See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: [Link]

net/publication/223820789

Tourists’ intention to visit a country: The impact of cultural distance

Article in Tourism Management · December 2007

DOI: 10.1016/[Link].2006.11.005

CITATIONS READS

330 6,648

3 authors, including:

Siew Imm Ng Geoffrey Soutar

Universiti Putra Malaysia The University of Western Australia
131 PUBLICATIONS 3,144 CITATIONS 320 PUBLICATIONS 25,311 CITATIONS

SEE PROFILE SEE PROFILE

All content following this page was uploaded by Siew Imm Ng on 08 October 2019.

The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file.

 ARTICLE IN PRESS

Tourism Management 28 (2007) 1497–1506

[Link]/locate/tourman

Research Paper

Tourists’ intention to visit a country: The impact of cultural distance

Siew Imm Ng, Julie Anne Lee, Geoffrey N. Soutar
Graduate School of Management, University of Western Australia, 35 Stirling Highway, Crawley, Western Australia 6009, Australia
Received 9 May 2006; accepted 20 November 2006

Abstract

Culture has long been recognized as a possible reason why people in different countries make different decisions, but research into its
impact in tourism contexts has been limited. This study addressed this gap by examining the influence of cultural distance on tourists’
destination choices. Five cultural distance measures were examined. Of the five measures, perceived cultural distance and Clark and
Pugh’s index were found to be most strongly related to Australian tourists’ intentions to visit a variety of holiday destinations. The
perceived cultural distance measure appeared to be a better predictor and offers some advantages to researchers as it allows respondents
to include relevant cultural information in tourism research. However, as Clark and Pugh’s method provided similar information,
cultural differences can be inferred when it is not possible to survey tourists directly.
Crown Copyright r 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Cultural distance; Cultural cluster; Linguistic distance; Destination selection

1. Introduction been recognized that culture influences people’s decision-

making processes (Hofstede, 1980; Kluckhohn, 1951;
An understanding of the processes that determine Rokeach, 1973). Indeed, cultural differences have been
tourists’ destination choices are important for govern- suggested as a possible reason why consumers and
ments, tourism organizations and tourism operators as managers in different countries make different decisions
competition for tourist numbers and dollars increases (The (Arora & Fosfuri, 2000; Kacen & Lee, 2002; Soutar,
Travel and Tourism Economic Research, 2006; World’s Grainger, & Hedges, 1999; Tahir & Larimo, 2004).
Leading Outbound Markets, 2005). To date, most of the Anecdotal and empirical evidence suggests culture
research in this area has focused on using economic influences people’s destination choices. For example, The
indicators to estimate aggregate tourist demand (Lee, Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) (1995) suggested
Morrison, & O’Leary, 2006; Morley, 1998; Witt & Witt, mainland China was the most popular destination for
1995). However, the few studies that have included social Hong Kong nationals because of the similarity in its
variables, such as migration and tourist information cultural background, although this relationship was not
networks, have found they played an important role, specifically tested. In a more recent study, Jackson (2001)
especially for vacation travel destination choices (e.g. tested such a relationship empirically, using national level
Morley, 1998; Turner, Reisinger, & Witt, 1998). Thus, it secondary data based on Hofstede’s (1980) cultural
seems worthwhile to expand such research to examine the dimensions, and concluded people from high individualist
impact of other social variables, of which culture seems to countries (such as Australia, Canada, New Zealand and the
be a likely candidate. United States) tend to choose culturally similar destina-
Culture has largely been ignored as a potential predictor tions, while people from high collectivist countries (such as
of tourists’ destination choice (Jackson, 2001; Jackson, Colombia, El Salvador, Ecuador and South Korea) tend to
White, & Schmierer, 2000). This is surprising as it has long choose culturally dissimilar destinations.
While the research evidence is limited, it seems cultural
Corresponding author. Tel.: +61 8 6488 2912; fax: +61 8 6488 1072. differences may influence tourists’ behavior. Consequently,
E-mail address: [Link]@[Link] (J.A. Lee). it is important that cultural difference be measured in an

0261-5177/$ - see front matter Crown Copyright r 2006 Published by Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/[Link].2006.11.005
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1498 S.I. Ng et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 1497–1506

appropriate way. Researchers have commonly used a 2.3. Destination’s culture

distance measure for this purpose (e.g. Clark & Pugh,
2001; Shenkar, 2001), although there is no agreement as to Some researchers have also studied culture as a destina-
the appropriate measure. As there are a number of tion attribute (O’Leary & Deegan, 2003), or as an
alternatives available, the present study investigated the important reason for traveling to a destination (McKercher
available cultural distance measures to examine their & Cros, 2003), indicating that cultural differences might be
consistency and to see which were most strongly related a driver of tourism destination choice. O’Leary and
to people’s destination intentions. Deegan (2003) suggested culture defined a destination’s
tangible and intangible heritage, which includes its music,
2. Culture and tourism behavior museums, historical places and traditional richness. Thus,
while a destination’s image includes such dimensions as
After reviewing the cross-cultural literature, including local attractions, climate and scenery, it also has a cultural
tourism, marketing and psychology, four main elements of aspect that can influence people’s choice to visit. McKerch-
culture were identified that were likely to impact on a er and Cros’s (2003) Hong Kong study identified five types
tourist’s destination choice, namely: of tourists—which they termed purposeful, sightseeing,
casual, incidental and serendipitous—who varied in their
(1) The tourist’s national culture. participation in cultural activities. They found that
(2) The tourist’s individual level (internalized) culture. purposeful and sightseeing tourists felt Hong Kong was
(3) A destination’s culture. culturally different from their own culture and that Hong
(4) The ‘‘distance’’ between a tourist’s home culture and a Kong was rich in culture, history and heritage. Members of
destination’s culture. this segment were more motivated to visit Hong Kong for
cultural purposes and wished to learn about Hong Kong’s
2.1. Tourist’s national culture culture. On the other hand, the incidental and serendipi-
tous tourists were motivated to visit Hong Kong for
A tourist’s national culture has been used to explain recreation and fun, relaxation and visiting family and
differences in tourists’ behavior, including their travel friends and were less inclined to participate in cultural
patterns (Cho, 1991; Dybka, 1988; Holzner, 1985; Ritter, activities. Clearly, understanding culture can be important
1987) and preferred tourist activities (e.g. Pizam & Jeong, to those marketing a tourist destination.
1996; Pizam & Sussman, 1995; Sheldon & Fox, 1988).
For instance, Dybka (1988) found Japanese travelers 2.4. Cultural distance
were more likely to use all-inclusive packages for vaca-
tions, while German tourists were more likely to use resorts Several researchers have suggested cultural similarity
that included facilities such as beaches, skiing, golf influences intention to visit destinations. For instance, The
and tennis. In addition, Japanese tourists seem to favour Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA) (1995) suggested
short holidays, while Europeans favour longer holidays mainland China was the most popular destination for
(Ritter, 1987). Pizam and Jeong (1996) found Americans Hong Kong nationals because of its similar cultural
preferred socialising with other nationals more than background, while Basala and Klenosky (2001) found
tourists from Japan or Korea. Sheldon and Fox (1988) people were more likely to intend to visit a novel
also found Japanese tourists were reluctant to try new destination if their home language was spoken at that
cuisines. destination. Similarly, Yavas (1987) noted that Saudi
tourists were concerned about the West’s image and
2.2. Tourist’s individual level (internalized) culture preferred to visit Muslim countries, while Henderson
(2003) noted that, after the September 11, 2001 attacks in
There is also evidence to suggest internalized cultural United States of America, the safest destinations for
values may influence tourists’ destination choices. While Muslims were Muslim countries, while the safest destina-
tourism researchers have not specifically measured indivi- tions for Westerners were Western countries. These
dual’s internalization of culture, they have measured researchers clearly suggested that, the greater the cultural
tourists’ values for segmentation purposes. Some segments similarity between a destination and a tourist’s home
that are likely to be aligned with cultural values were found country, the more likely it was that a tourist would choose
in Muller’s (1991) study of American tourists. For instance, that destination.
his ‘‘security and reassurance’’ segment seems to be aligned The similarity-attraction hypothesis offers some insight
with Schwartz’s (1992) conformity or tradition value types into why cultural similarity or low cultural distance might
or the internalization of Hofstede’s (1980) uncertainty influence tourists’ decision making and behavior. The
avoidance dimension. Similarly, his ‘‘self-enrichment’’ hypothesis, which was initially popularised by Byrne and
segment seems to be aligned with Schwartz’s self-direction Nelson (1965), suggests people are attracted to others who
value type or the internalization of Hofstede’s individual- have similar attitudes and beliefs. Although the hypothesis
ism dimension. originated in social psychology, it has found considerable
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.I. Ng et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 1497–1506 1499

support in business contexts, including human resource is to determine whether cultural similarity or cultural
management (Farh, Tsui, Xin, & Cheng, 1998; O’Reilly, difference is a stronger driver of tourism destination choice.
Caldwell, & Barnett, 1989), mentoring relationships The only study that specifically addressed this issue
(Ensher & Murphy, 1997; Turban, Dougherty, & Lee, (Jackson, 2001) found mixed results using secondary data.
2002) and buyer–seller relationships (Smith, 1998). For People from highly individualist countries (such as
example, Farh et al. (1998) found sharing a similar social Australia, Canada, New Zealand, and the United States)
or educational background with the decision makers visited more culturally similar destinations, while people
predicts advancements, while Ensher and Murphy (1997) from highly collectivist countries (such as Colombia, El
found that sharing similarity perceptions with a mentor Salvador, Ecuador and South Korea) visited more
predicts liking and satisfaction with the mentor. culturally distant destinations. Jackson reasoned that this
In addition, a positive relationship between similarity occurred because people from highly individualist coun-
and country image is supported by many of the more than tries are less interdependent with their in-groups and, as
300 articles that examined country-of-origin (COO) issues such, have greater need for affiliation (Franzoi, 1996).
(Nebenzahl, Jaffe, & Usunier, 2003). While there are many Culturally similar destinations provide an environment in
factors that affect COO images, the political, economic, which it is easier to associate with the host community.
cultural and social environments have been found to Throughout the studies described above, cultural simi-
influence the willingness of foreign consumers to purchase larity or distance was rarely measured. Most often it was
that country’s products, independently of the products used as an explanation for different patterns of behavior.
perceived quality. For instance, Wong and Lamb (1983) As such, the issue of how best to measure cultural
found Americans were more prepared to buy products similarity or distance is important if we are to better
from politically democratic countries. Similarly, Watson understand culture’s influence on tourists’ destination
and Wright (2000) found highly ethnocentric consumers choices.
rated products imported from culturally similar country
as more favorable. Consistently, the cultural similarity 3. Cultural distance measures
between two countries determined the frequency of
collateral trade (Martinez-Zarzoso, 2003; Yu & Zietlow, A number of constructs have been developed to measure
1995), since people tend to consume similar goods, while perceived differences between countries, including cultural
language similarity reduces the cost of doing business. distance, psychic distance and socio-cultural distance. The
This relationship may be especially important in a focus of this paper is on cultural distance, as both psychic
tourism context, where there is evidence that tourists may and socio-cultural distance include aspects of the business
experience culture shock when visiting culturally distant and market environment, such as management styles (e.g.,
destinations. For instance, Spradley and Philips (1972) Griffith, Hu, & Chen, 1998) and business differences (e.g.,
suggested cultural differences in food, language, cleanli- Dow, 2000), that are less relevant to tourists.
ness, pace of life, recreation, standard of living, transporta- Culture has been defined as ‘‘the configuration of learned
tion, humor, intimacy, privacy, etiquette and formality behavior and results of behavior whose component
requires an adjustment, which is often associated with elements are shared and transmitted by the members of a
stress, even if the tourist has clear goals such as relaxation particular society’’ (Linton, 1945, p. 21). Cultural distance
or viewing specific scenery. measures the extent to which one country’s culture is
In line with this, Lepp and Gibson (2003) found people’s similar to, or different from, another country’s culture
risk perceptions were greater when they visited less familiar (Clark & Pugh, 2001; Shenkar, 2001).
(or more culturally distant) destinations due to their Cultural distance is often used to measure national level
ignorance of local languages, signs and customs. If there differences between countries (e.g. Clark & Pugh, 2001;
is little consistency between a tourist’s expectations and a Shenkar, 2001). National culture serves as a guide to
host destination’s attitudes due to cultural differences (e.g. survive effectively in society. It molds individuals’ percep-
as might occur for an Indonesian tourist visiting Australia), tions, disposition and behaviors from childhood through
culturally based misunderstanding (Sutton, 1967), stress, the process of encouragements and discouragements
anxiety and uncertainty can develop, resulting in dissatis- reinforced in social institutions like school, workplace
faction (Reisinger & Turner, 1998). In other words, visiting and families (Triandis, 1989). There are a great many
culturally similar destinations reduces the extent of cultural studies from diverse disciplines that support national
shock, which is likely to result in a positive experience. culture differences and tourism researchers have found
Despite this, some researchers have suggested that such differences. For instance, Pizam and Jeong (1996)
tourist’s destination choice may be driven by cultural found Americans preferred socializing with other nationals
differences, rather than similarities (e.g. McKercher & more than tourists from Japan or Korea, while Sheldon
Cros, 2003; O’Leary & Deegan, 2003). For example, and Fox (1988) found that Japanese tourists were reluctant
O’Leary and Deegan (2003) and McKercher and Cros to try new cuisines. Thus, the concept of national
(2003) found a destination’s cultural attributes were related culture offers an interesting basis for examining cultural
to destination choice. Thus, an important marketing issue differences.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1500 S.I. Ng et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 1497–1506

The national culture construct relies on the assumption structs. Consequently, in the following sections, each of the
that there are larger cultural differences between countries measures is reviewed to assess their overlap, starting with
than within countries. While this may be true (see Hofstede, Kogut and Singh’s measure, which is the most popular of
2001 for a review), culture does not necessarily correspond the constructs.
to national boundaries, but often follows linguistic, ethnic,
or religious divides. Many researchers (e.g. Dann, 1993) 3.1. Kogut and Singh’s (1988) cultural distance index
have argued that national culture offers only a limited view,
as many countries welcome multiculturalism, have strong Kogut and Singh’s (1988) cultural index has been the
regional differences, and include people of multiple nation- most popular way to measure cultural distance. As can be
alities (e.g., country of birth, country of residence and seen above, three quarters of the studies used this
country of nationality). Thus, other cultural constructs, such approach. It has the advantage of being easy to calculate
as linguistic distance, may offer an alternative view. from secondary data as it uses Hofstede’s (1980) cultural
While cultural similarity or distance has been discussed dimensions. Indeed, Kogut and Singh’s intention was to
for many years (Kluckhohn, 1951; Rokeach, 1973), provide a simple, standardized, tangible, convenient and
quantitative measures have only been available since the quantitative tool to measure the overall cultural difference
early 1980s and relatively few studies have used cultural between two countries. Their difference index is calculated
similarity or distance measures to empirically test their as the arithmetic average of the variance-corrected differ-
conjectures. In a tourism context, only one paper was ences between host country and target country, using
found that measured cultural distance. Jackson (2001) Hofstede’s (1980) four cultural dimension scores. These
calculated cultural distance by summing the absolute dimensions were derived from Hofstede’s analysis of IBM
ranked differences of each of Hofstede’s (1980) four employees’ work attitude data and are termed individua-
cultural value dimensions (i.e. power-distance, uncertainty lism–collectivism, power distance, uncertainty avoidance
avoidance, individualism–collectivism and masculinity–fe- and masculinity–femininity dimensions. Kogut and Singh
mininity). The use of a composite index such as this has (1988) used these dimensions to calculate the overall
several advantages, as it is simple and easy to use and difference between two countries as
overcomes the problem of retrospective evaluation. It also
has several disadvantages in that it is based on Hofstede’s X
4
CDj ¼ fðI ij  I ia Þ2 =V i g=n, (1)
work-related values, which were obtained between 1968
i¼1
and 1972. Cultural differences based on Hofstede’s scores
may be quite removed from individual’s perceptions of where, CDj is the cultural differences of the jth country
cultural differences today. Thus, it seems desirable to from the ath country, Iij the Hofstede’s score for the ith
compare cultural distance measures in an attempt to cultural dimension and jth country, Iia the Hofstede’s score
identify an appropriate approach for tourism researchers. for the ith cultural dimension and ath country, Vi the
A search of the Proquest Database found 25 studies that variance of the index on the ith dimension, n the number of
used such a measure and an examination of these studies cultural dimensions.
found four different measures of cultural distance have While the index can theoretical range from 0 (lowest
been used, namely: cultural distance) to 17.93 (highest cultural distance), using
the countries listed in Hofstede (1980) produced a range
from 0.02 (Australia and the USA) to 8.22 (Japan and
 Nineteen studies used Kogut and Singh’s (1988) index, Sweden). This is due to the fact that none of the countries
which is based on Hofstede’s (1980) four cultural are the lowest or highest on all cultural dimensions.
dimensions.1 While the measure’s simplicity has obvious advantages,
 Four studies used a self-rating scale that asked it also has disadvantages (e.g. it is limited to work value
respondents to rate the cultural differences between dimensions and can oversimplify overall cultural differ-
their home and a target country. ences). Indeed, Hofstede (1989) warned against using
 Two studies used Clark and Pugh’s (2001) clustering overall differences between the four dimensions as the
approach, which is based on Ronen and Shenkar’s differences between some dimensions are not linearly
(1985) country map (see footnote 1). additive and, consequently, real differences may be under-
 One study used a linguistic-based measure of cultural estimated.
distance (West & Graham, 2004).

Since there are at least five ways to measure cultural 3.2. Clark and Pugh’s (2001) cultural cluster distance index
distance, the question arises as to whether the different
measures obtain consistent results, especially as the Clark and Pugh (2001) suggested a clustering approach
measures were developed from different underlying con- as an alternative to Kogut and Singh’s index. They
calculated such differences using Ronen and Shenkar’s
1
One article used these two approaches, making the total 26 although (1985) cluster analysis, which discriminated between
only 25 articles calculated cultural distance. countries on the basis of language, religion and geography.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.I. Ng et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 1497–1506 1501

Ronen and Shenkar (1985) found what they termed Anglo, 3.4. West and Graham’s (2004) linguistic distance
Germanic, Nordic, Latin European, Latin America, Near
Eastern, Far Eastern, Arab and Independent Clusters, West and Graham (2004) suggested using linguistic
which led Clark and Pugh (2001, p. 296) to define cultural distance as a measure of cultural distance, arguing that it
distance as ‘‘the degree of difference of the cultural cluster had several advantages, namely it is visible, it discriminates
to which the target foreign country belongs from the national and regional borders and it is representative
cultural cluster to which the home country belongs.’’ In among literate members of a society. In addition, the
order to simplify the analysis, Clark and Pugh reduced the measure is based on a language’s genetic classification or
number of clusters by combining the following groups: common ancestor, and so is easy to operationalize for all
languages, usually implying grammatical similarity.
 Latin European and Latin American clusters into a West and Graham (2004) used the hierarchy of language
single Latin cluster. tree constructed by Chen, Sokal, and Ruhlen (1995) to
 Near Eastern, Far Eastern, Arab and the Independent calculate a country’s linguistic distance from English
clusters into a ‘‘rest of the world’’ cluster. speaking countries. The linguistic distance from English
was coded according to the number of branches needed to
This left five groups, which they termed the Anglo, connect the country’s dominant language to English. For
Nordic, Germanic, Latin and Rest of the World clusters. multilingual countries, linguistic distance was based on the
They calculated a cluster’s cultural distance from Great weighted average of the official languages spoken in that
Britain by coding countries in the same cluster as Great country. They found that the linguistic distance between
Britain as 1, countries in the Nordic cluster as 2, countries English speaking countries and 50 other countries ranged
in the Germanic cluster as 3, countries in the Latin cluster from zero (lowest distance) to seven (highest distance)
as 4 and countries in the Rest of World cluster as 5, as this (West & Graham, 2004, p. 249).
was seen to be in accord with their cultural differences from
Great Britain, which was the home country in their study 3.5. Jackson’s (2001) cultural diversity index
(Clark & Pugh, 2001).
While the measure’s simplicity has advantages, it also Jackson (2001) calculated a cultural diversity index by
has disadvantages. First, Ronen and Shenkar’s (1985) summing the absolute ranked differences of each of
clusters were not intended to be used to measure cultural Hofstede’s (1980) four cultural value dimensions (i.e.
distance. Second, the nine clusters, which were empiri- power-distance, uncertainty avoidance, individualism–col-
cally developed, were reduced to five groups for conve- lectivism and masculinity–femininity). Jackson (2001)
nience. Third, the scoring was based upon a subjective examined 50 countries included in Hofstede’s (1980)
view of the clusters, rather than on empirical observation. research. Jackson gave them a score between 1 and 50,
Thus, the revised clusters may not reflect real cultural based on Hofstede’s ranking. Next, Jackson calculated the
differences. absolute rank difference between each targeted country
from the focal country (in this case, Australia) for each
3.3. Ratings of perceived cultural distance dimension. Finally, all four absolute rank differences (for
four dimensions) were totaled to produce the cultural
Several researchers have used rating scales to measure diversity index. The index can theoretically range from very
perceived cultural distance (e.g. Boyacigiller, 1990; Lee & similar (4) to totally dissimilar (196).
Jang, 1998; Meschi, 1997; Rao & Schmidt, 1998; Wan, Hui, These brief summaries of the various cultural distance
& Tiang, 2003). While this method is more time consuming measures suggest there may be some overlap between them.
and costly, as data must be obtained through a survey, it For instance, the self-rating and linguistic distance
may capture important aspects of cultural distance at an measures have been found to have significant correlations
individual level. Respondents are asked about their with managerial values and with Hofstede’s (1980) values
perceptions of the cultural difference between their country dimensions (Rao & Schmidt, 1998; West & Graham, 2004).
and a set of target countries using a low to high distance Since Kogut and Singh’s (1988) and Jackson’s (2001)
scale. The mean score for each country is then used as a indices are based on Hofstede’s (1980) dimensions, they are
measure of its cultural distance to the home country (e.g. likely to correlate with the self-rating and linguistic
Boyacigiller, 1990; Rao & Schmidt, 1998). For example, in distance measures. Further, Clark and Pugh’s (2001)
the attempt to study Joint Venture longevity, Meschi approach was based on Ronen and Shenkar’s (1985)
(1997) measured cultural distance using a single item clusters which were developed from organizational values.
measure; ‘‘How large are the national cultural differences As such, it would be useful to examine the relationships
between Hungary and Germany?’’ where Hungary was the between the five measures, as this has not been done
focal country and Germany was the targeted foreign previously. Further, if there are differences, it would be
partner. Respondents were requested to rate using five- interesting to see which measure is more strongly related to
point Likert scale where 1 (Very small), 2 (Small), 3 travel intentions, as this would suggest which approach
(Medium), 4 (Great) and 5 (Very great). would be most useful to tourism researchers. A study,
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1502 S.I. Ng et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 1497–1506

which is discussed in the Section 4, was undertaken to Invitations were sent to 650 residents of New South
examine this issue and the results obtained and their Wales. Of these, 31% (225) responded in the first 4 days
implications are discussed in subsequent sections. before the quota was filled. A quota of 200 completed
surveys was imposed due to budgetary constraints. The
4. The present study questionnaires had an 89% completion rate, with 225
people starting and 200 people completing the question-
The present study was undertaken to examine the naire.
relationships between cultural distance measures and their Of the 200 respondents (all of whom were permanent
potential impact on travel destination decisions. In order to residents of Australia), 76% were born in Australia and
examine the impact of these measures on travel decisions, more than 94% spoke English as the primary language at
data was collected as part of a larger survey into Australian home. This compares favorably with the Australian census
consumer’s destination choice. A set of 11 travel destina- data, which reported that in 2001, 77% of Australians
tions (see Table 1), that varied in cultural distance from were born in Australia and 16% spoke a language other
Australia were included in the survey. These destinations than English at home. Of those born outside of Australia,
were chosen to reflect a range of cultural distance from the largest groups were from English speaking countries,
Australia based on Hofstede’s (2001) four dimension scores such as the United Kingdom, New Zealand, the United
(Individualism, Power Distance, Masculinity and Uncer- States of America and Canada (7%), and from South
tainty Avoidance). These varied from New Zealand, with a East Asia (7%). The largest group was from the United
relatively low cumulative cultural distance, to Indonesia, Kingdom (5%).
with a relatively high cumulative cultural distance from The mean age of respondents was 40 years (range 18–67
Australia. years) with 45% being male. The median household
income was A$70,000–$79,999. In addition, respondents
4.1. Sample had taken an average of five holidays involving an
interstate or overseas flight in the last 5 years.
The study was conducted on the Internet, using a sample
obtained from a large online consumer research panel. The 4.2. Measures
panel respondents were invited to participate by email and
were paid for the time it took them to complete the survey. The measures used in this study were administered as
The sample was chosen to reflect the age, gender and part of a large Australian Research Council grant to
regional characteristics of the state of New South Wales in examine consumer travel behavior. The full questionnaire
Australia. The sample was limited to people who were included questions about travel destinations, benefits,
permanent residents of Australia, aged from 18 to 70 years attractions, and activities, as well as demographic char-
and who did not work in the advertising, marketing acteristics. The main focal questions asked within the
research or tourism industries. present study included the perceived similarity between

Table 1
Cultural distances from Australia

Country Perceived cultural Cultural distance Cultural cluster Linguistic distanced Cultural diversity
distancea indexb (Kogut and distancec (Clark and (West and Graham) indexe (Jackson)
Singh) Pugh)

New Zealand 3.17 0.16 1 0 17

United States 3.51 0.02 1 0 11
United Kingdom 3.56 0.13 1 0 19
Germany 5.02 0.31 3 1 30
Singapore 5.34 3.56 5 6 93
Hong Kong 5.53 2.39 5 6 76
Malaysia 5.79 4.19 5 7 93
Japan 5.83 2.49 5 4 74
Thailand 5.86 2.92 5 7 92
Indonesia 5.95 3.33 5 7 99
China 6.00 3.12 5 6 92
a
Range from 1 (very similar) to 7 (not at all similar).
b
Theoretical range from 0 (lowest distance) to 17.93 (highest distance). In reality, the lowest distance in Hofstede’s (1980) list of countries was 0.02 (USA
and Australia) and highest 8.22 (Japan and Sweden).
c
Range from 1 (same cluster) to 5 (maximally distant cluster).
d
Range from 0 (lowest distance) to 7 (highest distance).
e
Theoretical range from 4 (very similar) to 196 (totally dissimilar).
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.I. Ng et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 1497–1506 1503

Australia and eleven popular destinations for Australian (5) The culture level perceived cultural distance was
tourists (Japan, Hong Kong, Malaysia, Germany, Thai- calculated using the country mean level of perceived
land, Indonesia, New Zealand, Singapore, the United similarity (reversed) between Australia and the eleven
States, the United Kingdom and China). Following Nes- destinations (Boyacigiller, 1990).
dale and Mak’s (2003) suggestion, respondents were asked
how similar their background was to the culture of each of 5. The results obtained
the destinations using a seven-point scale that ranged from
not at all similar (1) to very similar (7). They were also The cultural distance scores from Australia to each of
asked how likely they were to consider visiting each the 11 countries are shown in Table 1. As can be seen, there
destination for a holiday during the next 12 months using are similarities across the five cultural distance measures.
a five-point scale that ranged from very unlikely (1) to New Zealand, the United States and the United Kingdom
definitely (5). The country lists were randomized for each were seen as the most culturally similar countries to
individual to reduce potential order effects. Respondents Australia in each case. However, the rankings of the most
were also asked how many times they had been on a culturally distant countries differed across the five mea-
holiday involving an interstate or overseas flight in the past sures.
5 years, as well as a series of demographic questions The perceived cultural distance score suggested that
including their age, gender, household income, primary China was seen as the most distant culture, while Kogut
language spoken at home and country of birth. and Singh’s index suggested Malaysia was the most distant
The five cultural distance measures that were discussed culture and Jackson’s index suggested Indonesia was the
earlier were computed from Australia to each of the 11 most distant culture. For West and Graham’s measure,
destinations included in the study. The first four of the five three Asian countries (Malaysia, Thailand and Indonesia)
measures of cultural distance were calculated from were equally distant, while, for Clark and Pugh’s measure,
secondary data (using Australia as the focal or home the seven Asian countries were equally distant. Thus, it is
country), while the fifth was calculated from the survey clear that the different bases for these cultural measures
data described above: produced different distance scores.

(1) Kogut and Singh’s (1988) cultural scores were calcu- 5.1. Correlations between the cultural distance measures
lated for the countries of interest based on Hofstede’s
(1980) scores. As scores were not available for China at As the number of countries included in the study was
that time, China’s scores were taken from Hofstede relatively small, Spearman rank correlations were com-
(2001). puted to examine the relationships between the five cultural
(2) Clark and Pugh’s (2001) cluster scores were used distance scores. As can be seen from Table 2, the five
directly as Australia is located in the Anglo cluster, measures were all significantly positively correlated with
which was the focal cluster in their study. each other. The lowest correlation was between the
(3) West and Graham’s (2004) linguistic distance scores perceived cultural distance and Kogut and Singh’s measure
(WGLS) were used directly as Australia is an English (rs ¼ 0.70), while the highest correlation was between
speaking country, which was the focal language in their Kogut and Singh’s measure and Jackson’s measure
study. (rs ¼ 0.95). This is not surprising as Kogut and Singh’s
(4) Jackson’s (2001) scores were calculated based on and Jackson’s measures are both based on Hofstede’s
Hofstede’s (1980) ranks by computing the absolute dimension scores, although they are calculated by slightly
ranking differences of the various destinations from different methods.
Australia. Since Jackson’s (2001) index score for New While the five cultural distance measures clearly have
Zealand was based on the highest score in the rank considerable overlap, there are some differences. Conse-
range, the index calculated for other countries of quently, it is worthwhile to undertake the second phase of
interest in this study were also based on the highest the analysis and assess the relationship each measure had
score in the rank range to ensure consistency. with people’s travel destination preferences.

Table 2
Correlations between the cultural distance measures (Spearman)

Measure Perceived cultural Cultural distance index Cultural cluster distance Linguistic distance (West
distance (Kogut and Singh) (Clark and Pugh) and Graham)

Kogut and Singh 0.70**

Clark and Pugh 0.85** 0.85**
West and Graham 0.80** 0.87** 0.88**
Jackson 0.76** 0.95** 0.86** 0.92**

**Significant at the 0.01 level (one-tailed).

 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1504 S.I. Ng et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 1497–1506

Table 3 Table 4
Australian’s mean intentions to visit each country and geographical Correlations—cultural distance measure and intention to visit
distances
Measure Spearman Partial for
Country Mean Standard Geographic geographical
intentiona deviation distanceb distance
(Pearson)
New Zealand 2.09 1.21 1442
United 1.97 1.21 10565 Culture level perceived cultural distance 0.74** 0.91**
Kingdom Cultural cluster distance (Clark and Pugh) 0.64* 0.85**
United States 1.90 1.23 9913 Linguistic distance (West and Graham) 0.54* 0.70*
Singapore 1.70 1.07 3867 Cultural diversity index (Jackson) 0.55* 0.73**
Thailand 1.69 1.03 4654 Cultural distance index (Kogut and Singh) 0.50 0.66*
Hong Kong 1.62 0.95 4597
Malaysia 1.59 0.98 4064 **Significant at the 0.01 level (one-tailed).
China 1.55 0.94 5604 *Significant at the 0.05 level (one-tailed).
Germany 1.52 0.97 3362
Japan 1.51 0.97 9997
Indonesia 1.50 0.95 4947 negative relationship between cultural distance and inten-
a
Intention scores ranged from 1 ¼ very unlikely to 5 ¼ definitely. tion to visit. That is, the greater the cultural distance
b
The capital’s geographical distance in miles from Canberra, Australia between the home country and a destination, the less likely
(Geobytes city distance [Link] tourists were to visit that destination.
[Link]?loadpage). While the perceived cultural distance score was most
highly correlated with intentions, the second most highly
correlated measure was Clark and Pugh’s index. It is
5.2. The influence of cultural distance on consideration to interesting to note that Clark and Pugh’s cultural cluster
visit a destination measure was most strongly correlated with the perceived
cultural distance score, despite Clark and Pugh’s measure
Respondents’ mean intentions to visit each of the 11 having the least amount of variation for this set of
destinations were used as an aggregate score of Australian countries (1 ¼ Anglo, 3 ¼ Germanic and 5 ¼ Rest of the
tourists’ likelihood of visiting that country. The mean World). As was noted earlier, Table 1 showed that Clark
intentions and geographic distances for each country are and Pugh’s measure gave the same score to seven quite
shown in Table 3. different countries (e.g. Singapore and Japan).
While the mean intentions scores to visit each of the 11
countries were relatively low, it can be seen that respondents 6. Conclusion and limitations
were most likely to visit New Zealand, the United Kingdom,
the United States and Singapore, and were least likely to The present study’s primary objective was to examine
visit Japan, Germany and Indonesia. Table 3 also provides five different cultural distance measures and their impact
the geographical distances of each destination from the on Australian tourists’ destination selection. The five
sample’s capital city (in miles), as it has been suggested that measures (Kogut and Singh’s cultural distance index,
geographical distance negatively influences intentions to visit Clark and Pugh’s cultural clusters, West and Graham’s
a destination (Harrison-Hill, 2001; McKercher & Lew, linguistic distance, Jackson’s cultural diversity index and
1992). This is because the associated time, cost and perceived cultural distance) were found to be highly
psychological barrier to travel to the destination also correlated. However, the perceived cultural distance
increase (Crouch, 1994). While geographic distance may measure and Clark and Pugh’s index were most strongly
have influenced intentions, it is worth noting that the three related to Australian tourists’ intentions to visit a variety of
countries with the highest intention scores varied the most in holiday destinations. The perceived cultural distance
their geographic distance. measure was the strongest predictor of intentions. This
Rank order correlations were again used to assess the measure offers some advantages as it allows respondents to
relationship between the five cultural distance measures include relevant cultural information that seems appro-
and intention to visit the eleven destinations. As can be priate in a tourism context. Despite this, Clark and Pugh’s
seen in Table 4 (column 2), all of the correlations with method, which was based on Ronen and Shenkar’s (1985)
intentions were negative, as expected, and all were cluster analysis, was also highly correlated with intention
significant at the 0.05 level, except Kogut and Singh’s to visit the decisions. Their measure was based on cultural
measure. In addition, when geographical distance was differences in terms of language, religion and geography,
controlled by using partial correlations (see column 3 of suggesting that these factors may be more important in
Table 4); the correlations became stronger for all of the people’s perceptions of cultural distance. Thus, when it is
measures. Notably, the perceived cultural distance and not possible to survey tourists directly, a relevant measure
Clark and Pugh’s measures were most strongly correlated of cultural distance can be inferred from Clark and Pugh’s
with the culture level intentions scores. This confirms a cultural clusters.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
S.I. Ng et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 1497–1506 1505

The study found that cultural distance was negatively recently visited a country might report lower intentions
correlated with Australian’s intention to visit a variety of than they would have at another point in time. Forth,
destinations. That is, the greater the perceived cultural individual differences such as age, traveling experience and
similarity of a foreign destination to Australia, the more personality may also influence the relationship, but these
likely it was that Australians would visit the destination. This factors were not the focus of this study.
supports anecdotal evidence (Chen, 2000; Kaynak & Kucu-
kemiroglu, 1993; Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA), Acknowledgment
1995; Wong & Kwong, 2004) and previous secondary data
analysis (Jackson, 2001; Jackson et al., 2000) that suggested This research was supported by an Australian Research
cultural similarity may be related to tourists’ intentions to visit Council Linkage Grant with Tourism Western Australia.
destinations. Thus, the present study found that the
similarity–attraction hypothesis is relevant in a tourism
context. Consequently, stressing culturally similar aspects is References
likely to increase the effectiveness of a tourism destination’s
Ahmed, Z. U., & Chon, K. S. (1994). Marketing the US to Korean
promotion and marketing activities. travelers. The Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly,
Tourism marketers should consider the elements of 35(2), 90–94.
cultural similarity in a target market and include some Arora, A., & Fosfuri, A. (2000). Wholly owned subsidiary versus
elements of cultural similarity in their promotional technology licensing in the worldwide chemical industry. Journal of
International Business Studies, 31(4), 555–573.
materials. For example, stressing religious similarity might
Basala, S., & Klenosky, D. (2001). Travel style preferences for visiting a
be a strong marketing message for Muslims, as it facilitates novel destination: A conjoint investigation across the novelty-
their religious practices, which include eating ‘‘Halal’’ food familiarity continuum. Journal of Travel Research, 40(2), 172–183.
and praying at a mosque five times a day. In addition, Boyacigiller, N. (1990). The role of expatriates in the management of
stressing the presence of a ‘‘multiethnic’’ culture might interdependence, complexity, and risk in multinational corporations.
make potential international tourists feel more comfortable Journal of International Business Studies, 21(3), 357–383.
Byrne, D., & Nelson, D. (1965). Attraction as a linear function of
and secure, due to the presence of their ethnicity at the proportion of positive reinforcements. Journal of Personality and
destination. Finally, stressing ‘‘food’’ similarity or avail- Social Psychology, 1(6), 659–663.
ability might increase the level of comfort with a potential Chen, J. S. (2000). A case study of Korean outbound travelers’ destination
destination (e.g. Korean tourists prefer to include their images by using correspondence analysis. Tourism Management, 22(4),
ethnic accompaniments, such as ‘‘kimchi’’ with their meals; 345–350.
Chen, J., Sokal, R. R., & Ruhlen, M. (1995). Analysis of genetic and
see Ahmed & Chon, 1994). Thus, a message that includes linguistic relationships of human populations. Human Biology, 67(4),
elements of home culture similarity, such as some similar 595–612.
looking people and some similar food, in the mix may Cho, S. Y. (1991). The Ugly Koreans are coming? Business Korea, 9(2), 25–31.
attract potential tourists. Clark, T., & Pugh, D. S. (2001). Foreign country priorities in the
internationalization process: a measure and an exploratory test on
For researchers, further study of the elements driving the
British firms. International Business Review, 10(3), 285–303.
similarity–attraction relationship is necessary. It is impor- Crouch, G. I. (1994). Demand elasticities for short-haul versus long-haul
tant to understand on what people base their under- tourism. Journal of Travel Research, 32, 2–7.
standing of cultural similarity. It would be interesting to Dann, G. (1993). Limitation in the use of nationality and country of
examine which elements of similarity (e.g., social life, residence. In D. Pearce, & R. Butler (Eds.), Tourism Research:
religion, food, language) are more strongly related to Critiques and Challenges. Routledge: London.
Dow, D. (2000). A note on psychological distance and export market
tourist intentions, as this type of information would help selection. Journal of International Marketing, 8(1), 51–64.
marketers fine tune their marketing campaigns. These Dybka, J. (1988). Overseas travel to Canada: New research on the
elements could then be combined into a new cultural perceptions and preferences of the pleasure travel market. Journal of
diversity index, which may have better predictive ability Travel Research, 26(4), 12–15.
Ensher, E. A., & Murphy, S. E. (1997). Effects of race, gender, perceived
than the measures used in this study. In addition, it would
similarity, and contact on mentor relationships. Journal of Vocational
be interesting to examine the influence of cultural similarity behavior, 50(3), 460–481.
on intention at an individual level. Differences are likely to Farh, J. L., Tsui, A. S., Xin, K., & Cheng, B. S. (1998). The influence of
be found across segments. For instance, people who tend to relational demography and guanxi: The Chinese case. Organization
avoid risk may be more motivated by cultural similarity, Science, 9(4), 471–489.
while people who seek novelty may be less motivated by Franzoi, S. (1996). Social psychology. Brown & Benchmark: Madison.
Griffith, D. A., Hu, M. Y., & Chen, H. (1998). Formation and
cultural similarity. performance of multi-partner Joint Ventures: A Sino-foreign illustra-
Much like other studies, the present study has some tion. International Marketing Review, 15(3), 171.
limitations to its generalizability. First, only 11 countries Harrison-Hill, T. (2001). How far is a long way? Contrasting two cultures’
were included in the study and the results are reported at perspectives of travel distance. Journal of Marketing Logistic, 13(3),
an aggregate level. Second, the small number of cases used 3–17.
Henderson, J. C. (2003). Managing tourism and Islam in Peninsular
in the partial correlation analysis (control for geographical Malaysia. Tourism Management, 24, 447–456.
distance) was lower than ideal. Third, intention was Hofstede, G. (1980). Culture’s consequences: International differences in
measured at one point in time. As such, those who had work-related values. Beverly Hills: Sage.
 ARTICLE IN PRESS
1506 S.I. Ng et al. / Tourism Management 28 (2007) 1497–1506

Hofstede, G. (1989). Organizing for cultural diversity. European Management Rao, A., & Schmidt, S. M. (1998). A behavioral perspective on negotiating
Journal, 7(4), 390–397. international alliance. Journal of International Business Studies, 29(4),
Hofstede, G. (2001). Culture’s Consequences. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. 665–689.
Holzner, L. (1985). Geographische Zeitschrift, 75(4), 192–205. Reisinger, Y., & Turner, L. (1998). Cultural differences between Mandarin-
Jackson, M. (2001). Cultural influences on tourist destination choices of speaking tourists and Australian hosts and their impact on cross-cultural
21pacific rim nations. Paper presented at the CAUTHE national tourist–host interaction. Journal of Business Research, 42(2), 175–187.
research conference, pp. 166–176. Ritter, W. (1987). Styles of tourism in the modern world. Tourism
Jackson, M., White, G., & Schmierer, C. (2000). Predicting tourism Recreation Research, 12(1), 3–8.
destination choices: Psychographic parameters versus psychological Rokeach, M. (1973). The nature of human values. New York: Free Press.
motivations. In M. Ewen (Ed.), Peak performance in tourism and Ronen, S., & Shenkar, O. (1985). Clustering countries on attitudinal
hospitality research CAUTHE 2000 Refereed research papers dimensions: A review and synthesis. Academy of Management Review,
(pp. 57–63). Bundoora: School of Tourism and Hospitality, La Trobe 10(3), 435–454.
University. Schwartz, S. H. (1992). Universals in the content and structure of values:
Kacen, J. J., & Lee, J. A. (2002). The influence of culture on consumer Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries. Advances in
impulsive buying behavior. Journal of Consumer Psychology, 12(20), Experimental Social Psychology, 25, 1–65.
163–176. Sheldon, P. J., & Fox, M. (1988). The role of foodservice in vacation
Kaynak, E., & Kucukemiroglu, O. (1993). Foreign vacation selection choice and experience: A cross-cultural analysis. Journal of Travel
process in an oriental culture. Asia Pacific Journal of Marketing & Research, 27(2), 9–16.
Logistic, 5(1), 21–41. Shenkar, O. (2001). Cultural distance revisited: Toward a more rigorous
Kluckhohn, C. (1951). The study of culture. In D. Lerner, & H. D. conceptualization and measurement of cultural differences. Journal of
Lasswell (Eds.), The policy sciences (pp. 86–101). Stanford, CA: International Business Studies, 32(3), 519–536.
Stanford University Press. Smith, J. B. (1998). Buyer–seller relationships: Similarity, relationship
Kogut, B., & Singh, H. (1988). The effect of national culture on the choice management, and quality. Psychology & Marketing, 15(1), 3–22.
of entry mode. Journal of International Business Studies, 19(3), Soutar, G. N., Grainger, R., & Hedges, P. (1999). Australian and Japanese
411–432. value stereotypes: A two Country Study. Journal of International
Lee, D. J., & Jang, J. I. (1998). The role of relational exchange between Business Studies, 30(1), 203–216.
exporters and importers evidence from small and medium-sized Spradley, J. P., & Philips, M. (1972). Culture and stress: A quantitative
Australian exporters. Journal of Small Business Management, 36(4), analysis. American Anthropologist, 74, 518–529.
12–23. Sutton, W. (1967). Travel and understanding: Notes on social structure of
Lee, G., Morrison, A. M., & O’Leary, J. T. (2006). The economic value tourism. International Journal of Comparative Sociology, 8, 218–223.
portfolio matrix: A target market selection tool for destination Tahir, R., & Larimo, J. (2004). Understanding the location strategies of
marketing organization. Tourism Management, 27(4), 576–588. European Firms in Asian Countries. Journal of the American Academy
Lepp, A., & Gibson, H. (2003). Tourist roles, perceived risk and of Business, 5(1/2), 102–109.
international tourism. Annals of Tourism Research, 30(3), 606–624. The 2006 Travel and Tourism Economic Research. (2006). By World
Linton, R. (1945). The cultural background of personality. Appleton- Travel and Tourism Council and Accenture, /[Link]
Century: New York. 2006TSA/pdf/Executive%20summary%[Link]
Martinez-Zarzoso, I. (2003). Gravity model: An application to trade Triandis, H. C. (1989). The self and social behavior in differing cultural
between regional blocs. Atlantic Economic Journal, 31(2), 174–188. contexts. Psychological Review, 96(3), 506–520.
McKercher, B., & Cros, H. D. (2003). Testing a cultural tourism typology. Turban, D. B., Dougherty, T. W., & Lee, F. K. (2002). Gender, race, and
International Journal of Tourism Research, 5(1), 45–58. perceived similarity effects in developmental relationships: The
McKercher, B., & Lew, A. (1992). The effect of distance decay on visitor moderating role of relationship duration. Journal of Vocational
mix at coastal destinations. Pacific Tourism Review, 2(3/4), 215–224. Behavior, 61(2), 240–262.
Meschi, P. X. (1997). Longevity and cultural differences of international Turner, L., Reisinger, Y., & Witt, S. (1998). Tourism demand analysis
joint ventures: Toward time-based cultural management. Human using structural equation modeling. Tourism Economics, 4(2), 301–323.
Relations, 50(2), 211–228. Wan, D., Hui, T. K., & Tiang, L. (2003). Factors affecting Singaporeans’
Morley, C. (1998). A dynamic international demand model. Annals of acceptance of international postings. Personnel Review, 32(6), 711–732.
Tourism Research, 25(1), 70–84. Watson, J. J., & Wright, K. (2000). Consumer ethnocentrism and attitudes
Muller, T. E. (1991). Using personal values to define segments in an toward domestic and foreign products. European Journal of Marketing,
international tourism market. International Marketing Review, 8(1), 34(9/10), 1149–1160.
57–70. West, J., & Graham, J. L. (2004). A linguistic-based measure of cultural
Nebenzahl, I. D., Jaffe, E. D., & Usunier, J.-C. (2003). Personifying distance and its relationship to managerial values. Management
country-of-origin research. Management International Review, 43(4), International Review, 44(3), 239–260.
383–406. Witt, S., & Witt, C. (1995). Forecasting tourism demand: A review of
Nesdale, D., & Mak, A. S. (2003). Ethnic identification, self-esteem and empirical research. International Journal of Forecasting, 11(3), 447–475.
immigrant psychological health. International Journal of Intercultural Wong, C. K. S., & Kwong, W. Y. Y. (2004). Outbound tourists’ selection
Relations, 27(1), 23–40. criteria for choosing all-inclusive package tours. Tourism Management,
O’Leary, S., & Deegan, J. (2003). People, pace, place: Qualitative and 25(5), 581–592.
quantitative images of Ireland as a tourism destination in France. Wong, C., & Lamb, C. J. (1983). The impact of selected environmental
Journal of Vacation Marketing, 9(3), 213–226. forces upon consumers’ willingness to buy foreign products. Journal of
O’Reilly, C. A., Caldwell, D. F., & Barnett, W. P. (1989). Work Group the Academy of Marketing Science, 11(2), 71–84.
Demography, Social Integration, And Turnover. Administrative World’s Leading Outbound Markets. (2005). International travel series,
Science Quarterly, 4(1), 21–38. travel and tourism: International, /[Link]
Pacific Asia Travel Association (PATA). (1995). Tracking Asian out- reports/index/letter=23&list=reports_index/display/id=144741&anchor
bound travel trends. Travel Industry Monitor, 63, 4–6. =a144741S.
Pizam, A., & Jeong, G. (1996). Cross-cultural tourist behavior: Percep- Yavas, U. (1987). Correlates of vacation travel: Some empirical evidence.
tions of Korean tour-guides. Tourism Management, 17(4), 277–286. Journal of Professional Services Marketing, 5(2), 3–18.
Pizam, A., & Sussman, S. (1995). Does nationality affect tourist behavior? Yu, C. J., & Zietlow, D. S. (1995). The determinants of bilateral trade among
Annals of Tourism Research, 22(4), 901–917. Asia-Pacific countries. Asean Economic Bulletin, 11(3), 298–305.

View publication stats