ELEMENTS OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING & WORKSHOP PRACTICES

Unit III

Machine Tools: Introduction, types of machine tools and its applications.

Lathe operations-Turning, facing, Taper Turning and thread cutting; Drilling
operations- drilling and tapping; Milling operations- Plane milling, End milling;
Grinding operations- Surface grinding; Cylindrical grinding

Mechatronics and Automation: Open and closed loop mechatronic systems. Fixed,
Programmable & Flexible automation, CNC machines: Basic elements with simple
block diagrams, applications.

Robotics: Introduction, Robot anatomy, classification based on robot configuration

Applications of robots
 MACHINE TOOLS
Machine tool: A machine tool may be defined as a power-driven machine which
accomplishes the cutting or machining operations in it. The examples for such machine
tools may be lathe, milling machine, grinding machine, drilling machine, planning machine
etc.
Machining is a manufacturing process in which the geometry of the work is changed by
removing excess material. The material is removed by means of the relative motion
between a cutting tool and the workpiece. By controlling the action of the tool against the
work, the desired geometry is created. They are classed as one of the following: (1) turning
machines (lathes and boring mills), (2) shapers and planers, (3) drilling machines, (4)
milling machines, (5) grinding machines, (6) power saws, and (7) presses.
Lathe machine working principle:
AA lathe is a machine tool generally employed produce circular objects. Almost all the
operations that can be performed on other machine tools like drilling machine, milling
machine, shaping machine etc. can be performed on a lathe.

Fig. Lathe machine working principle:

Principle of working: A lathe works on the principle that cutting tool can remove material
in the form of chips from rotating work pieces to produce circular objects. The figure 5.1
shows work piece held rigidly by one of the work holding devices, known as chuck and
rotated at high speeds. A V – shaped cutting tool (which is stronger and harder than the
work piece) held against the work piece opposite to the direction of rotation of the work
piece produces circular surfaces as shown in the figure.
Lathe operations:
Plain Turning: The process of metal removal from the cylindrical jobs is called straight or
plain turning. Cross slide and the carriage are used to perform turning operations. Plain
turning operation is performed in two steps.
i) Rough turning (Roughing): is usually done on rolled, cast or forged parts to remove
uneven, sandy or rough surface from the work pieces. Roughing is done by a roughing tool
(2-4 mm feed) and excess stock is removed. ii) Finish turning (Finishing): For finishing,
a tool with slightly round cutting edge a tool with slightly round cutting edge is used. The
depth of cut ranges between 0.2 to 1mm and the feed rate between 0.1 to 0.3mm.

Fig: Turning operation

Facing:

Fig: Facing operation

Facing is the operation of producing a flat surface on the ends of work piece
perpendicular to the axis. This can also be used to reduce the lengths of the work piece to
required lengths. To perform this the tool is set to the height at which the work piece axis
lies, and fed gradually moving the cross slide in the direction perpendicular to the axis of
the work piece.
Taper turning:
Taper turning involves producing a conical surface on a cylindrical surface in lathe. A taper
surface can be produced either by rotating the job normally and feeding the tool at some
angle (like in compound rest swivel method) or by rotating the job at an off – set angle and
feeding the tool normally (like in tail stock set – over method). Methods of taper turning.
Swiveling the compound rest. 2. Tailstock setover method.

1. Taper turning by swiveling compound tool rest method.

Fig: Taper turning

The principle of taper turning operation by swiveling the compound rest method is as
shown in the figure 5.6. In this method the job is rotated on the lathe axis, while tool feeding
is done at an angle, by the swiveled compound rest. To assist in swiveling at particular
angle, the base of the compound rest is graduated in degrees. The taper angle i.e. the angle
at which the compound rest to be rotated is calculated as below.
D−d
Tan α =
2L
where, α = half taper angle ( simply taper angle ), degrees
D = larger diameter of the taper in mm.
d = smaller diameter of the taper in mm.
L = length of the taper in mm.
By calculating the taper angle, the compound rest can be swiveled to the angle. The tool
feeding is done only by the compound rest handle so that the tool moves at the set angle
only.
Taper turning by Tailstock set over method
Known as Offsetting the Tailstock
Most common method, Best suited for long work pieces having less taper
Only external tapers can be produced, Amount of offset is limited by the size of the
tailstock

Fig: Taper turning by Tailstock set over method

Thread cutting: Thread cutting is the process of generating helically groove on the surface
of a cylindrical or conical body. An external screw thread is formed on the outer surface of
a cylindrical part. Threading is the process of cutting helical grooves on the work piece by
restricting the speed of the tool and workpiece to a calculated value. 1RPM= I PITCH

Fig: Thread cutting operation

 DRILLING
Drilling is a metal cutting process carried out by a rotating cutting tool to make circular
holes in solid materials.
Principle of Working: The drill known as twist drill consists of sharp twisted edges with
helical grooves provided along the length to allow cut material to escape through it.
• Tool used – Twist Drill, Consist of helical groove (FLUTE) along the length of the tool
• Machine used – Drilling Machine
• The stationary work is held in a fixture and the rotating tool is fed vertically down.
• Removes the material, layer by layer, Chips get curled and escape through the groove

Tapping: Tapping is the process of creating threads on the inner surface of a drilled hole.
A variety of taps are available in the shop to match almost any screw type available,
including metric and standard measurements.

Fig: Drilling, Tapping operations & Drill Tap

 MILLING
Milling is a process performed with a machine in which the cutters rotate to remove the
material from the work piece present in the direction of the angle with the tool axis. With
the help of the milling machines one can perform many operations and functions starting
from small objects to large ones. While a drill bit can only cut in the axial direction,
a milling bit can generally cut in all directions, though some cannot cut axially.
Plain Milling: Plain milling is the milling of a flat surface with the axis of the cutter
parallel to the machining surface
End Milling: End Milling is the milling of a flat surface with the axis of the cutter
perpendicular to the machining surface, It is used to mill slots, pockets, keyways.

Fig: Plain Milling Operations

Fig: End Milling Operations

 GRINDING
Grinding is machining process that’s used to remove material from a workpiece via a
grinding wheel. As the grinding wheel turns, it cuts material off the workpiece while
creating a smooth surface texture in the process.
A grinding machine, machine tools used for grinding, it is a type of machining using an
abrasive wheel as the cutting tool. Each grain of abrasive on the wheel's surface cuts a
small chip from the workpiece via shear deformation.
Grinding is used to finish workpieces that must show high surface quality (e.g., low surface
roughness) and high accuracy of shape and dimension. As the accuracy in dimensions in
grinding is of the order of 0.000025 mm, in most applications it tends to be a finishing
operation and removes comparatively little metal, about 0.25 to 0.50 mm depth.
Surface Grinding: The grinding of flat surfaces is known as surface grinding.
The figure shows the principle of operation of surface grinding. A surface grinder with
horizontal spindle and reciprocating table is suitable for general surface grinding
applications. In this the grinding wheel runs in a horizontal spindle on the workpiece
surface to be ground. Grinding operation stars at one end and the table traverses to the other
end with the workpiece (Reciprocating movement). The feed is given by the movement of
the table (towards the operator) at the end of each reciprocating movement. After grinding
the complete surface area of work, the wheel can be moved slightly down to give increased
depth of cut. This procedure is continued until required surface finish and thickness is
obtained.

Fig: Surface Grinding operation

Cylindrical grinding: Cylindrical grinding is the operation of producing or finishing
cylindrical surfaces, generally on pre-machined cylindrical surfaces using high speed
abrasive wheel. The principle of operation of cylindrical grinding is illustrated in the figure.

Fig: Cylindrical Grinding operation

In operation, the cylindrical job with center holes is rotated between centers. Here the
headstock center does not revolve with the work piece, but remains stationary. A dog
clamped to the work is driven by a pin fastened to the spindle of the head stock. The
grinding wheel is driven by another electric motor with a belt. The work piece and the
wheel both rotate in the same direction. The wheel rotates at a high speed while the work
rotates at a low speed. The lateral movement of the wheel close to the work gives the depth
of cut. A third motor drives a hydraulic pump to traverse the table using reciprocating
arrangement. This traversing movement of the table in both directions provides the feed.
When the grinding wheel reaches the limit of its travel at either end, the wheel head can be
moved to give a new depth of cut. This can be done manually or automatically.
 MECHATRONICS AND AUTOMATION
Mechatronics is ‘The synergistic use of precision engineering, control theory, computer
science, and sensor and actuator technology to design improved products and processes’
Mechatronics is the Branch of engineering science which deals with the integration of
microprocessor control system, Electrical system and Mechanical system. Mechatronics
has a variety of applications as products and systems in the area of ‘manufacturing
automation'. Some of these applications are as follows:

1. Computer numerical control (CNC) machines

2. Tool monitoring systems
3. Advanced manufacturing systems

a. Flexible manufacturing system (FMS)

b. Computer integrated manufacturing (CIM)

4. Industrial robots
5. Automatic inspection systems: machine vision systems
6. Automatic packaging systems

Open and closed loop mechatronic systems:

Open Loop: A system in which the output is dependent on input but controlling action or
input is totally independent of the output changes.
Ex. for Open Loop system: Traffic light controller
Closed Loop: A system in which a controlling action or input is somehow dependent on
the output or changes in the output is called closed loop system. This system uses a
feedback property.
Feedback: property of the system due to which output is compared to the input to generate
an error signal based on which the controlling action can be decided.
Automation: The dictionary defines automation as “the technique of making an apparatus,
a process, or a system operate automatically.”
Also defined as: "the creation and application of technology to monitor and control the
production and delivery of products and services.”
Automation is the application of technology, programs, robotics or processes to achieve
outcomes with minimal human input.

Fig: Automation in Production system

Fixed automation: It is a system in which the sequence of processing (or assembly)
operations is fixed by the equipment configuration. The operations in the sequence are
usually simple. It is the integration and coordination of many such operations into one piece
of equipment that makes the system complex. The typical features of fixed automation are:

• High initial investment for custom–Engineered equipment;

• High production rates; and
• Relatively inflexible in accommodating product changes.

Programmable Automation: In this the production equipment is designed with the

capability to change the sequence of operations to accommodate different product
configurations. The operation sequence is controlled by a program, which is a set of
instructions coded so that the system can read and interpret them. New programs can be
prepared and entered into the equipment to produce new products. Some of the features
that characterize programmable automation are:

• High investment in general-purpose equipment;

• Low production rates relative to fixed automation;
• Flexibility to deal with changes in product configuration; and
• Most suitable for batch production.
Flexible Automation: It is an extension of programmable automation. A flexible
automated system is one that is capable of producing a variety of products (or parts) with
virtually no time lost for changeovers from one product to the next. There is no production
time lost while reprogramming the system and altering the physical setup (tooling, fixtures,
and machine setting). Consequently, the system can produce various combinations and
schedules of products instead of requiring that they be made in separate batches. The
features of flexible automation can be summarized as follows:
• High investment for a custom-engineered system.
• Continuous production of variable mixtures of products.
• Medium production rates.
• Flexibility to deal with product design variations.

CNC Machines: CNC stands for Computer Numerical Control. When computers are used
to control a Numerical Control (NC) machine tool than the machine is called CNC
machine. In other words, the use of computers to control machine tools like lathe, mills,
shaper etc is called CNC machine.

Fig: Block diagram of CNC machine

The main parts of the CNC machine are
(i) Input Devices: These are the devices which are used to input the part program in the
CNC machine. There are three commonly used input devices and these are punch tape
reader, magnetic tape reader and computer via RS-232-C communication.
(ii) Machine Control Unit (MCU): It is the heart of the CNC machine. It performs all the
controlling action of the CNC machine, the various functions performed by the MCU are
It reads the coded instructions fed into it.
It decodes the coded instruction.
It implements interpolation ( linear, circular and helical ) to generate axis motion
commands.
It feeds the axis motion commands to the amplifier circuits for driving the axis
mechanisms.
It receives the feedback signals of position and speed for each drive axis.
It implements the auxiliary control functions such as coolant or spindle on/off and tool
change.
(iii) Machine Tool: A CNC machine tool always has a slide table and a spindle to control
of the position and speed. The machine table is controlled in X and Y axis direction and
the spindle is controlled in the Z axis direction.
(iv) Driving System: The driving system of a CNC machine consists of amplifier circuits,
drive motors and ball lead screw.
• The MCU feeds the signals (i.e. of position and speed) of each axis to the amplifier
circuits.
• The control signals are than augmented (increased) to actuate the drive motors. And
the actuated drive motors rotate the ball lead screw to position the machine table.
(v) Feedback System: This system consists of transducers that acts like sensors. It is also
called as measuring system.
• It contains position and speed transducers that continuously monitor the position
and speed of the cutting tool located at any instant.
• The MCU receives the signals from these transducers and it uses the difference
between the reference signals and feedback signals to generate the control signals
for correcting the position and speed errors.
(vi) Display Unit: A monitor is used to display the programs, commands and other useful
data of CNC machine.
Working of CNC machine:
First the part program is inserted into the MCU of the CNC.
In MCU all the data process takes place and according to the program prepared, it prepares
all the motion commands and sends it to the driving system.
The drive system works as the motion commands are send by MCU. Drive system controls
the motion and velocity of the machine tool.
• Feedback system, records the position and velocity measurement of the machine
tool and sends a feedback signal to the MCU.
• In MCU, the feedback signals are compared with the reference signals and if there
are errors, it corrects it and sends new signals to the machine tool for the right
operation to happen.
• A display unit is used to see all the commands, programs and other important data.
It acts as the eye of the machine.

Advantages of CNC machine:

1. It can produce jobs with highest accuracy and precision than any other manual
machine.
2. It can be run for long durations.
3. The parts produced by it have same accuracy. There is no variation in the parts
manufactured by a CNC machine.
4. Highly skilled operator is not required to operate a CNC machine. A semi-skilled
operator can also operate accurately and more precisely.
5. Operators can easily make changes and improvements and reduces the delay time.
ROBOTICS
A robot is a machine—especially one programmable by a computer— capable of carrying
out a complex series of actions automatically. Robotics is the branch of technology that
deals with the design, construction, operation, and application of robots.
Robots can be guided by an external control device or the control may be embedded
within. Robots may be constructed to take on human form but most robots are machines
designed to perform a task with no regard to how they look.
Robot anatomy deals with the study of different joints and links and other aspects of the
manipulator's physical construction. A robotic joint provides relative motion between two
links of the robot. Each joint, or axis, provides a certain degree-of- freedom (dof) of motion.
In most of the cases, only one degree-of-freedom is associated with each joint. Therefore
the robot's complexity can be classified according to the total number of degrees-of-
freedom they possess.
Degrees of freedom: The degrees of freedom (dof) of a rigid body is defined as the number
of independent movements it has. Higher number dof indicates an increased flexibility in
positioning a tool. For each degree of freedom, a joint is required. The degrees of freedom
located in the arm define the configuration. Three degrees of freedom located in the wrist
give the end effector all the flexibility.
A total of six degrees of freedom is needed to locate a robot’s hand at any point in its work
space.
Applications of Robots:
Outer Space Applications: Robots are playing a very important role for outer space
exploration. The robotic unmanned spacecraft is used as the key of exploring the stars,
planets...etc.
Military Applications: Predator drones, Missile firing and Loading, Marine robotics etc.
Intelligent Home Applications: monitor home security, environmental conditions and
energy usage with intelligent robotic home systems.
Industry: Robotic arms which are able to perform multiple tasks such as welding, cutting,
lifting, sorting and bending are used in fabrics.
Health Service: Under development is a robotic suit that will enable nurses to lift patients
without damaging their backs. Operations and complex surgeries.

Classification based on robot configuration:

1. Cartesian
2. Cylindrical
3. Polar/Spherical
4. Articulated

Fig; Different Robot configuration

1. Rectangular Configuration: - This uses three perpendicular slides to construct the x,
y, z axes. By moving three slides relative to one another, the robot is capable of
operating within a rectangular work envelope. These are also called as Cartesian
configuration robots.
2. Cylindrical Configuration: These uses a vertical column and a slide that can be
moved up and down along the column. The robot arm is attached to the slide so that
it can be moved radially with respect to the column. By rotting the column, the robot
is capable of retrieving a cylindrical work envelope.
3. Spherical Configuration: IT uses telescopic arm that can be raised or lowered about
a horizontal pivot point. The pivot point is mounted on a rotating base and gives the
robot its vertical movement. These various joints provide the robot with the ability
to move its arm within a spherical envelope.
4. Articulated - This robot design features rotary joints and can range from simple two
joint structures to 10 or more joints. The arm is connected to the base with a twisting
joint. The links in the arm are connected by rotary joints. Each joint is called an axis
and provides an additional degree of freedom, or range of motion.