WATER

Water is an essential nutrient, more important to life than any of the others. The body needs more
water each day than any other nutrient. Water constitutes about 60 percent of an adult’s body
weight and a higher percentage of a child’s body; Because water makes up about three-fourths of
the weight of lean tissue and less than one-fourth of the weight of fat, a person’s body
composition influences how much of the body’s weight is water. The proportion of water is
generally smaller in females, obese people, and the elderly because of their smaller proportion of
lean tissue. In the body, water is the fluid in which all life processes occur. The water in the
body fluids:
• Carries nutrients and waste products throughout the body
• Maintains the structure of large molecules such as proteins and glycogen
• Participates in metabolic reactions
• Serves as the solvent for minerals, vitamins, amino acids, glucose, and many other small
molecules so that they can participate in metabolic activities
• Acts as a lubricant and cushion around joints and inside the eyes, the spinal cord, and, in
pregnancy, the amniotic sac surrounding the fetus in the womb
• Aids in the regulation of normal body temperature (Evaporation of sweat from the skin
removes excess heat from the body.)
• Maintains blood volume to support these and other vital functions, the body actively maintains
an appropriate

Water balance.
Water Balance and Recommended Intakes
Every cell contains fluid of the exact composition that is best for that cell (intracellular fluid)
and is bathed externally in another such fluid (interstitial fluid). Interstitial fluid is the largest
component of extracellular fluid. These fluids continually lose and replace their components,
yet the composition in each compartment remains remarkably constant under normal conditions.
Because imbalances can be devastating, the body quickly responds by adjusting both water
intake and excretion as needed. Consequently, the entire system of cells and fluids remains in a
delicate, but controlled, state of homeostasis.
Water Intake Thirst and satiety influence water intake, apparently in response to changes
sensed by the mouth, hypothalamus, and nerves. When water intake is inadequate, the blood
becomes concentrated (having lost water but not the dissolved substances within it), the mouth
becomes dry, and the hypothalamus initiates drinking behavior. When water intake is excessive,
the stomach expands and stretch receptors send signals to stop drinking. Similar signals are sent
from receptors in the heart as blood volume increases. Thirst drives a person to seek water, but it
lags behind the body’s need. When too much water is lost from the body and not replaced,
dehydration develops. A first sign of dehydration is thirst, the signal that the body has already
lost some of its fluid. If a person is unable to obtain fluid or, as in many elderly people, fails to
perceive the thirst message, the symptoms of dehydration may progress rapidly from thirst to
weakness, exhaustion, and delirium—and end in death if not corrected. Dehydration may easily
develop with either water deprivation or excessive water losses.
Water intoxication, on the other hand, is rare but can occur with excessive water ingestion and
kidney disorders that reduce urine production. The symptoms may include confusion,
convulsions, and even death in extreme cases. Excessive water ingestion (10 to 20 liters) within a
few hours contributes to the dangerous condition known as hyponatremia, sometimes seen in
endurance athletes. For this reason, guidelines suggest limiting fluid intake during times of heavy
sweating to 1 to 1.5 liters per hour.
Water Sources The obvious dietary sources of water are water itself and other beverages, but
nearly all foods also contain water. Most fruits and vegetables contain up to 90 percent water,
and many meats and cheeses contain at least 50 percent. Also, water is generated during
metabolism. when the energy-yielding nutrients break down, their carbons and hydrogens
combine with oxygen to yield carbon dioxide (CO2) and water (H2O).
Water Losses The body must excrete a minimum of about 500 milliliters (about 2 cups) of water
each day as urine—enough to carry away the waste products generated by a day’s metabolic
activities. Above this amount, excretion adjusts to balance intake. If a person drinks more water,
the kidneys excrete more urine, and the urine becomes more dilute. In addition to urine, water is
lost from the lungs as vapor and from the skin as sweat; some is also lost in feces. The amount of
fluid lost from each source varies, depending on the environment (such as heat or humidity) and
physical conditions (such as exercise or fever). On average, daily losses total about 21/2 liters.
water excretion balances intake; maintaining this balance requires healthy kidneys and an
adequate intake of fluids.
Water Recommendations Because water needs vary depending on diet, activity, environmental
temperature, and humidity, a general water requirement is difficult to establish.
Recommendations are sometimes expressed in proportion to the amount of energy expended
under average environmental conditions. The recommended water intake for a person who
expends 2000 kcalories a day, for example, is 2 to 3 liters of water (about 8 to 12 cups). This
recommendation is in line with the Adequate Intake (AI) for total water set by the DRI
Committee. Total water includes not only drinking water, but water in other beverages and in
foods as well. Because a wide range of water intakes will prevent dehydration and its harmful
consequences, the AI is based on average intakes. People who are physically active or who live
in hot environments may need more.
Any beverage can readily meet the body’s fluid needs, but those with few or no kcalories do so
without contributing to weight gain. Given that obesity is a major health problem and that
beverages currently represent over 20 percent of the total energy intake in the United States,
most people would do well to select water as their preferred beverage. Other choices include tea,
coffee, nonfat and low-fat milk and soymilk, artificially sweetened beverages, fruit and vegetable
juices, sports drinks, and lastly, sweetened nutrient- poor beverages. Some research indicates that
people who drink caffeinated beverages lose a little more fluid than when drinking water because
caffeine acts as a diuretic. The DRI Committee considered such findings in their
recommendations for water intake and concluded: “Caffeinated beverages contribute to the daily
total water intake similar to that contributed by non-caffeinated beverages.” In other words, it
doesn’t seem to matter whether people rely on caffeine-containing beverages or other beverages
to meet their fluid needs.
Health Effects of Water In addition to meeting the body’s fluid needs, drinking plenty of water
may protect against urinary stones and constipation. Even mild dehydration seems to interfere
with daily tasks involving concentration, alertness, and short-term memory. The kind of water a
person drinks may also make a difference to health. Water is usually either hard or soft. Hard
water has high concentrations of calcium and magnesium; sodium or potassium is the principal
mineral of soft water. In practical terms, soft water makes more bubbles with less soap; hard
water leaves a ring on the tub, a crust of rocklike crystals in the teakettle, and a gray residue in
the laundry. Soft water may seem more desirable around the house, and some homeowners
purchase water softeners that replace magnesium and calcium with sodium. body, however, soft
water with sodium may aggravate hypertension and heart disease. In contrast, the minerals in
hard water may benefit these conditions. Soft water also more easily dissolves certain
contaminant minerals, such as cadmium and lead, from old plumbing pipes. People who live in
old buildings should run the cold water tap a minute to flush out harmful minerals whenever the
water faucet has been off for more than six hours. Many people select bottled water, believing it
to be safer than tap water and therefore worth its substantial cost.

Aerated water is, water to which air is added. The term is, however, frequently applied to water.
Sulfur compounds dissolved in water are not necessarily dangerous, but can give the water a bad
taste or foul smell. These compounds can be removed in several ways, the most effective being
by exposure to chlorine gas. However, aeration can also be effective if the amount of sulfur in
the water is relatively low. During aeration, water is pumped into a non-pressurized tank and
agitated. This physically removes many of the sulfur compounds, which are then vented.
Exposure to oxygen in the air also oxidizes some of the compounds, creating atomic sulfur which
can be filtered from the water. Aeration is also an effective means of removing radon from water.

Springs occur when water pressure causes a natural flow of groundwater onto the earth's surface.
As rainwater enters or "recharges" the aquifer, pressure is placed on the water already present.
This pressure moves water through the cracks and tunnels within the aquifer, and this water
flows out naturally to the surface at places called springs.

When rivers flood, the pressure created by rising floodwaters causes many springs within the
Suwannee River Basin to reverse flow and bring river water into the aquifer. This reverse flow is
an important part of groundwater recharge and the health of the caves associated with the
springs.

Springs can be categorized in a number of ways, with the two main ones being discharge (the
amount of water flow out of the spring) and spring water chemistry.
Distilled water is water that has been boiled into vapor and condensed back into liquid in a
separate container. Impurities in the original water that do not boil below or near the boiling
point of water remain in the original container. Thus, distilled water is a type of purified water.

In chemical and biological laboratories, as well as in industry, in some appliances deionized

water can be used instead of distilled water as a cheaper alternative. If exceptionally high-purity
water is required, double distilled water is used.

In general, non-purified water could cause or interfere with chemical reactions as well as leave
mineral deposits after boiling away. One method of removing impurities from water and other
fluids is distillation.

For example, ions commonly found in tap water would drastically reduce lifespans of lead–acid
batteries used in cars and trucks. These ions are not acceptable in automotive cooling systems
because they corrode internal engine components and deplete typical antifreeze anti-corrosion
additives.

Any non-volatile or mineral components in water are left behind when the water evaporates or
boils away. Water escaping as steam, for example from a boiler of heating system or steam
engine, leaves behind any dissolved materials leading to mineral deposits known as boiler scale.

FACTS ABOUT WATER BALANCE

At a cellular level, the distribution of the various fluid compartments in the body is paramount
for the maintenance of health, function, and survival. For the average 70 kg man, 60% of the
total body weight is comprised of water, equaling 42L. The body's fluid separates into two main
compartments: Intracellular fluid volume (ICFV) and extracellular fluid volume (ECFV).

 Of the 42L of water found in the body, two-thirds of it is within the intracellular fluid
(ICF) space, which equates to 28L.

 The ECFV is comprised of two spaces: The interstitial fluid volume (ISFV) and the
plasma volume (PV). One-third of the total body water is the ECFV, which is equivalent
to 14L. Out of the extracellular fluid volume, 75% or 10.5L of the volume is present in
the interstitial space, and 25% of that water is in the plasma, which is equivalent to 3.5L.
 Each space works in unison with each other and has different functions paramount for
normal physiological function.

 The intracellular fluid is comprised of at least ten separate minuscule cellular packages.
For the sake of simplicity and to make the analysis of the intracellular space viable, the
concept of a united intracellular “compartment” has been created as these collections
have important unifying similarities such as location, composition, and behavior, which
provides practical utility in the study of physiology.

 The interstitial fluid consists of fluid, which lies in the space between and around bodily
tissue. Although technically a “virtual” space, the interstitial fluid bathes all the cells in
the body and links between intracellular fluid and the intravascular compartment. ISF
contains nutrients, oxygen, waste, chemical messengers, and contains a small amount of
protein. The ISF also contains the lymphatic system, which returns protein as well as
excess ISF into the circulation.

 Plasma is the only fluid compartment that exists as a real fluid collection all in one space.
It differs from the interstitial fluid by its higher protein content and its function in
transportation. Plasma is a component of blood and is said to be the “interstitial fluid of
the blood” as it bathes the suspended red and white cells, which also reside in the blood

Name Chemical Name Functions Deficiency

Vitamin A Retinol and Beta- Visual pigments in Night blindness,
carotene (Plant) the retina; cell xerophthalmia;
differentiation; β- keratinization of skin
carotene is an
antioxidant
Vitamin D Calciferol Maintenance of Rickets (poor
calcium balance; mineralization of
enhances intestinal bone); osteomalacia
absorption of Ca2+ (demineralization of
and mobilizes bone bone)
 mineral
Vitamin E Tocopherols Antioxidant, Extremely rare:
Tocotrienols especially in cell serious neurological
membranes dysfunction
Vitamin K Phylloquinone Coenzyme in Impaired blood
Menaquinones formation of γ- clotting, hemorrhagic
carboxyglutamate in disease
enzymes of blood
clotting and bone
matrix
Vitamin B1 Thiamin Coenzyme in Peripheral nerve
pyruvate and 2-keto- damage (beriberi) or
glutarate central nervous
dehydrogenases, and system lesions
transketolase; poorly (Wernicke–Korsakoff
defined function in syndrome)
nerve conduction
Vitamin B2 Riboflavin Coenzyme in Lesions of corner of
oxidation and mouth, lips, and
reduction reactions; tongue; seborrheic
prosthetic group of dermatitis
flavoproteins
Vitamin B3 Niacin Coenzyme in Pellagra:
oxidation and photosensitive
Nicotinic acid
reduction reactions, dermatitis, depressive
functional part of psychosis
Nicotinamide
NAD and NADP
Vitamin B6 Pyridoxine Coenzyme in Disorders of amino
transamination and acid metabolism,
Pyridoxal
decarboxylation of convulsions
amino acids and
 Pyridoxamine glycogen
phosphorylase; role
in steroid hormone
action
Vitamin B9 Folic acid Coenzyme in transfer Megaloblastic anemia
of one-carbon
fragments
Vitamin B12 Cobalamin Coenzyme in transfer Pernicious anemia
of one-carbon (megaloblastic
fragments and anemia with
metabolism of folic degeneration of the
acid spinal cord)
Vitamin B5 Pantothenic acid Functional part of Peripheral nerve
coenzyme A and acyl damage (burning foot
carrier protein syndrome)
Vitamin B8 Biotin Coenzyme in Impaired fat and
carboxylation carbohydrate
reactions in metabolism,
gluconeogenesis and dermatitis
fatty acid synthesis
Vitamin C Ascorbic acid Coenzyme in Scurvy: impaired
hydroxylation of wound healing, loss
proline and lysine in of dental cement,
collagen synthesis; subcutaneous
antioxidant; enhances hemorrhage
absorption of iron