush thoroughly with water at least 15 minutes. Get medical assistance. Do not rub your eyes.
Go to the hospital immediately if symptoms (flare, irritate) occur. remove contact lenses if
worn.

Skin contact:

Wash contact areas with soap and water. Remove contaminated clothing and shoes. Get
medical aid if irritation develops and persists. Wash clothing before reuse. Flush skin with
plenty of water for at least 15 minutes while removing contaminated clothing and shoes. Go
to the hospital immediately if symptoms (flare, irritate) occur.

Fire Fighting Measures

Extinguishing Media :

1) Use dry chemical powder, carbon dioxide, or appropriate foam.

2) Unsuitable extinguishing media: Avoid use of water jet for extinguishing 3) Unusual fire (big
fire): Do use extinguishing media with water spray or fog.

Explosion:

Static electricity will cause to fire or explosion. Vapor is heavier than air. Liquid and vapour
are highly flammable. Vapor may travel a considerable distance to source of ignition. Heating
may cause expansion or decomposition leading to Violent rupture of containers. On
combustion, may emit toxic fumes of Carbon monoxide (CO).
Accidental Release Measures

75
Shut off all sources of ignition. Wear self-contained breathing apparatus. Ventilate closed
spaces before entering. Move container to safe area from the leak area. Handling the damaged
containers or spilled material after wearing protective equipment. Do not direct water at spill
or source of leak. Avoid skin contact and inhalation. Cleanup and disposal under expert
supervision is advised. Keep unauthorized people away, isolate hazard area and deny entry.

Handling & Storage

Wash thoroughly after handling. Remove contaminated clothing and wash before reuse.
Ground and bond containers when transferring material. Avoid contact with eyes, skin, and
clothing. Keep away from heat, sparks and flame. Avoid breathing vapour. Avoid direct
physical contact. Comply with all applicable laws and regulations for handling. Do not
handle until all safety precautions have been read and understood. Operators should wear
antistatic footwear and clothing.
7.2. N-PARAFFIN

Hazards Identification Flammable at higher

temperatures. Potential Health

Effects Inhalation:

Can cause severe respiratory disorder if inhaled. Skin contact:

Can cause irritation and it is hazardous if contacted with the skin.

Eye contact:

Paraffin if comes into contact with eye can cause irritation.

First Aid Measures

Inhalation:

If inhaled, remove to fresh air. If not breathing, give artificial respiration. If breathing is difficult,
give oxygen. Get medical attention.

Skin contact:

Wash with soap and water. Cover the irritated skin with an emollient. Get medical attention if
irritation develops.

Eye contact:
76
Check for and remove any contact lenses. In case of contact, immediately flush eyes with plenty
of water for at least 15 minutes. Get medical attention if irritation occurs.

Fire Fighting Measures

Extinguishing Media

In case of small fires, use DRY chemical powder. In case of large fire, use water spray, fog or foam.
Do not use water jet.

Accidental Release Measures

Steps to be taken:

• Shut off leaks if without risk.

• Warn everybody that it is explosive.

Waste Disposal Method:

Allow to evaporate under control and protect the area.

Handling & Storage

Keep away from heat. Keep away from sources of ignition. Ground all equipment containing
material. Do not breathe dust. Keep away from incompatibles such as oxidizing agents. In
case of storage keep the container tightly closed in a cool and well ventilated area.

7.3. LINEAR ALKYL BENZENE (LAB)

Potential Health Effects

Inhalation:

Under normal conditions the risk of inhalation is very low. In the event of overheating or fire
where fumes vapour or aerosols are inhaled, immediately remove the victim from the
contaminated places to a well ventilated area. Get medical attention.

Eye contact:

Wash immediately with water for at least 15 minutes. If symptoms occur, Get Medical attention.
Skin contact:

77
Immediately take off all contaminated clothing. Wash with plenty of Water and soap. If symptoms
persist, get medical attention.

Swallowing:

Do not induce vomiting since this may cause an aspiration hazard in the Trachea. Get Medical
Attention Immediately.

Fire Fighting Measures:

Extinguishing Media:
Water spray, CO2, foam, dry chemical powders, according to the materials involved in the fire.
Cool the containers exposed to the fire with water.

Accidental Release Measures:

Steps to be taken:

• Prevent from further leaks of substance.

• Dike flow of spilled material using soil or sandbags to minimize contamination of drains,
surface and ground waters.

Waste Disposal Method:

Allow to evaporate under control and protect the area.

Handling and Storage:

Precautions:

Avoid direct contact, do not eat or drink while working. Keep away from strong oxidizing agents.

Storage conditions:

Keep away from unguarded flame and sparks. Avoid accumulating Electrostatic charge. The product
can be stored in stainless steel containers as well as in carbon steel containers.

7.4 PERSONAL PROTECTION

Respiratory Protection:

Required where ventilation is insufficient or exposure is prolonged. Protection for Hands:

78
It is advisable to wear nitrile rubber or neoprene gloves. Breakthrough time of the
glove materials always seek advice from glove suppliers.

Eye Protection:

It is advisable to wear safety goggles or face shield. Protection

for Skin:

No special precaution must be adopted for normal use. However, it is possible to follow the good
7.5 NATURE OF EMERGENCIES

Emergency – occurrences of one or more of the following events:

a. Fire by release of flammable liquid / vapour.

b. Release of toxic vapour.

c. Release of toxic liquid

d. Natural Calamities

• On – Site Emergency –

Incident in which danger is confined to the area inside of factory limits and is controlled from within.

• Off-Site Emergency –

Emergency which is likely to cascade into a major event endangering neighbouring

industries, residents and calls for assistance to public, communication to Government
agencies and coordinating help with industries in the area viz. CPCL, MFL, etc.

7.6 EMERGENCY PLANT SHUTDOWN PROCEDURES (LAB)

Various emergencies that could occur in the LAB plant may necessitate
emergency shutdown of the entire plant or individual units. To safeguard the plant under such
situation, one or more of the following emergency actions have to be taken.

Emergency Shutdown Actions :

The following general actions have to be taken for any of the emergency shutdown :

79
1. Shutdown of all fired heaters as per necessity.

2. Cut off feed and close all heating streams to columns, heaters etc.

3. Maintain cooling wherever feasible.

4. Isolate acid area from non-acid area positively.

5. Maintain purge of Hydrogen in PACOL reactor whenever feasible.

6. Stop all feed streams to the unit as per necessity.

7. Close the fuel supply lines at the battery limits.

8. Depressurize the system if necessary.

9. Pump out acid to safe storage when it is required.

10. Isolate electrical equipment as required from the electrical sub-station.

11. Isolate suction and discharge valves of critical pumps either from remote or in the field.
12. Block ejectors.

13. Maintain emergency services such as plant air, drinking water, steam, etc. for safety.
14. Flush and drain critical equipment such as acid pumps, as necessary.

15. Maintain the neutralization section operation.

16. Inform all concerned about the emergency.

Depending upon the type and extent of emergency, after careful assessment, the chief
emergency co-ordinator may initiate any action or a combination of the above
mentioned action to ensure safe shutdown of the plant.

80
 CHAPTER 8
CONCLUSION

81
CONCLUSION

Our project mainly deals with the LAB process, which is one of an important intermediate for
the manufacture of synthetic detergent. Apart from main products we can obtain various
byproducts such as heavy alkylate, spindle oil which are widely used for various purposes
and the designing of distillation column is done. It gives the information such as height and
diameter. The heat transfer unit which gives the information regarding the required for
heating. The material and energy balance which provides the information about the quantity
of streams and heat flow in and out of the equipment. Thus our project explains well about
the manufacture of LAB using n-paraffin.

82
REFERENCES

1. Dryden, C.E., “Outlines of Chemicals Technology”, Edited and Revised by Gopala Rao, M. and
[Link], 2nd Edition, Affiliated East-West press, 1993.

2. McCabe, W.L., Smith, J. C. and Harriot, P. “Unit operations in Chemical

Engineering”, McGraw Hill, 7th Edition, 2001

3. Himmelblau, D.M., “Basic Principles and Calculations in Chemical

Engineering”, EEE Sixth Edition, Prentice Hall Inc., 2003

4. Narayanan, K.V. A Textbook of Chemical Engineering Thermodynamics Prentice Hall India,

2004

5. Binay K. Dutta, ”Principles of Mass Transfer and Separation Processes”, PHI Learning Ltd,
2013.

6. Treybal, R.E., “Mass Transfer Operations “, 3rd Edn., McGraw-Hill, 1981.

7. Peters and Timmerhaus, Plant design and Economics for Chemical Engineers, McGraw Hill 5th
Edition, 2004

8. R. K. Sinnott, “Coulson & Richardson’s Chemical Engineering”, Vol. 6, Butterworth

Heinermann, Oxford, 1996

9. Green D. W., “Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook”, 8th Edition McGraw Hill, 2007

10. Chemical Process Safety: Fundamentals with Applications, Daniel A. Crowl,

J.F. Louvar, Prantice Hall, NJ, 1990

11. MASS TRANSFER: Theory and Practice N. Anantharaman and K.M. Meera Sheriffa Begum.

12. Stoichiometry and Process calculations by K V Narayanan and B.

Lakshmikutty

83