Cell mediated immunity

1. Physical barriers Pathogen enter Suppressor cells suppress the entire

Skin- mucin barriers - prevents entry of micro organisms, pH of skin destroy the bacteria ↓ immune system
Macrophage interact and activate T- Memory cells retain memory
Mucosa - mucus coating epithelium helps in trapping microbes entering our body
helper cells by releasing cytokines

2. Physiological barriers
↓
T helper cells stimulate killer cells
Line of defence-
Fever, pH of the body, secretions such as lysozymes
↓ 1 - skin, mucus membrane
Produce clone
2 - neutrophil, monocytes
3. Cellular barriers ↓ 3 - specific immunity by B&T lymphocytes
Phagocytic cells - pathogen enters due to which WBC count increases- engulf the foreign particles Lymphokines produced which
Eg - monocytes, neutrophil, ,macrophages accumulate WBC

Non Phagocytic cells - large granular lymphocyte cells- create pores by secretion into cell which takes water ↓
Killer cells destroy infected cells and kill
and get burst
pathogen

4. Cytokines barriers Antibody mediated immunity

Antigen binding site
Virus infected cells secrete proteins called interferons which protect non - infected cell from further infection wrzt Nus
Interferon - 270 AA Nu ag
-

N
ga

:
-L Variable of light chain
Variable of heavy chain t
Produce translation inhibiting protein which limits infection of virus

Primary and secondary response are carried out with the help of B-lymphocyte and T-lymphocyte
-
At te Constant of light chain

Secrete antibodies
X I
Help to produce antibodies
Di- sulfide bonds
For
ACTIVE IMMUNITY
Produced actively by the immune system of host
Induced by infections or by contacts with immunogens
PASSIVE IMMUNITY
Received passively by host
Immune system do not participate
H2L2
Lock and key fashion

Function-
1. Agglutination
100
-
Constant of heavy chain

100 - Epitope

Paratope
E Antigen

Response is durable and effective Introduction of ready made antibodies 2. Opsonisation "I
Memory present Short lived and less effective 3. Neutralisation

Immunity is slow Immediate effect Cancer

Uncontrolled abnormal and excessive mitotic division of cells is called cancer
Eg vaccination. No memory
These abnormal and undifferentiated cells are called cancer cells
Eg colostrum
-
Study of cancer is called oncology
ANTIBODY CHARACTERS FUNCTIONS
- In our bodies, cell growth and differentiation is highly controlled and regulated process. The normal cells of
IgG (75-80%) Can pass through placenta Immunity to embryo the body show contact inhibition and this property is lost in cancerous cells which causes tumour. There are
Phagocytosis two types of tumour.
Benign tumour
IgA (10%) Primary antibodies Protection of mucus Remain confined to their original location and causes little damage
Present in colostrum membranes Malignant tumour
Saliva, mucus Mass of proliferating cells called neoplastic or tumour cells, grow rapidly, invading, and damaging the cells
of the body
IgM (5-10%) Oldest and first antibody First antibody generated
The cells divide actively and here metastasis occur
Blood plasma largest in immune response
size Strong agglutination
Cancer detection and diagnosis

Linkage with mast cell and basophils Allergic reactions 1. Blood examination – increased WBC count
IgE (0.05%)
Protection from parasites 2. Biopsy – nucleus enlarged
Activation of B lymphocytes 3. X-ray, CT scan and MRI – 3-D image of internal organs
IgD (1-3%) Present on the surface of and development and 4. Monoclonal antibodies.
lymphocytes maturation of immune
reaction Treatment
Causes of cancer
1. Surgery
1. Carcinogen.
Vaccination and immunisation 2. Radiotherapy.
2. Radiations.
Vaccine is suspension of attenuated/inactivated pathogens or 3. Chemotherapy.
3. Congenic viruses.
antigenic protein of pathogens which is taken orally or injected to 4. Immunotherapy.
provide immunity
Edward Jenner - father of immunology It is the principle based on property of
memory of immune system
Louis Pasteur - discovered the process of
inactivating the pathogen and prepared vaccines
for cholera, anthrax and rabies.
Von Behring - discovered passive immunisation-
antidiptherial serum by injecting diphtheria
antigen into sheep- father of passive
immunisation.
 SEXUALLY TRANSMITTED DISEASES
F) IMPLANTS
. Drugs and alcohol abuse 1) Transmitted through Hormone containing devices
1. Chlamydia - chlamydia trachomatis • Body fluids
A. Opioids Implanted under skin in fan shape ( 6 silicon capsule)
2. Gonorrhoea - Nisseria gonorrhoeae • Sexual contact
Example, morphine, heroine, et cetera
Eg Norplant - contraception for 5 years
These binds to specific receptor present in our central nervous system and gastrointestinal tract 3. Syphillis - Treponema pallidum • Use of same needles
Heroine commonly known as smack is formed by di acetylation of morphine 4. Genital warts - human papilloma virus
G) EMERGENCY CONTRACEPTION
This heroine is white, odourless, bitter, and is a crystalline compound 5. Genital herpes- HSV 2
Also known as morning after pills
Morphine is extracted from latex of poppy plant called papaver somniferum 6. AIDS - human immunodeficiency virus
It is taken by snorting or injection IUD’s , combine pills and mini pills are also emergency contraceptive
7. Trachomaniasis - Trichomonas vaginallis
Heroine is a depressant and slow down body function, while morphine is a sedative and a painkiller These are taken to avoid fertilisation after unprotected copulation

B. Cannabinoids BIRTH CONTROL H) STERLISATION METHOD

Cannabinoid receptors are present in brain 1. Vasectomy done in males
It is obtained from inflorescence of cannabis sativa A) NATURAL METHODS
Flower tops, leaves and raisins of cannabis plant are used in various combination to produce marijuana, vas deferens is cut and tied which do not let sperm to reach uterus. It
hashish, Charas, Ganja 1. Rhythm method couples avoid coitus during 10th day to 17th day of menstrual cycle does not impact the maleness of a male
It is taken by in elation and injection, and it affects the cardiovascular system of the body 2. Tubectomy done in females
because this time period is most fertile window of a female (ovulation occurs)
2. Coitus interruptus/ withdrawal method male withdraw his penis before insemination Fallopian tube is cut and tied which do not let sperm to reach ampulla of
C. Coca alkaloids
Obtained from erythroxylum coca during coitus. Not a safe method fallopian tube .
Interfere in the transport of neurotransmitters such as dopamine 3. Lactational ammenorhoea during lactation period the level of oxytocin is high in the
It increases the energy and action of central nervous system
body due to which ovulation does not take place these fertilisation do not occur. This
Attropa belladonna and datura act as hallucinogen period is upto 6 months.
B) BARRIER METHOD
Barbiturates, amphetamine, benzodiazphenes - depression and insomnia 1. Condoms worn by male during copulation. It is a rubbery latex sheath which create barrier
between speed and ova as it do not let sperms to reach cervix. It also prevent STDs. It cannot be
reused.
2. Female condoms has two rings one smaller and one bigger. One ring is placed to cover cervix so
that it can create barrier. It is made up of polyurethane. It can be reused.
3. Diaphragms tubular rubber sheath which covers cervix.
Vaults and cervical Caps are some more barrier methods used by females
C) INTRA UTERINE DEVICES
1. Inert IUD's increase phagocytoses of sperms. Inserted by doctors into the vagina of female
Eg - lippe’s loop
2. Copper releasing IUD’s these IUD's suppress the mobility of sperm and decrease the
fertilising power of sperm INFERTILITY - it is a condition where even after unprotected copulation a couple

Eg - Cu T, Cu 7, multiload 375 cannot produce offspring’s due to several reasons such as

• low sperm count
3. Hormone releasing IUD’s make the environment of uterus unsuitable for implantation and
• Unsuitable uterus environment
also make cervix hostile for sperms
• Unable to produce ova
Eg - LNG20, progestasert
• Low quality of sperm
D) ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES it can be cured by ASSISTED REPRODUCTIVE TECHNOLOGIES
Progestin and estrogen containing pills are taken for 21 days which
1. In vitro fertilisation - sperm and ova get fertilised in a test tube. Also know as test tube baby.
• inhibit ovulation
Fertilisation outside the body
• Make cervical mucus thick
A) ZIFT - Zygote intra fallopian transfer - fusion of gametes takes place outside the body and then
• Alteration in endometrium of uterus
zygote (up to 8 blastomeres) is transferred into fallopian tube.
• Suppress sperm motility and secretory activity of fallopian tube
B) ET - Embryo transfer - fertilisation takes place outside the body and then the embryo is transferred
these pills are not taken during menstruation period.
into uterus
Eg - Mala d, Mala n
Some pills only contain progestin known as mini pills 2. In vivo fertilisation - fertilisation takes place inside the females body

Saheli - made by CDRI Lucknow A) GIFT - Gamete intra fallopian transfer - donor egg is taken and transferred into fallopian tube
for fertilisation
• non steroidal pill
B) ICSI - Intra cytoplasmic sperm injection - sperm is transferred directly into the cytoplasm of
• Taken once a week
Genetically modified crops are the possible solution- ova for fertilisation
• Centchroman molecule present
C) AI - Artificial insemination- healthy sperms are artificially inseminated into the uterus through
• Less or rare side effects Gene cloning - direct changes to the genotype of plant
vagina. Fertilisation takes place inside the body.
1. GENE ADDITION
E) CHEMICAL METHODS 2. GENE SUBTRACTION The choice of gene depends on the crop and the pest as most bt toxins are insect group specific
Spermicidal creams - induce phagocytosis of sperms
Eg delfen GOLDEN RICE This toxin is encoded by a gene called cry which is effective against
Developed by ingo potrykus and Peter beyer • Lepidopteran's ( tobacco bud worm, armyworm)
Jellies and foam tablets - contain nonoxynol 9 It is a combat of vitamin A and iron deficiency
Golden rice is formed from transgenic variety of oryza sativa
• Coleopterans (beetles)
because it has good qualities of B- carotene • Dipterans (flies and mosquito)
> Principle source of vitamin A
Seeds are yellow due to presence of b-carotene, therefore known as Protein encoded by cry1Ac and cry1Ab
golden rice
--
Control cotton ballworm Cornborer
Golden rice is formed by the process of gene addition by using agrobacterium tumefaciens as vector

The endotoxins of bacillus thuringenesis

During speculation it forms crystalline bodies called insecticidal proteins also known
as endotoxin and this endotoxin is produced due to defence mechanism
Endotoxin is an inactive precurssor
↓
When an insect ingest this inactive precursor
↓
Eg - bt cotton, corn,
Protoxin is cleaved by proteases in
rice,tomato, potato, soyabean
the alkaline gut of an insect
etc
↓ ↑

Shorter version of proteins Resistance to insects and act as

Ju biopesticide
Toxic activity by binding to the midgut ↑
Which is them cloned in bacteria and
↓
Due to which surface epithelium is expressed in plants
I
damaged
This toxin is called bt toxin
↓ ↑
Pores are created due to which swelling Starvation to death of the insect
7
and lysis is caused
 Recombinant therapeutics -
Use of antisense RNA in creating pest resistant plants:- • Enable mass production
It is done by gene subtraction or inactivation or knockout of gene • Safe and more effective
• Do not induce unwanted immunological responses
Root knot nematodes invade plant roots and feed on root cells due to which roots grow
in large galls or knots which damage crop and its yield is reduced. 30 recombinant therapeutics approved globally and 12 of there are marketed in India

Meloidegyne incognita infects roots of tobacco plants which causes great reduction in yield and to Recombinant insulin

prevent this RNA interference is used Insulin is synthesized be B-cells of islets of langerhans in pancreas
It controls the glucose level

RNAi silencing of gene defence against viruses Deficiency of insulin causes Diabetes’mellitus
↓ Insulin used to cure this was first extracted from slaughtered
Silencing of specific mRNA >
Respective protein no longer synthesized cattle’s and pigs which sometimes caused allergy
↓ ↓ 2 things which facilitated production of insulin:
Due to formation of dsRNA Responsible for parasitism • not modified after translation by adding sugar molecules
↓ Je
• 2 polypeptide chains linked together by disulfide bonds
Formed by binding of complementary Silenced and it takes place in all eukaryotic
RNA or antisense RNA to original mRNA organisms as cellular defence In mammals - insulin synthesized as a prohormone (gene located on
d chromosome 11)- it constrains C peptide which has to be removed to
Prevent translation of original mRNA
produce mature insulin
RNA-EusRNA

Are
In 1983, Eli lily prepared 2 DNA
DNA-
XdERNA sequences which were then Pro insulin

-
antisense RNA -
Nematode - introduced into pBR322 which is
NO then transformed in E. coli to
translation produce insulin chains- selected by
↓ blue white screening - chains
DNA-RNA
Original nematode >
-
silencing produced separately - extracted and

infection of
entir
combined with disulfide bonds

1. POLYMERASE CHAIN REACTION

gene Insulin
• help to detect very low concentration of pathogen
• Help to detect HIV infection Gene therapy
• Detect mutations in cancer patients To cure inherited disease by providing the patient with correct copy of defective gene
• Identify transgenic disorders
1st gene therapy, 1990 4 year old girl with ADA deficiency
2. ENZYME LINKED IMMUNOSORBENT ASSAY (if absent then no proliferation of lymphocytes take place)
• Based on the principle of antigen antibody interactions
• Infection can be detected by presence of pathogens L &

• Detecting the antibodies synthesized against pathogen Bone marrow transplant Enzyme replacement therapy
• Commonly used enzymes are peroxidase and alkaline phosphatase ( given intravenous injection)
↓
3. AUTORADIOGRAPHY
Both are not completely curable
Detection/localisation of radioactive isotope within a biological sample
A single stranded DNA or RNA, tagged with a radioactive molecule (probe) is allowed to hybridise to its Lymphocytes from blood of patient
complementary DNA in a clone of cells followed by detection using autoradiography.
L
The clone having the mutated gene will hence not appear on the photographic film, because the probe will Cultured outside
not have complementarity with the mutated gene.
If introduced early in embryonic stages -
v

TRANSGENIC ANIMALS Functional ADA cDNA introduced >

Animals that have had their DNA manipulated to possess and express an extra gene permanent cure
Eg - rats, rabbits, pigs,sheep,cow, monkey and fish
↓
Returned to patient body (periodically)
95% of transgenic animals are mice Rosilin institute, Scotland
MOLECULAR DIAGNOSIS
I

Some techniques - DOLLY, POLLY, MOLLY

Early diagnosis and understanding pathophysiology
DNA micro injection Y
Retrovirus mediated gene transfer
↓ 2 ewes successfully cloned using adult
↓
Process of
↓
Study of changes in
Cloned but no somatic cell and they are transgenic as
Embryonic stem cell mediated gene transfer
modification determining the normal,
well
Why transgenic animals- nature and cause of mechanical,physical and
ETHICAL ISSUES
Medicine - study of disease, biological products disease biochemical functions
• alpha 1 antitrypsin - emphysema Bioethics Set of standards that may be used to regulate
caused by disease
• Rosie cow- human protein enriched milk - alpha lactalbumin (2.4g/l) our activities in relation to the biological words
• Treatment of phenylketonuria and cystic fibrosis GEAC - genetic engineering approval committee
Vaccine safety, chemical safety testing L &
Validity of GM Safety of introducing GM
Agriculture - breeding, quality and disease organisms for public services
resistance
Patents A set of exclusive rights granted by a state to an investor
or assignee for a limited period of time in exchange of
Biopiracy The use of bio resources by multinational companies without proper public disclosure of an invention
authorisation from the countries and without compensatory payment • novelty
• Non obviousness Biopatents are being granted for biological entities
Eg - Brazzein protein of west Africa - now patent in USA
• Utility CONTROVERSIES
Patients are granted - • basmati rice
• an invention • Turmeric
• Improvement in earlier invention • Neem
• Process of generating product
• Concept or design
Basmati-
Sept 1997 - rice etc won a patent of basmati rice lines or groceries
↓
Allegation of biopiracy
↓
Diplomatic crisis between INDIA and USA
↓
India threatened to take matter to WTO
↓
Due to this the rec tec company lost most of the claims
 Testes Paired, mesodermal in origin ACCESSORY REPRODUCTIVE GLAND

-
Situated in scrotum (bag like structure) > Dartos muscle - regulate temperature
[ I
Seminal vesicle

Paired
Prostate gland

Unpaired
Bulbourethral gland

Also known as cowpers

Present in extra abdominal cavity Winters Summers
Dorsolateral side of urinary bladder Below urinary bladder (30%) gland
f ↓
Paired and open into penile
-

Contract scrotum Relax scrotum Lined by glandular epithelium and Secrete alkaline fluid which
For sperm formation temperature required
secrete seminal fluid (60-70%) help in activation of sperm urethra
is 2-2.5 degrees celcius less than body
If testes do not descends into extra abdominal cavity • alkaline Calcium, citric acid, phosphate, Less contribution
temperature
W • Transparent clotting enzyme Alkaline fluid, lubrication
Undescended testes/cryptorchidism
• Jelly like
Testes was formed inside abdominal cavity (Infertility) • Lubricating
Inguinal canal contain fructose, fibrinogen,

·
prostaglandin and proteins
Extra abdominal cavity
Seminiferous tubules
Mesorchium

I
Elastic and flexible fibres Tubuli recti

Internal structure of testes

Storage of sperm Rete testes
Tubuli recti Vasa efferentia
(250) Testicular lobules Maturation of sperm
Spermatozoa

·- ·
Epididymis Caput Vasa efferentia
Spermatid
Corpus
Cauda Epididymis Secondary spermatocyte
Tunica vaginalis

Vas deferens Primary spermatocyte

Seminal vescicle Sertoli cells
E
Tunica albuginea Ejaculatory duct Spermatogonium
Vas deferens
Dense, white fibrous coat
Also known as sperm duct
Posterior end is thick and Urinary bladder
form septum - -
Structure of seminiferous tubules
Rete testes
~

Seminiferous tubules Urethra

S
V
(2-3 per tubule) FEMALE EXTERNAL GENITILIA Vulva
Cover whole testes except posterior border
Formation of sperm takes place Mons pubis Labia majora
through which nerves enter into testes
Uterus/fundus Cushion of fatty tissue Present at both side of vulva

:
MALE EXTERNAL GENITILIA Pubic hairs present in adult females Large fleshy fold of skin
Subcutaneous tissue with sebaceous
Penis Copulatory organ
&
Labia minora and sweat gland at outer surface
Two thin folds of skin present inner Hair follicles also present
Erectile tissue
to labia majora Homologous to scrotum in males
Muscular and tubular organ The lower portion of two folds fuse
Hymen
Urethra present Ovary Paired
and form fourchette
Thin membrane partially covering vagina
Ovarian ligament
End part of penis is bulged out and known as glans penis which is covered by lose Ova formation Clitoris
It is often torn during first intercourse
(Attached to uterus wall) But it is not like this hymen can be
fold of skin known as foreskin or perpuce Sex hormone producedTiny finger like structures
broken by activities like horse riding,
Present above urethral opening
Glans penis and foreskin is attached together by frenulum running etc.
Cervix Two erectile bodies
Homologous to penis
Penis has three longitudinal cylindrical muscle Vagina Copulatory organ
BREAST/MAMMARY GLAND
Right Median Left Non glandular
Paired
Fibromuscular Glandular tissue+ fat
15-20 mammary lobes
Corpora cavernosa Corpora spongiosum Corpora cavernosa

·
Milk secretion and storage Cluster of alveoli
Fimbriae Infundibulum
Extend till glans penis Finger like projection Funnel shaped structure
Birth canal = vagina+cervical canal Mammary tubules
Has apperture in which egg is
External opening is known as urethral meatus Ampulla
released into its cavity called Mammary duct
Erection is regulated by ANS Thin walled and dilated
peritoneal cavity
Fertilisation occurs here Mammary ampulla
Coelomic egg
Lactiferous duct
HISTOLOGY
d I ↓ Nipple
Perimetrium Myometrium Endometrium

Outermost thin layer Middle layer Innermost layer

of uterus Unstriated muscle present in Columnar epithelium - secretory -
oviduct nutrition and protection of ovum
Thick muscle bundle present • menstrual cycle
in uterus • Implantation
• contraction during
pregnancy
 Spermatogonium (2n) Multiplication phase
PGC’s (2m)
Mitosis
- Multiplication
Mitosis -
~ Oogonia (am)
Spermatogonia (an) 2 Growth
Growth phase
-

Growth (2) Primary oocyte 2 Chromosome half

~ Meiosis 1 - arrest in prophase 1 (diplotene)

Primary spermatocyte (2m) L J
En) Secondary oocyte First polar body [unequal cytokinesis
Meiosis 1
[ ↓ > L
> Meiosis 2 arrest in metaphase- Graafian follicle
(22+X) Secondary spermatocyte (22+Y) an
-

(n) Ovum Second polar body rupture and release secondary oocyte
Maturation
Meiosis 2 phase & If sperm penetrate then the secondary oocyte
come out of metaphase and go in anaphase and
Lv - ~
complete meiosis 2
(22+X) (22+X) Spermatids (22+Y) (22+Y) (n)
MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Change in shape and size- It is the process of proliferation and shedding of endometrium (28-35 days)
~ spermiogenesis First menstrual cycle - menarche Release of secondary
Spermatozoa any Last menstrual cycle - menopause (40-45) oocyte Luteal phase
Ovulation
Follicular phase
Release of spermatozoa from seminiferous tubules is known as spermiation

Hormonal control
Ovary
⑧ Follicles develop Corpus luteum develop
Endometrium
Hypothalamus

murmur
breakdown

mumm
GnRH Negative feedback
Negative feedback
Anterior pituitary
Uterine
wall
LH Inhibin
FSH
# 5 14
Leydig cells Menstrual Proliferation Secretory phase
Sertoli cells
phase Phase

Testosterone

-
ABP Spermatogenesis
Anterior
Excess
Excess pituitary FSH

Structure of sperm
-
LH

S Lytic enzymes present

Help in fertilisation
Ovary
Ex Estrogen

Progesterone

14 28

Hypothalamus

-rain
Y Surrounded by nebernkern
sheath

The human male ejaculates about

200 to 300 million sperms during
a coitus of which, for normal fertility,
at least 60 per cent sperms must
have normal shape and size and at
least 40 per cent of them must
show vigorous motility.
During implantation endometrium converts into decidua

Uterus (activation sperm) - capacitation ↓

Cells erode with prokaryotic enzyme

Ova releases fertilising (attract sperm)

↓
Trophoblast start secreting H B
Hyaluronic acid - hyaluronidase - cells of corona radiata separate ↓
Corona penetrating enzymes - corona radiata Blastocyst then grows into deciduous (after 6-7 day

Zona pellucida - acrosin of fertilization)

↓
Becomes hard after penetrating Fusion of gametes - diplody restore - zygote formation On 8th day embryoblast is formed which have

To prevent polyspermy Epiblast Hypoblast

"
Thick columnar Lower and irregular
cells which form Form yolk sac
amnion

D
Ectoderm- nervous system

-
Form germ layers
Mitotic division as well Mesoderm - form heart

2 celled stage Endoderm - form gur

Zygote 4 celled stage 8-16 cells - morulla Gastrula formed
(30hrs) by
morphogenetic
movements Blastopore
Blastocoel

S
Placenta After 12 weeks 3 Maternal > Decidua
Inner cell mass
Trophoblast Nutritive tissue, respiration, excretion
Connection
Uterus secrete uterine milk Temporary endocrine gland
& Foetal & Chorionic
• estrogen
Zona pellucida breaks • Progesterone -

Placenta grow
• hcS Foetus. Placenta
Blastocyst attach to endometrium • hcT 7) -
Enter uterine mucosa
• hpL Umbilical cord
with chorionic villi
Implantation on 8th day which leads to pregnancy
DEVELOPMENT OF FOETUS DURING GESTATION Millers experiment
After 1 month - heart - first sign of growing foetus
End of second month - limbs and digits grow 75,000 V electrical energy was provided to
End of 12 weeks (1st trimester) - organ systems, genital organs grow
the spark chamber and water vapour was at
5th month - first movement of foetus, hairs on head
24 weeks - hair on body, eyelashes and eye lids grow 800°C
9th month - fully developed foetus formed
d
PARTURITION It was done for 18 days
Neuroendocrine mechanism
Signal originate from fully developed foetus and placenta
↓
Contractions in myometrium stars - foetal ejection reflex
Simple organic compounds were formed, such
as amino acid – Alanine, glycine aspartic acid

i
Placenta releases estrogen
d
Increases the receptors of oxytocin Also found HCN, adenine, nitrogenous bases,
sugar molecules pigments, fat molecules, et
Dilation of cervical as more oxytocin released from mothers anterior pituitary Jacobin
cetera
More contractions
Natural selection as evidence of evolution
↓ 1. Industrial melanism.
Expulsion of baby
2. Antibiotics or drug resistance.
LACTATION 4-6 month’s period Contraction of mammary gland 3. Herbicide resistance developed in wild varieties.
Decrease in placental hormone
Anthropogenic evidences - Excess use of herbicides, pesticides, etc has resulted in selection of resistant
V
Stimulated mechanically

Prolactin stimulate mammary ↓ varieties in a lesser time scale. This is also true for microbes against which antibiotics or drugs have been
Nerve impulse to hypothalamus which send signal to
gland for large secretion of milk used.
posterior pituitary to release oxytocin
↓ All these evidences tell us that ‘Elvolution is a stochastic process based on chance events in nature and
Alveolar gland contraction
chance mutation in the organisms’.
Morphological and anatomical evidences
to
Milk ejection
A. Homologue structures.
Industrial melanism-
The structures which have similar anatomy, but they differ in their functions. This type of evolution is known
as divergent evolution.
Example arrangement of fore limbs in Whales, bats, cheetah, humans
Heart and brain of vertebrates
Thorns of Bougainville and tendril of cucurbita

B. Analogue structures.
The structures which have different anatomy, but they perform say similar function. This type of evolution is
known as convergent evolution.
Example, wings of butterfly and birds , eye of octopus and mammals, flippers of penguin and dolphins, sweet
Before industrialisation in England, it was After industrialisation, there were more dark wing
potato, and potato observed that there were more white wing moth, then white wing moth, because lichens do
moth on trees, then dark wing moth not grow under polluted environment. Therefore,
C. Vestigial organs. It happened because Before after industrialisation, there was more pollution
The organs which were complete and functional in their ancestors, but now they don’t have proper function industrialisation, there was no pollution so thus Dark wing moth were able to hide itself from
Example appendix of caecum, rudimentary body hair, wisdom, teeth, tail bones, et cetera li lichens were present on the barks of predators, but white moth were clearly visible
trees thus white wing moth, was able to
D. Atavism
hide itself from predators
Reappearance of certain ancestral characters, which were disappeared or reduced
Example power of moving pinna, developed canine teeth, long, dense body, hairs, short tail bone

Embryological evidences
Adaptive radiation
1. Similarity in early development. Process of evolution of different species in a given geographical area, starting from a point
2. Resemblance among vertebra embryo.
and radiating to other areas
3. Resemblance among invertebrate larva.
4. Progressive metamorphosis.
5. Retrogressive metamorphosis. When because of competition, a single ancestral species evolved into different species to
6. Development of vertebra organs.
occupy other habitat is known as adaptive radiation Biological evolution
7. Biogenetic law that is ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny
Genetic change in a population that is inherited over several generations
Example, Darwin finches
Australian marsupials A. Lamarck’s theory of evolution.
Placental mammals It is also known as theory of inheritance of acquired characters/theory of use and disuse of organ
The French naturalist - organism undergo changes to adapt themselves to the new environment. These
changes are passed on to next generation.
For example, giraffe continuously stretched their neck for food and this change passed on to next generation
due to which the neck of giraffe became long. He said use of organs leads to strengthening of the organ and
disuse of organs leads to weakening of the organ
This story was discarded by A. Weismann- By the theory of germplasm

B. Mutation theory.
New species origin originate as a result of large discontinuous variations, which appear suddenly
Hugo de Vries observed this on wild variety of evening, Primrose
Some main features are –
1. Mutation arise from time to time among individuals of naturally breeding population.
2. Mutations are heritable and establish new forms of species.
3. Mutations are large and sudden and are totally different from fluctuating variations of Darwin, which
were small and directional.
4. Mutations may occur in any direction that is, they are directionless.

C. Darwin’s theory or Darwinism.

Darwin worked around South America and he focused on plants as well as artificial selection, there was
another person called Wallace who worked around Indonesia and both of them have similar conclusions, but
independently. Their work was inspired by Thomas Malthus on population
1. Population increase exponentially.
2. Nature keeps control over size of population.
Origin and evolution of man Homo erectus-
1. Prior to ape man. 1.5mya, ate meat
2. ape man including prehistoric men 900cc brain capacity
3. True men, including the modern living men.
They knew the use of fire
Skull- flat and protruding
Prior to ape men
Dryopithecus- rocks of Africa and Europe- direct ancestors of modern day, apes, they were more apps
Hunting and Fossils discovered in Java in 1891 revealed
like, Present around 15 million years ago the next stage.
They had large canine with large brain theory, body like gorillas

True men including the living modern man

Sivapithecus- more like Dryopithecus, forelimbs, skull and brain like monkey
Found in Shivalik hills of India Neanderthal
They do not evolved into Homo sapiens
Ramapithecus- more man like, hairy and walked like gorilla
Also known as legendary hero (14-15mya)
They had prognathus face
Walked upright
Ape men including pre historic men Brain capacity is 1400cc
Australopithecus - Evolve around half 1 million year ago
First ape men
They were the cave dwellers
1.5m height
They buried their dead with flowers and tools
Bipedal locomotion
Omnivores with erect posture Followed religion
Teeth like human but brain like ape They started using skin to protect themselves
Australopithecines probably lived in East African grasslands. lived in near east and central Asia between 1,00,000-40,000 years
Evidence shows they hunted with stone weapons but essentially ate fruit. back.
Homo habilis-
Skilful man or the tool makers Modern man
650-800cc with 1.2-1.5m height During ice age between 75,000-10,000 years ago modern Homo sapiens arose.
Bipedal locomotion Pre-historic cave art developed about 18,000 years ago.
Made tools using bones and took care of young ones
One such cave paintings by Pre-historic humans can be seen at Bhimbetka rock shelter in Raisen district
Lived in caves
of Madhya Pradesh.
This creature was called the first human-like being the hominid and was called Homo habilis.
They probably did not eat meat. Agriculture came around 10,000 years back and human settlements started.
The rest of what happened is part of human history of growth and decline of civilisations.

Factors affecting hardy Weinberg principal

1. Migration or gene flow.
2. Genetic drift.
3. Mutation.
4. Genetic recombination.
5. Natural selection.

Gene migration/gene flow

Movement of individuals from one population into another, causing gene unstable
Migration of a section of population and interbreeding between members of two population, which causes
interchange of alleles

Genetic recombination
Gamete formation - alleles present on parental chromosome, separate and form new combination
Crossing over during meiosis causes variation, which then form new combination thus recombinants are
formed causing unstable of genetic equilibrium

Genetic drift/Sewall effect/non-directional factor

It causes change in gene frequency by chance in a small population that is, there is random loss of alleles in
small population, this is known as genetic drift
1. Bottle neck effect.- genetic variability in a population decreases, example cheetah population in Africa
decreased due to hunting which causes limited genetic variability, which can also lead to extinction and
which is irreversible
2. Founders effect. - when one or few individuals disperse and become founders of a new isolated population
at some distance from their original place, leading to Alleles with special significance is known as
founders effect

Mutation
Random with respect to adaptive needs
Most are harmful or with no effect
Rate of mutation is very low