MULTIMEDIA UNIVERSITY O F K E N YA

PHYSICS DEPARTMEN T

PHYSICS OF MATTER AND MATERIALS

INTRODUCTION
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HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
• Mo s t of us don't realize h o w deeply ingrained materials are in our
culture.
• A l m o st every aspect of our daily lives—including recreation, housing,
clothing, communication, transportation, a n d food production,
a m o n g others—are in s o m e way influenced by materials.
• In the past, societies have advanced a n d developed in close
relation to their me mbe r s ' capacity to produc e a n d mani pulate
materials to m e e t their needs.
• In actuality, the degree of early civilizations' material de ve lopme nt
has be e n used to classify t h e m ( Stone Age, Br o n z e Age, Iron Age ).
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HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE
• In the past, materials were chosen based on their suitability for a specific
application from a set of relatively limited options.
• B u t recently, scientists a n d engineers have c o m e to understand the
connections b etween materials' structural elements a n d their properties.
• The characteristics of materials can n o w b e shaped to a large extent thanks to
this newfound understanding.
• As a result, our m o d e r n a n d comp lex society has
given rise to thousands of unique materials,
including metals, plastics, glasses, a n d fibers, each
with its o w n properties.

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PHYSICS DEPARTMEN T

PHYSICS OF MATTER AND MATERIALS

REVIEWOF MATTER
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MATTER AND CLASSIFICATION
Matter is m a d e u p of particles (atoms or molecules), a nd it is the properties of the
atoms or molecules that determine the characteristics a n d reactivity of matter.
The properties of matter include strength; density; me lting a n d boiling points;
whether the material is brittle, malleable, or ductile; whether it is ma gn e tic or
not; a n d its electrical a n d thermal conductivity.
Elements a nd c o m p o u n d s are classified as pure because they contain particles
that are all the same. Substances can be classified as pure elements, a n d
compounds – or mixtures.
Pu re substances contain particles that are all the same.
Elements a n d c o m p o u n d s can be represented by symbols a n d formulae.

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MATTER AND CLASSIFICATION
Mixtures consist of different substances a n d can be h omoge n e ou s (having the
s a me ‘look’ throughout) or heterogeneous (you can see the different substances).
They can be separated in various ways, for instance, by filtering, sieving,
chromatography, distilling, or dissolving one constituent.
S o m e of the properties of metals are that they c onduc t electricity a nd heat, a nd
they are malleable a n d ductile.
Non-metals are non-conductors of electricity a n d heat. They are gases, liquids, or
brittle solids a nd b o n d with each other.
Metalloids are elements o n the border between metals a n d non-metals, a n d they
have both metal a nd non-metal properties. e.g Boron, germanium, silicon,
antimony, arsenic, tellurium a n d pollanium
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STATES OF MATTER
SOLIDS, LIQUIDS,AND GASES

SOLIDS LIQUIDS GASES

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STATES OF MATTER AND THE KINETIC THEORY
The kinetic molecular theory, together with an understanding of intermolecular
forces, explains h o w matter can exist as solids, liquids, or gases.
The kinetic molecular theory can also be used to explain diffusion a nd Brownian
motion.
The kinetic molecular theory has it that:
● Matter is m a d e u p of particles that are constantly moving.
● Particles have energy that varies according to whether they are in the gas
(most energy), liquid or solid (least energy) phase.
● The temperature of a substance is a measure of the average kinetic
energy of its particles.
● A change in phase m ay occur w h e n the energy of the particles is c h a n g e d
by heating or cooling.
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STATES OF MATTER AND THE KINETIC THEORY
There are spaces between the particles.
These are greatest in the gas phase a nd least in the solid phase.
M eltin g (solid →liq u id or liq u id →solid ) p oin ts an d b oilin g (liq u id →g as or g as
→ liquid) points are the temperatures at w h i c h phase changes happen. They
are also specific to pure substances.
Sublimation is the c h a n ge fro m solid to gas without go in g throu gh the liquid
phase, for instance, solid CO 2 (dry ice) sublimates to CO 2 (gas).
B rownian motion is the ra n d o m m o v e m e n t of gas a n d liquid particles. (‘Random’
me a n s that any one particle can be m ov i n g in any possible direction at that
instant.)

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PHYSICS DEPARTMEN T

PHYSICS OF MATTER AND MATERIALS

THEATOM
(THE BASIC BUILDING BLOCK OF MATTER)
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THE MODELS OF THE ATOM
Matter is any substance that has a mass a n d occupies a volume. A n u m b e r of
models have been developed by different scientists explaining the structure of
these atoms.
S o m e of these models are described below:
Democritus – developed the particle theory of matter. H e stated that if you kept dividing
something, eventually you would get to a point where it can n o longer b e divided. H e called
this indivisible substance ‘atomos’.
Dalton – Said all matter consists of atoms that cannot b e m a d e or destroyed. At o ms of the
s ame element are all the s ame and atoms can b e joined together.
Thomson – developed the ‘currant bun’ model. A n a t o m consists of a solid, positively charged
mass in w hi c h tiny negatively charged particles are scattered.
Rutherford – said an a t o m contains a central, positively charged mass k n o w n as the nucleus.
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THE MODELS OF THE ATOM

B ohr – said negatively charged electrons are contained within certain areas in
the a t o m k n o w n as ‘energy shells’.
Schrödinger – developed the ‘wave model’ of the a t o m in w h i c h atoms behave as
waves rather than as particles.

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THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
The a t o m consists of a central nucleus containing positively charged protons
a n d neutral neutrons. Together these are k n o w n as nucleons.
Surrounding the nucleus is a n u m b e r of energy shells containing negatively
charged electrons.
The n u m b e r of protons in the nucleus is called the atomic n u m b e r (Z).
In a neutral atom, the n u m b e r of protons is equal to the n u m b e r of electrons.
The n u m b e r of protons a n d neutrons (added together) in the nucleus is called
the mass n u m b e r (A).

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THE STRUCTURE OF THE ATOM
A n a t o m can either gain or lose electrons in order to form a charged particle,
k n o w n as an ion.
A positive ion is formed w h e n an a t o m loses electrons, while a negative ion is
formed w h e n an a t o m gains electrons.
The mass of an a t o m (atomic mass) is determined by the n u m b e r of protons
a n d neutrons.
Mass of a proton = mass of a neutron = 1mass unit.

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PHYSICS DEPARTMEN T

PHYSICS OF MATTER AND MATERIALS

THE PERIODIC TABLE

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ELEMENTS OF THE PERIODIC TABLE
The elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number.
The zig-zag (step) line separates the metals (on the left) from the non-metals (on
the right).
The n u m b e re d c o lu mn s are called groups a nd are n u m b e re d from I to VIII. If the
transition metals are included, then the n u mbe rs run from 1to 18.
The n u m b e re d rows are called periods. This n u m b e r tells you h o w m a n y energy
levels or electron shells there are.
In s o m e groups, the properties of the elements in the grou p are similar (for
instance, the alkali metals of group I, the non-metal halogens of group VII)
The properties c h a n ge gradually as you m ove across a period (for instance,
c ha nge from metal to non-metal).
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CHARACTERISTIC CHANGE ACROSS THE PERIODIC TABLE
Characteristics that c h a n ge across the periodic table include the following:
A t o m i c radius: This is the distance from the center of the nucleus to the
outer energy shell, a nd it increases d o w n a group a nd across a period.
Ionization energy: This is the energy n e e de d to remove an electron from an
a t o m of that element in the gas phase, a nd it increases across a period but
decreases d o w n a group.
Electron affinity: This is the energy c h a n ge w h e n an electron is a dde d to an
a t o m of an element in the gas phase, a nd it increases across a period a nd
d o w n a group.
Electronegativity: This is the ability of an a t o m to attract the electrons m a k i n g a
b o n d it is involved in, a n d it increases across a period bu t decreases d o w n a group.
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CHARACTERISTIC CHANGE ACROSS THE PERIODIC TABLE
• Placing elements in some organized pattern enables a structure to be used in finding
commonality between existing elements.
• Recall that the valence electrons are the outmost shell of electrons and are involved in the
bonding of the element.
• The identification of the elements on the periodic table is consistent showing the atomic
number, the mass, the element’s configuration, the name, and the symbol for each element
The mass of an atom of a chemical element expressed in atomic mass units. It
is approximately equivalent to the number of protons and neutrons in the
atom (the mass number)

The number of protons in the nucleus of an atom, which is

characteristic of a chemical element and determines its place in the
periodic table.

The tendency of an atom participating in a covalent

bond to attract the bonding electrons.
The energy needed to remove the outermost (or highest
energy) electron from a neutral atom in the gas phase.

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CHARACTERISTIC CHANGE ACROSS THE PERIODIC TABLE
• Metals are located on the left portion of the periodic table. The metals have between one to
three valence electrons.
• The metallic elements are “givers” of electrons. Having relinquished an electron, the element
becomes positively charged.
• The nonmetals are located on the right side of the periodic table. They have five to eight
electrons in their outer shell.
• Being rather stable, the nonmetals would serve as suitable recipients for additional electrons.
This makes the element very negatively charged.
• The elements that are very negatively charged (anion) or are deficient of electrons and thus
are positively charged (cation) are called ions. An ion is a charged particle which is not
neutral.
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CHARACTERISTIC CHANGE ACROSS THE PERIODIC TABLE
• Column 8 of the periodic are the noble gases. These gases are very stable, have a full
valence shell, avoids bonding, is odorless, is colorless, and is monatomic gas.
• The halogens are located in the seventh column on the periodic table. The halogens desire
additional electrons to complete the valence shell.
• The halogens are normally found as an ion in compound due to their high reactivity.
• Column one contains the alkali metals. The alkali metals possess one electron in the valence
shell. Alkali metals are highly reactive to water.
• The alkaline earthen metals located in the second column ionize with the halogens to give
off ionic salts.
• The earthen metals are very stable at high temperatures and having two electrons in the outer
shell
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PHYSICS DEPARTMEN T

PHYSICS OFMATTER AND MATERIALS

CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS
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CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS
• Not all materials are the same.
• Some materials are rigid; some materials are pliable (malleable,
bendable, ductile, elastic, fictile, flexible, malleable),
• Some materials are shiny; some materials are dull.
• To describe materials by their properties an investigation can
spotlight their chemical, physical, or mechanical properties.

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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
• Chemical properties or characteristics of the material can be characterized as combustible,
chemically reactive, corrosion resistant, and toxic.
• The ability to catch fire and burn is a description of a combustible property.
• Some materials have a propensity to react with other materials such as acids and bases,
while others do not.
• Some materials are corrosion free, that is, resistance to oxidation.
• Finally consider materials that are highly toxic, filling the air with fumes.
• Each of these characteristics has a chemical bases for an explanation. Materials do not react
identically.
• Not all materials are affected by the environment in the same manner.
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PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MATERIALS
• Physical characteristics do not change the chemical composition of matter.
• Discussing the traits, height, weight, color, or any other aspect inherent to the material is
considered a physical description.
• Additional physical traits are melting point, boiling point, texture, solubility, luster, density,
magnetism, odor, viscosity, and crystalline structure.
• A conductivity property may refer to heat and/or electricity.
• When discussing heat, the heat capacity is referenced.
• As heat is applied, materials expand; when cooled, it contracts. The rate of expansion or
contraction, the amount of heat needed to raise a temperature, is unique to a particular
material.
• The optical characteristic or a material simply implies that the material is opaque,
translucent, or transparent
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MECHANICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF MATERIALS
• Mechanical characteristics, a subgroup of the physical group, involve an application of a
stress or a strain (application of a force), brittleness, hardness, elasticity (ability to stretch
and return to an original shape) or plasticity (going beyond the elastic state before a
deformity occurs), and workability (where material can be malleable (flattened) or ductile
pulled).
• Toughness is the ability to resist a fracture or absorb energy.
• Strength is a resistance to distortion due to a stress or a force.
• Types of strengths are tensile strength (pulling), a compression (pressing), torsion (twisting
an object), bending, and shearing (cutting)

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