UNIT 2: RISE AND FALL OF COMMUNISM IN THE SOVIET UNION

Study Guide

1. What was the USSR, how long did it last?

The USSR, or the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, was a socialist state that existed
from 1922 to 1991. It was composed of 15 republics, with Russia being the largest and
most influential. The USSR was a global superpower and ideological rival to the United
States during the Cold War. It dissolved in December 1991, leading to the emergence
of independent nations from its constituent republics.
2. Explain Russia historical background during the early XX century.
During the early 20th century, Russia experienced significant political and social
upheavals. Here are some key events and developments:

Russian Revolution of 1905: In response to political and economic grievances, workers

and peasants staged protests and strikes across the country. The demands for political
reforms and better living conditions ultimately led to the creation of the Russian Duma
(parliament) and various social reforms.

World War I and the February Revolution: Russia's involvement in World War I put a
strain on the country's resources and led to widespread discontent. In 1917, a series of
strikes, food shortages, and military mutinies sparked the February Revolution, which
resulted in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the establishment of a provisional
government.

October Revolution and Bolshevik Rule: The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, seized
power in the October Revolution of 1917. They promised "Peace, Land, and Bread" and
advocated for a socialist transformation of society. The Bolsheviks dissolved the
provisional government, leading to the Russian Civil War between the Red Army
(Bolsheviks) and the White Army (anti-Bolshevik forces).

Russian Civil War: The civil war, which lasted from 1918 to 1922, involved various
factions fighting for control over Russia. The Red Army emerged victorious,
establishing the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), which later
became the largest and most influential constituent of the USSR.

Formation of the USSR: In 1922, the RSFSR joined with other Soviet republics to form
the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR). The USSR aimed to create a socialist
state and promote the spread of communism globally.

Lenin's New Economic Policy (NEP): After the civil war, Lenin implemented the NEP,
which allowed limited private enterprise and market-oriented policies to revive the
war-torn economy. However, this policy was later abandoned under Stalin's rule.

Rise of Joseph Stalin: After Lenin's death in 1924, a power struggle ensued within the
Communist Party. Stalin emerged as the leader and implemented policies that
centralized power, industrialized the country, collectivized agriculture, and initiated a
series of purges to eliminate political opponents
3. Describe Russian government in times of the monarchy.
The Russian government during the monarchy, specifically under the Romanov
dynasty, was characterized by autocratic rule. Here are the key features and
institutions of the Russian government during this period:

Tsar (Emperor): The monarch, referred to as the Tsar or Emperor, held absolute power
and ruled as the autocratic head of state. The Tsar's authority was considered divinely
ordained, and they held supreme control over the government, the military, and the
Orthodox Church.

Boyars and Nobility: The boyars were the highest-ranking nobles who served as
advisors to the Tsar. They held significant influence and were granted privileges and
land ownership in return for their loyalty and service to the crown.

Centralized Bureaucracy: The government apparatus was organized into various

administrative bodies responsible for governing the vast Russian Empire. The
bureaucracy, known as the "tsarist administration," was hierarchical and implemented
policies dictated by the Tsar.

State Council and Holy Synod: The State Council was an advisory body composed of
high-ranking government officials, ministers, and members of the nobility. The Holy
Synod, led by the Metropolitan or Holy Synod Chairman, oversaw the affairs of the
Russian Orthodox Church, which was closely aligned with the state.

State Duma: The State Duma was a legislative assembly established in 1905 in
response to the 1905 Revolution. However, its powers were limited, and it lacked real
influence over the Tsar's decisions. It had limited authority to propose legislation and
act as a consultative body.

Censorship and Political Repression: The monarchy exercised strict control over
information and imposed censorship on publications, including newspapers and books,
to suppress dissenting opinions. Political opposition, especially revolutionary groups,
faced repression and persecution.

Serfdom: Serfdom was a system in which peasants were bound to the land and subject
to the control and ownership of noble landlords. The Tsar had the power to grant or
revoke land and control the lives of millions of serfs until serfdom was abolished in
1861.

Overall, the Russian government under the monarchy was characterized by autocracy,
centralized power, limited political representation, and a strict hierarchical structure.
The Tsar held ultimate authority and controlled all branches of government, making
key decisions without significant checks and balances.
4. How did WW I weaken the Tzar’s rule in Russia?
World War I had a significant impact on weakening the Tsar's rule in Russia in several
ways:

Military Failures: Russia's participation in World War I exposed the weaknesses of its
military and leadership. The Russian army suffered heavy casualties, faced logistical
challenges, and struggled with outdated tactics and equipment. These failures eroded
confidence in the Tsar as the supreme commander of the armed forces.
Economic Crisis: The war put a strain on Russia's resources and economy. The
government struggled to provide supplies to the frontlines, resulting in food shortages
and inflation. The high cost of the war and mismanagement of resources led to
economic instability, exacerbating social unrest and discontent among the population.

Loss of Public Support: The prolonged war and its associated hardships led to
widespread disillusionment among the Russian population. People became
increasingly critical of the Tsar's autocratic rule, blaming him for the economic crisis,
military failures, and the resulting suffering on the home front.

Rising Unrest and Strikes: The war exacerbated social tensions and inequalities in
Russia. Workers and peasants faced deteriorating living conditions, while the nobility
and elite enjoyed privileges. Strikes and protests became more frequent, fueled by
demands for better working conditions, higher wages, and political reforms. These
actions eroded support for the Tsar and his government.

Influence of Rasputin: Rasputin, a mystic and close advisor to Tsar Nicholas II and his
wife Alexandra, gained significant influence in the royal court. His controversial
behavior and perceived interference in government affairs further eroded public trust
in the Tsar's administration.

Political Opposition: The war created an environment conducive to political opposition

movements. Various groups, including liberals, socialists, and revolutionaries,
capitalized on the discontent and used the war as an opportunity to criticize the
Tsarist regime and advocate for political change.

Combined, these factors contributed to a loss of confidence in the Tsar's leadership,

creating fertile ground for dissent and eventually leading to the February Revolution of
1917, which resulted in the abdication of Tsar Nicholas II and the end of the Romanov
dynasty's rule in Russia.
5. Describe the revolution of 1905. Why was the Tzar able to survive it?
The Revolution of 1905, also known as the Russian Revolution of 1905, was a wave of
mass protests, strikes, and uprisings that occurred in the Russian Empire. Here's an
overview of the revolution and why the Tsar was able to survive it:

Causes of the Revolution:

Socioeconomic Issues: The Russian Empire was grappling with deep-rooted social and
economic problems, including widespread poverty, landlessness, and harsh working
conditions. Peasants, workers, and intellectuals demanded political and social reforms.

Political Dissatisfaction: People yearned for political freedoms and an end to the
autocratic rule of Tsar Nicholas II. Calls for a constitutional monarchy, democratic
reforms, and an elected parliament (Duma) grew louder.

Russo-Japanese War: Russia's defeat in the Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905) further

fueled discontent. The war highlighted the government's military and administrative
failures, leading to public anger and frustration.
Key Events and Outcomes:

Bloody Sunday: On January 22, 1905, peaceful demonstrators, led by Father Georgy
Gapon, marched to the Winter Palace in St. Petersburg to present a petition to the
Tsar. The Imperial Guard opened fire on the crowd, resulting in numerous casualties.
This event, known as Bloody Sunday, triggered widespread strikes, protests, and
violence across the country.

Formation of Soviets: As the revolution unfolded, workers formed Soviets, or councils,

which became influential in coordinating strikes and organizing revolutionary
activities. The Soviets emerged as a new form of political organization and an
alternative source of power.

October Manifesto: In response to the mounting pressure, Tsar Nicholas II issued the
October Manifesto on October 17, 1905. The manifesto promised civil liberties,
including freedom of speech, assembly, and association, and the creation of an
elected legislative body—the State Duma.

Why the Tsar Survived:

Repression and Countermeasures: The Tsar's government responded to the revolution

with repression and a combination of concessions and limited reforms. The army and
police carried out brutal crackdowns, suppressing the revolutionaries. The government
also made efforts to divide the opposition and co-opt moderate elements.

Support from Conservative Forces: The Tsar received support from conservative
factions, including the nobility, the Orthodox Church, and the military. These groups
feared radical change and saw the Tsar as a symbol of stability and order.

Divisions within the Opposition: The revolutionary movement was fragmented,

comprising various groups with differing goals and ideologies. This lack of unity and
coordination weakened the opposition's ability to mount a cohesive challenge to the
Tsar's rule.

Reliance on Loyalty: The Tsar relied on the loyalty of the army and the bureaucracy,
who remained largely obedient to the monarchy. This support ensured that the
government retained control over key institutions and could suppress dissent
effectively.

Although the Revolution of 1905 did not result in the overthrow of the Tsar or bring
about substantial political changes, it laid the groundwork for future revolutionary
activities and set the stage for the larger and more successful Russian Revolution of
1917.

6. Describe the two revolutions of 1917. Which were their consequences?

The two revolutions of 1917 in Russia were the February Revolution and the October
Revolution. Here's an overview of each revolution and their consequences:

February Revolution:
Causes: The February Revolution was primarily driven by a combination of economic
hardships, food shortages, war weariness, and political discontent. Widespread strikes,
protests, and mutinies erupted in Petrograd (now St. Petersburg) in February 1917.
Events: Demonstrations and strikes escalated, and soldiers joined the protests,
demanding an end to the war and improved living conditions. Tsar Nicholas II lost
control of the situation, and on March 2, 1917, he abdicated the throne, effectively
ending the Romanov dynasty.
Consequences: The February Revolution resulted in the establishment of a Provisional
Government, initially led by liberals and later by socialists. The Provisional
Government promised political reforms, civil liberties, and elections for a Constituent
Assembly. However, it struggled to address the country's deep-seated problems and
failed to satisfy the demands of various social and political groups.
October Revolution:
Causes: The October Revolution, also known as the Bolshevik Revolution, was driven
by a combination of factors, including the dissatisfaction with the Provisional
Government's policies, the continuation of the war, and the influence of the Bolshevik
Party, led by Vladimir Lenin.
Events: On October 25, 1917 (according to the Julian calendar then in use in Russia),
the Bolsheviks, supported by the Red Guards and other revolutionary groups,
overthrew the Provisional Government in Petrograd. They seized key government
buildings, including the Winter Palace, and established Soviet power.
Consequences: The October Revolution marked the rise of the Bolshevik Party to
power. The Bolsheviks, led by Lenin, established the Russian Soviet Federative
Socialist Republic (RSFSR) as a socialist state. They implemented a series of radical
reforms, including land redistribution, nationalization of industry, and withdrawal from
World War I. The revolution ultimately led to the Russian Civil War (1918-1922)
between the Red Army (Bolsheviks) and the White Army (anti-Bolshevik forces),
resulting in the Bolshevik victory and the formation of the Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics (USSR) in 1922.
Overall, the two revolutions of 1917 marked a fundamental shift in Russian politics and
society. They resulted in the end of Tsarist autocracy, the establishment of a socialist
state under Bolshevik rule, and the eventual formation of the USSR. The revolutions
also set the stage for significant social, political, and economic transformations in
Russia, including collectivization, industrialization, and the consolidation of communist
power under Joseph Stalin.
7. Which were the two sides in the Civil War? Why did the Bolsheviks win?
The Russian Civil War, which took place from 1918 to 1922, involved several factions
vying for control of Russia. The two main sides were the Red Army (Bolsheviks) and
the White Army (anti-Bolshevik forces). Here's an overview of the sides and the
reasons behind the Bolsheviks' victory:

Red Army (Bolsheviks):

Bolsheviks: The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin and later Joseph Stalin, represented
the socialist and communist forces. They aimed to establish a centralized and socialist
state, implementing policies such as land redistribution, nationalization of industry,
and the establishment of worker and peasant councils (Soviets) as the basis of
government.
White Army (Anti-Bolshevik forces):
Anti-Bolshevik Forces: The White Army was a diverse coalition of groups opposed to
the Bolshevik regime. It consisted of various factions, including monarchists, liberals,
conservatives, nationalists, and foreign interventionist forces. The Whites aimed to
overthrow the Bolsheviks and restore the pre-revolutionary order or establish
alternative forms of government.
Reasons for Bolshevik Victory:

Unity and Centralization: The Bolsheviks maintained a strong level of internal unity
and centralized control over their forces, allowing for effective decision-making and
coordination. In contrast, the White Army was fragmented and lacked a cohesive
command structure, leading to divisions and infighting.

Ideological Conviction: The Bolsheviks had a clear ideological framework and a

committed base of supporters. Their dedication to their cause helped rally their troops
and inspire loyalty. The Bolsheviks were adept at utilizing propaganda and political
indoctrination to mobilize support for their vision of a socialist society.

Military Leadership: The Red Army benefited from competent military leadership,
including figures such as Leon Trotsky. Trotsky played a crucial role in organizing and
directing the Red Army's military campaigns, implementing effective strategies, and
centralizing command structures.

Geographic Advantage: The Bolsheviks controlled the most populous and

industrialized regions of Russia, including Moscow and Petrograd (formerly St.
Petersburg). They had better access to resources, infrastructure, and communication
networks, which gave them a strategic advantage over the geographically dispersed
White forces.

Foreign Intervention Challenges: The White Army faced challenges from foreign
interventionist forces, including troops from Allied nations (such as Britain, France, and
the United States) who supported the Whites against the Bolsheviks. However, these
interventionist forces were often poorly coordinated and had conflicting objectives,
which weakened the overall impact of their support for the White Army.

War Weariness: The Russian population, after years of war, upheaval, and economic
hardships, grew weary and sought stability. The Bolsheviks promised an end to the
war, land redistribution, and bread for the people, resonating with the war-weary
masses and garnering support.

Overall, the Bolsheviks' unity, centralized control, ideological conviction, competent

military leadership, geographic advantage, and ability to rally popular support were
instrumental in their victory over the disparate and divided White Army during the
Russian Civil War.
8. Who was the leader of the Bolshevik revolution?
The leader of the Bolshevik revolution was Vladimir Lenin. Lenin was a prominent
Russian revolutionary and a key figure in the Bolshevik Party, which later became the
Communist Party of the Soviet Union. He played a crucial role in leading the
Bolsheviks to power during the October Revolution of 1917. After the revolution, Lenin
became the head of the new government and served as the first leader of the Russian
Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR), which later formed the core of the Soviet
Union. Lenin's leadership and ideological contributions shaped the early years of
Soviet Russia and laid the foundation for the establishment of a socialist state.
9. Which were Lenin’s most important actions in the few years he ruled the USSR?
During the few years that Lenin ruled the Soviet Union (initially as the leader of the
Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic and later as the head of the Union of
Soviet Socialist Republics), he implemented several important actions that
significantly shaped the direction of the country. Here are some of Lenin's most
significant actions during his leadership:

Implementation of War Communism: In response to the challenges of the Russian Civil

War and the need to mobilize resources for the Red Army, Lenin introduced the policy
of War Communism. This policy involved the nationalization of industry, central
planning of the economy, and requisitioning of grain from peasants. It aimed to
provide for the needs of the army and consolidate Bolshevik power but resulted in
economic hardship and peasant resistance.

Formation of the Red Army: Lenin played a crucial role in organizing and leading the
Red Army, the military force of the Bolshevik government. He implemented military
reforms, appointed capable leaders such as Leon Trotsky, and prioritized the defense
of the socialist state. The Red Army's victories during the civil war were instrumental
in securing Bolshevik power.

Establishment of the New Economic Policy (NEP): Recognizing the economic difficulties
caused by War Communism, Lenin introduced the New Economic Policy in 1921. The
NEP allowed for a limited return to market-based mechanisms, including small-scale
private enterprise and trade. It aimed to revive the economy, improve living
conditions, and consolidate Bolshevik rule. The NEP brought some stability and
economic recovery during its implementation.

Creation of the Soviet Union: Lenin played a crucial role in the formation of the Union
of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) in 1922. The USSR brought together various Soviet
republics into a centralized federal structure. Lenin's leadership and negotiation skills
helped solidify the Soviet Union as a socialist state.

Promotion of Communist Ideology: Lenin actively promoted the ideology of

communism and Marxist-Leninist principles. He emphasized the need for a vanguard
party to lead the working class revolution, advocated for the establishment of a
dictatorship of the proletariat, and worked towards the international spread of
communism. Lenin's writings and speeches, including his influential work "State and
Revolution," shaped the ideological foundation of the Soviet Union.

Redrawing of Boundaries and National Self-Determination: Lenin's government

pursued policies of national self-determination, allowing different nationalities within
the former Russian Empire to have a degree of autonomy and the right to determine
their own destiny. This included recognizing the independence of nations such as
Ukraine, Belarus, and the Baltic states.

These actions, among others, illustrate Lenin's efforts to consolidate Bolshevik power,
implement socialist policies, and shape the course of the newly established Soviet
Union during the crucial years following the October Revolution.
10. Compare and contrast Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin.
Leon Trotsky and Joseph Stalin were both prominent figures in the early Soviet Union,
but they held differing views and played distinct roles in the Communist Party and the
government. Here's a comparison and contrast of Trotsky and Stalin:

Background and Rise to Power:

Trotsky: Leon Trotsky, born Lev Davidovich Bronstein, was an intellectual and a skilled
orator. He played a key role in the success of the Bolshevik Revolution, serving as the
People's Commissar for Foreign Affairs and as the leader of the Red Army during the
Russian Civil War. He was a close associate of Lenin and initially considered one of the
leading contenders for succession.
Stalin: Joseph Stalin, born Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili, came from a modest
background. He gradually rose within the ranks of the Bolshevik Party, serving in
various administrative positions. Stalin became General Secretary of the Communist
Party in 1922, gaining significant influence over party affairs.
Ideological Differences:

Trotsky: Trotsky aligned himself with the theory of Permanent Revolution, which
advocated for spreading the socialist revolution beyond Russia's borders. He believed
in the need for an international revolution and the establishment of a global
communist society.
Stalin: Stalin promoted the idea of "Socialism in One Country," which prioritized
building and consolidating socialism within the Soviet Union before focusing on
international revolution. He emphasized the need for industrialization and self-
sufficiency.
Role in Government:

Trotsky: Trotsky held important positions in the early Soviet government. He served as
the People's Commissar for War and played a significant role in organizing and leading
the Red Army. He was a prominent figure in the government, contributing to policy-
making and defending the Bolshevik regime.
Stalin: As General Secretary of the Communist Party, Stalin held considerable power
within the party apparatus. He gradually consolidated his authority, eliminating rivals
and centralizing control over the party and state institutions. Stalin played a key role
in policy-making and exercised significant influence over the direction of the Soviet
Union.
Conflict and Exile:

Trotsky: After Lenin's death, Trotsky engaged in a power struggle with Stalin for the
leadership of the Soviet Union. Trotsky lost the power struggle and was expelled from
the party in 1927. He was exiled and eventually assassinated in Mexico in 1940.
Stalin: Stalin emerged victorious in the power struggle and solidified his position as
the leader of the Soviet Union. He pursued policies of forced collectivization,
industrialization, and rapid modernization, which resulted in significant social and
economic transformations but also caused immense human suffering, including the
Great Purge.
Legacy and Impact:
Trotsky: Trotsky's ideas and writings continue to influence Marxist and socialist
thought. He is often seen as a symbol of opposition to Stalinism and authoritarianism
within the communist movement. Trotskyism emerged as a distinct political ideology
and remains influential in some leftist circles.
Stalin: Stalin's rule had a profound impact on the Soviet Union and the world. His
policies resulted in rapid industrialization and the transformation of the Soviet Union
into a major global power. However, his regime was marked by authoritarianism,
political repression, and mass human rights abuses, including the Great Purge and
forced collectivization.
In summary, Trotsky and Stalin had different ideological perspectives, roles in
government, and legacies. Trotsky was an intellectual and military leader,
emphasizing international revolution, while Stalin focused on building socialism within
the Soviet Union. Stalin emerged as the dominant figure, leading the Soviet Union
through a period of significant transformation but also inflicting immense suffering
through his authoritarian rule. Trotsky, in contrast, became an opposition figure and a
symbol of resistance to Stalinism.
11. Explain the policy of collectivization.
The policy of collectivization was a major agricultural policy implemented in the Soviet
Union during the late 1920s and early 1930s under Joseph Stalin's leadership. It aimed
to transform the Soviet agricultural sector from individual peasant farming to large-
scale collective farming. Here's an explanation of the policy of collectivization:

Objectives:
Increase agricultural productivity: The Soviet government believed that collectivization
would lead to increased agricultural output by consolidating smaller, fragmented
peasant holdings into larger and more efficient collective farms.
Promote industrialization: The surplus agricultural production from collectivization was
intended to provide resources, such as food and raw materials, to support the rapid
industrialization of the Soviet Union.
Eliminate kulaks and resistance: The policy also aimed to eliminate the kulaks,
wealthier peasants who were seen as a class enemy, and suppress resistance to the
Soviet regime in rural areas.
Process:
Formation of collective farms: Peasants were encouraged, and later coerced, to
voluntarily join collective farms known as kolkhozes or state farms known as
sovkhozes. Individual land and livestock were pooled together, and farming was
carried out collectively under state supervision.
Confiscation and redistribution: In many cases, the Soviet authorities confiscated land,
livestock, and grain from wealthier peasants (kulaks) who resisted collectivization.
These confiscated resources were redistributed among the collective farms and poorer
peasants.
Forced collectivization: As resistance increased, the Soviet government resorted to
more forceful measures, such as mass deportations, imprisonment, and execution of
those who resisted collectivization. The process of forced collectivization resulted in
violence, disruption, and loss of life.
Impacts and Consequences:
Agricultural disruptions: Collectivization led to disruptions in agricultural production, as
many experienced farmers, including the kulaks, were removed from their land.
Resistance, lack of incentives, and the disruption of traditional farming practices
contributed to a decline in agricultural output in the short term.
Famine and human suffering: The forced collectivization process, combined with a
series of poor harvests and the state's requisitioning of grain, contributed to a severe
famine in parts of the Soviet Union, particularly Ukraine, in the early 1930s. This
famine, known as the Holodomor, resulted in millions of deaths and widespread
suffering.
Social and political effects: Collectivization led to a significant transformation of rural
society. It weakened the power of the peasantry, increased state control over
agriculture, and consolidated the Communist Party's control over the countryside. It
also generated social tensions and resistance among peasants, leading to divisions
within rural communities.
Long-term agricultural changes: Despite the initial setbacks, collectivization eventually
resulted in the consolidation of farming resources, mechanization of agriculture, and
increased state control over food production. It laid the groundwork for the Soviet
Union's transition to large-scale industrial agriculture in subsequent decades.
The policy of collectivization had significant social, economic, and humanitarian
consequences. It dramatically reshaped rural life, led to widespread suffering and loss
of life, and fundamentally transformed the agricultural sector in the Soviet Union.
12. What were Stalin’s purges?
Stalin's purges, also known as the Great Purge or the Great Terror, refer to a period of
widespread political repression and mass purges that took place in the Soviet Union
from the late 1930s to the early 1950s under the leadership of Joseph Stalin. Here's an
explanation of Stalin's purges:

Targets:
Communist Party members: The purges primarily targeted members of the Communist
Party, including high-ranking officials, party bureaucrats, and military officers. Stalin
aimed to eliminate perceived internal enemies, potential rivals, and those he
considered disloyal or ideologically deviant.
Intellectuals and professionals: The purges also targeted intellectuals, writers, artists,
scientists, and other professionals who were seen as a potential threat or were
deemed ideologically unreliable.
Other groups: The purges extended to various social groups, including ethnic
minorities, religious figures, and ordinary citizens who were deemed enemies of the
state or were accused of counter-revolutionary activities.
Methods and Tactics:
Arrests and imprisonment: Suspected individuals were arrested by the NKVD (Soviet
secret police) and often subjected to brutal interrogations. Many were held in prisons,
labor camps (Gulags), or sent into exile.
Show trials and forced confessions: The accused were publicly tried in show trials,
which were orchestrated to legitimize the purges. Forced confessions were extracted
through torture, threats, or coercion.
Execution and forced labor: Those found guilty were executed, either immediately or
after a period of imprisonment. Others were sentenced to forced labor in Gulags,
where conditions were harsh, and mortality rates were high.
Purposes and Motivations:
Consolidation of power: Stalin aimed to consolidate his personal power and eliminate
potential threats within the party and the broader society. The purges helped him
eliminate real or perceived opposition and solidify his control over the Soviet state.
Ideological conformity: Stalin sought to enforce ideological conformity and loyalty to
his leadership. The purges targeted those considered ideologically deviant, including
Trotskyists, left and right oppositionists, and perceived enemies of the state.
Social control and fear: The purges created an atmosphere of fear and paranoia,
fostering a climate of absolute loyalty to Stalin and discouraging dissent or opposition.
They served as a means of social control and a warning to those who might challenge
Stalin's authority.
Human Cost:
Enormous human suffering: The purges resulted in the arrest, imprisonment, and
execution of millions of people. Countless lives were lost, families were destroyed, and
communities were devastated.
Economic and cultural impact: The purges had a detrimental effect on the economy,
science, arts, and intellectual life in the Soviet Union. Many skilled professionals and
intellectuals were targeted and removed, leading to a loss of expertise and stifling
cultural and scientific development.
The purges under Stalin had far-reaching consequences for the Soviet Union, leaving a
lasting impact on society, politics, and the collective memory of the nation. They were
characterized by a climate of fear, suppression of dissent, and the loss of countless
lives as Stalin sought to consolidate his power and maintain strict control over all
aspects of Soviet society.
13. Explain Khrushchev’s government
Nikita Khrushchev was a prominent Soviet politician who served as the First Secretary
of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union from 1953 to 1964, and as the Chairman
of the Council of Ministers (Premier) from 1958 to 1964. Here's an explanation of
Khrushchev's government:

Destalinization:
One of Khrushchev's most significant actions was his policy of destalinization. He
denounced the excesses and cult of personality associated with Joseph Stalin's rule,
aiming to distance the Soviet Union from the repressive era. Khrushchev criticized
Stalin's purges, abuses of power, and personality cult, which allowed for a certain
degree of political liberalization and openness.
Political Reforms:
De-centralization: Khrushchev implemented a policy of greater de-centralization within
the Soviet Union, aiming to devolve power from the central government to regional
and local authorities. This included the restructuring of the party and state apparatus
to give more decision-making authority to lower-level officials.
Reorganization of the Party: Khrushchev initiated reforms within the Communist Party,
including the removal of some old-guard Stalinist officials and the promotion of
younger, more reform-minded individuals. He sought to modernize the party structure
and promote collective leadership.
Agricultural Reforms:
Virgin Lands Campaign: Khrushchev launched the Virgin Lands Campaign in 1953 to
address food shortages and increase agricultural production. The campaign involved
cultivating previously unused land in the vast territories of Kazakhstan, Siberia, and
other regions. It aimed to boost grain production and make the Soviet Union self-
sufficient in food.
Corn Campaign: Khrushchev also initiated a campaign to introduce corn (maize) as a
staple crop in the Soviet Union. This was intended to increase the production of animal
feed and improve livestock farming.
Foreign Policy:
Peaceful Coexistence: Khrushchev advocated for a policy of peaceful coexistence with
the capitalist West. He believed that competition between the two systems could
occur without direct military confrontation. This led to a period of relative détente
during the Cold War, including cultural exchanges, diplomatic negotiations, and the
avoidance of large-scale conflicts.
Berlin Crisis: Khrushchev's government was involved in the Berlin Crisis of 1961, which
resulted in the construction of the Berlin Wall. The crisis highlighted the tensions
between the Soviet Union and the United States and their respective allies.
Downfall and Succession:
Khrushchev's tenure as the Soviet leader came to an end in 1964 when he was
removed from power through a party coup. His economic policies, agricultural reforms,
and erratic leadership style had faced significant criticism from within the party. He
was succeeded by Leonid Brezhnev.
Khrushchev's government represented a period of relative liberalization and political
thaw within the Soviet Union. His policies aimed to distance the country from the
excesses of Stalin's era, introduce reforms, and seek a more peaceful coexistence with
the West. While Khrushchev's leadership was marked by a mix of successes and
failures, his government played a significant role in shaping the course of Soviet
politics during the Cold War era.
14. How did Khruschev compare Lenin and Stalin in his speech to the XX Congress of
the Communist Party?
In Khrushchev's speech to the 20th Congress of the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union, which took place in February 1956, he delivered a significant critique of Stalin's
rule and his cult of personality. During the speech, known as the "Secret Speech,"
Khrushchev made comparisons between Lenin and Stalin. Here's an overview of
Khrushchev's comparison of Lenin and Stalin:

Lenin's Role:
Khrushchev emphasized Lenin's positive contributions to the revolution and the early
years of Soviet rule. He praised Lenin's leadership, revolutionary spirit, and theoretical
insights, highlighting his role as the founder of the Soviet state and the Communist
Party.
Stalin's Role:
Khrushchev criticized Stalin for deviating from the principles and methods of Leninism.
He highlighted Stalin's abuses of power, excessive centralization, and the personality
cult that surrounded him. Khrushchev condemned Stalin's purges, mass repressions,
and violations of human rights, which he considered a departure from the ideals of the
revolution.
Comparison:
Khrushchev drew a contrast between Lenin's leadership style and the authoritarianism
of Stalin. He argued that Lenin's approach was characterized by democratic
centralism, collective decision-making, and respect for inner-party democracy. In
contrast, Khrushchev portrayed Stalin as an autocrat who consolidated power,
suppressed dissent, and created a climate of fear and repression.
De-Stalinization:
Khrushchev's speech marked the beginning of the policy of destalinization, which
aimed to distance the Soviet Union from Stalin's legacy. It involved denouncing
Stalin's excesses, condemning the cult of personality, and initiating political and social
reforms to address the repressive practices of the past.
It's important to note that Khrushchev's critique of Stalin was not a complete rejection
of the Soviet system or the principles of Marxism-Leninism. Instead, he sought to
reconcile the positive aspects of Lenin's leadership with a recognition of the negative
consequences of Stalin's rule. Khrushchev's speech had significant repercussions
within the Soviet Union and internationally, leading to a period of political and cultural
thaw known as the Khrushchev Thaw.
15. Explain Brezhnev’s government
Leonid Brezhnev was the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet
Union from 1964 until his death in 1982. He also served as the Chairman of the
Presidium of the Supreme Soviet, effectively the head of state, from 1977 to 1982.
Here's an overview of Brezhnev's government:

Domestic Policies:
Stagnation and conservative rule: Brezhnev's government was characterized by a
period of political and economic stagnation. His policies focused on preserving the
status quo, maintaining social stability, and upholding the Soviet system. This led to a
lack of significant reforms and a growing bureaucracy.
Command economy: Brezhnev maintained a command economy, with state control
over key industries and central planning. However, inefficiencies, corruption, and a
lack of innovation hindered economic growth and led to a decline in productivity over
time.
Social policies: Brezhnev's government placed an emphasis on social welfare and
improving living standards for the Soviet population. The government invested in
healthcare, education, housing, and pensions, but these improvements were often
accompanied by a lack of individual freedoms and political repression.
Foreign Policies:
Détente and arms control: Brezhnev pursued a policy of détente, seeking to ease
tensions with the West, particularly the United States. This led to the signing of arms
control agreements, such as the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) and the
Helsinki Accords, aimed at reducing the risk of nuclear war and promoting
cooperation.
Soviet influence abroad: The Soviet Union under Brezhnev continued to support and
promote socialist and communist movements around the world. It intervened militarily
in countries such as Afghanistan in 1979, aiming to maintain or expand Soviet
influence in the global arena.
Cold War rivalries: Despite the policy of détente, tensions and rivalries with the United
States and its allies persisted. The arms race continued, and ideological conflicts
between the two superpowers remained a defining feature of international relations
during Brezhnev's tenure.
Leadership Style and Cult of Personality:
Brezhnev's leadership style was marked by a conservative approach, emphasizing
stability and maintaining the existing political order. His government was
characterized by a lack of political openness, limited dissent, and the consolidation of
power within the Communist Party.
Cult of personality: Similar to his predecessors, Brezhnev's leadership was
accompanied by a cult of personality, with his image and achievements promoted
through state propaganda.
Brezhnev's government represented a period of relative stability within the Soviet
Union, but it also witnessed a decline in economic growth, political stagnation, and a
lack of significant reforms. While Brezhnev's policies aimed to maintain social stability
and protect Soviet interests abroad, they contributed to the growing problems and
ultimately set the stage for subsequent reforms under Mikhail Gorbachev in the 1980s.
16. Describe Gorbachev and compare him with Stalin and Brezhnev.
Mikhail Gorbachev, who served as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of
the Soviet Union from 1985 to 1991, played a transformative role in Soviet politics and
had distinct differences compared to his predecessors, Stalin and Brezhnev. Here's a
comparison of Gorbachev with Stalin and Brezhnev:

Leadership Style:
Stalin: Joseph Stalin was known for his autocratic leadership style, characterized by a
strong centralization of power, suppression of dissent, and a cult of personality. He
ruled with an iron fist and enforced strict ideological conformity.
Brezhnev: Leonid Brezhnev followed a more conservative leadership style,
emphasizing stability and maintaining the status quo. His government was marked by
political stagnation, limited political openness, and a focus on social welfare.
Gorbachev: Mikhail Gorbachev introduced a more open and reform-oriented leadership
style. He aimed to bring about significant changes in the Soviet Union through his
policy of perestroika (restructuring) and glasnost (openness), promoting political and
economic reforms and increased transparency.
Economic Policies:
Stalin: Stalin pursued rapid industrialization and collectivization, implementing a
command economy with centralized planning and state control over industries. His
policies led to significant economic growth but also resulted in widespread suffering,
including famine and forced labor.
Brezhnev: Brezhnev's government maintained a command economy with state control
over key industries. However, economic stagnation and inefficiencies became more
apparent during his tenure, with a decline in productivity and technological innovation.
Gorbachev: Gorbachev implemented economic reforms aimed at increasing
productivity and efficiency. He introduced limited market-oriented measures, allowing
for greater individual initiative and private ownership of businesses. However, these
reforms faced challenges and were not fully implemented.
Political Reforms:
Stalin: Stalin's regime was characterized by political repression, purges, and the
suppression of dissent. He consolidated power through a highly centralized political
system and persecuted perceived enemies and potential rivals.
Brezhnev: Under Brezhnev's rule, political stagnation prevailed. Dissent and political
opposition were limited, and there was little political liberalization. The government
maintained control over the media and limited freedom of expression.
Gorbachev: Gorbachev introduced political reforms aimed at greater openness and
democratization. His policy of glasnost allowed for greater freedom of speech, press,
and political expression. He encouraged public debate and criticism of the
government, leading to increased political pluralism.
Foreign Policies:
Stalin: Stalin pursued an aggressive foreign policy, seeking to expand Soviet influence
and control over Eastern Europe and other regions. This included the establishment of
satellite states and interventions in neighboring countries.
Brezhnev: Brezhnev's foreign policy focused on maintaining Soviet influence and
supporting socialist movements abroad. The Soviet Union was involved in various
conflicts, including the intervention in Afghanistan, while also engaging in arms control
negotiations with the United States.
Gorbachev: Gorbachev pursued a policy of détente and improved relations with the
West. He sought to reduce tensions in the Cold War and negotiated arms control
agreements, such as the Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty. Gorbachev's
policies led to significant changes in Eastern Europe, including the peaceful transitions
to democracy in several countries.
In summary, Gorbachev differed from Stalin and Brezhnev in terms of leadership style,
economic policies, political reforms, and foreign policies. Gorbachev's emphasis on
openness, political and economic reforms, and engagement with the international
community set him apart from the more autocratic and conservative approaches of his
predecessors. While Gorbachev's reforms brought significant changes to the Soviet
Union, they also contributed to political and economic reforms, and engagement with
the international community set him apart from the more autocratic and conservative
approaches of his predecessors. While Gorbachev's reforms brought significant
changes to the Soviet Union, they also contributed to political and social upheaval,
ultimately leading to the dissolution of the Soviet Union.
17. What were the policies of glasnost and perestroika?
Glasnost and perestroika were two key policies introduced by Mikhail Gorbachev in the
Soviet Union during the 1980s. They were part of Gorbachev's broader reform agenda
aimed at revitalizing the Soviet system. Here's an explanation of each policy:

Glasnost (Openness):
Glasnost referred to a policy of increased transparency, openness, and freedom of
speech within Soviet society. It aimed to foster public discussion and debate,
encourage criticism of government policies, and provide greater access to information.
Glasnost allowed for a more open and pluralistic media environment, including the
publication of previously censored materials and the emergence of independent media
outlets.
The policy sought to address issues of corruption, inefficiency, and political stagnation
by encouraging public participation, accountability, and the exposure of social
problems. It aimed to create an atmosphere of public trust and engagement.
Perestroika (Restructuring):
Perestroika referred to a policy of economic and political restructuring. It aimed to
modernize and reform the Soviet economy by introducing limited market-oriented
measures and decentralizing decision-making processes. Perestroika sought to
increase economic efficiency, productivity, and innovation by allowing for more
flexibility and individual initiative.
The policy involved the introduction of elements of a market economy, such as
allowing small private businesses, cooperatives, and foreign investment. It also
included efforts to streamline bureaucracy, improve management practices, and
address inefficiencies in the state-run industries.
Politically, perestroika aimed to introduce greater democratization within the Soviet
system, including the promotion of multi-candidate elections and increased local
autonomy. It sought to devolve power from the central government to regional and
local authorities, fostering a more pluralistic and participatory political environment.
Glasnost and perestroika were intended to work together to revitalize the Soviet Union
by addressing its economic and political challenges. However, the implementation of
these policies faced significant obstacles, including resistance from conservative
elements within the party and broader societal tensions. While they brought about
greater openness and sparked important discussions, the reforms also contributed to
political and social instability, ultimately leading to the dissolution of the Soviet Union
and the end of the Cold War.
18. Which were Gorbachev’s measures that led to the collapse of the USSR
Several measures implemented by Mikhail Gorbachev as part of his reform agenda
contributed to the collapse of the Soviet Union. Here are some key factors that led to
the collapse:

Political Reforms:
Glasnost (openness): Gorbachev's policy of increased transparency and freedom of
speech allowed for the exposure of widespread corruption, inefficiencies, and social
problems within the Soviet system. This led to public disillusionment with the
government and a loss of faith in the communist regime.
Political pluralism: Gorbachev's push for greater political openness allowed for the
emergence of alternative political movements and parties. This undermined the
monopoly of power held by the Communist Party and led to demands for greater
political representation and democratization.
Economic Reforms:
Perestroika (restructuring): Gorbachev's economic reforms aimed to modernize and
revitalize the Soviet economy. However, the implementation of limited market-
oriented measures and attempts to decentralize decision-making processes resulted in
economic instability and inefficiencies. State-controlled industries struggled to adapt
to the changing economic landscape, leading to shortages, inflation, and declining
living standards.
Weakening central control: Gorbachev's policies sought to devolve power from the
central government to regional and local authorities, allowing for greater autonomy.
However, this decentralization led to political fragmentation and the emergence of
separatist movements in various republics, challenging the unity of the Soviet Union.
Nationalism and Independence Movements:
Gorbachev's policies inadvertently fueled nationalist sentiments and demands for
independence among the various Soviet republics. The loosening of political control
and greater openness provided an opportunity for nationalist movements to flourish,
particularly in republics such as Lithuania, Estonia, and Latvia. These movements
gained momentum and sought greater autonomy or outright independence from the
Soviet Union.
Failed Coup Attempt:
In August 1991, hardline members of the Communist Party opposed to Gorbachev's
reforms attempted a coup to overthrow him and halt the process of political
liberalization. The coup failed due to widespread public resistance and divisions
among the coup plotters. The failed coup further weakened the authority of the central
government and accelerated the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
These factors, combined with deep-rooted economic, political, and social problems,
ultimately led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. The disintegration of the Soviet state
culminated in December 1991, when the leaders of Russia, Ukraine, and Belarus
declared the dissolution of the USSR and the formation of the Commonwealth of
Independent States (CIS).
19. Describe Gorbachev’s foreign policies.
Mikhail Gorbachev's foreign policies as the General Secretary of the Communist Party
of the Soviet Union and the President of the Soviet Union were marked by a significant
shift in approach compared to his predecessors. Gorbachev pursued a more
cooperative and conciliatory stance toward the West and sought to improve relations
with the United States and other countries. Here are some key aspects of Gorbachev's
foreign policies:

Détente and Arms Control:

Gorbachev emphasized the importance of détente, a policy of easing tensions and
reducing the risk of a nuclear war between the Soviet Union and the United States. He
sought to improve relations and engage in constructive dialogue with the West,
particularly with the Reagan administration in the United States.
Arms control negotiations: Gorbachev engaged in arms control talks with the United
States, leading to landmark agreements such as the Intermediate-Range Nuclear
Forces (INF) Treaty in 1987. This treaty eliminated an entire class of intermediate-
range nuclear missiles in Europe, reducing the threat of nuclear conflict.
Disengagement from Conflicts:
Gorbachev pursued a policy of disengagement from conflicts in various parts of the
world, signaling a departure from the Soviet Union's previous policy of supporting and
intervening in socialist and communist movements abroad. He sought to reduce the
Soviet Union's military involvement in conflicts, particularly in Afghanistan, where he
initiated the withdrawal of Soviet troops in 1988.
Eastern Europe and the End of the Cold War:
Gorbachev's policies played a crucial role in the peaceful transitions of power in
Eastern European countries. He refrained from intervening militarily to suppress pro-
democracy movements in countries such as Poland, Hungary, and East Germany,
allowing for political reforms and the fall of communist regimes.
The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 symbolized the end of the division of Germany and
served as a landmark event in the reunification of East and West Germany, which was
supported by Gorbachev.
New Thinking in International Relations:
Gorbachev advocated for a new approach in international relations, which he termed
"new thinking." This approach emphasized mutual cooperation, common security, and
the resolution of conflicts through diplomatic means. Gorbachev called for a shift away
from the zero-sum game mentality that had characterized the Cold War era.
Gorbachev's foreign policies were guided by the desire to reduce tensions, improve
relations with the West, and promote cooperation in global affairs. While his efforts
were aimed at transforming the international system, they also had unintended
consequences, such as contributing to the collapse of the Soviet Union and the end of
the Cold War. Gorbachev's policies marked a significant departure from the
confrontational approach of previous Soviet leaders, reflecting a more conciliatory and
cooperative stance on the world stage.
20. Describe the events that led to the fall of the Berlin wall.
The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 was a pivotal event that symbolized the end of the
Cold War and the reunification of East and West Germany. Here are the key events
that led to the fall of the Berlin Wall:

Reforms in Hungary and Poland:

In 1989, Hungary and Poland, both Eastern European countries under Soviet influence,
implemented significant political and economic reforms. These reforms opened up
their societies and led to greater political freedom and economic liberalization. The
reforms inspired people in other Eastern European countries, including East Germany,
to demand similar changes.
Mass Protests in East Germany:
In East Germany, dissatisfaction with the repressive regime of Erich Honecker and the
worsening economic conditions fueled public protests and calls for political change.
Mass demonstrations demanding greater freedom and democratic reforms took place
in several cities, including Leipzig and Dresden.
Mass Migration from East to West:
East Germans seeking better opportunities and political freedom increasingly used
Hungary and Czechoslovakia as transit points to reach West Germany. Hungary, under
reformist leadership, opened its borders with Austria in the summer of 1989, allowing
East Germans to travel more freely. This led to a wave of mass migration, with
thousands of East Germans leaving for the West.
Historic Speeches:
On November 9, 1989, Günter Schabowski, a spokesman for the East German
government, made an announcement during a press conference stating that travel
restrictions were being relaxed. However, his statement was misunderstood, and it
was believed that the border was open immediately. This sparked widespread
confusion and excitement.
Fall of the Berlin Wall:
As news spread that the Berlin Wall was open, thousands of East Germans flocked to
the border crossings. Border guards, overwhelmed by the massive crowds, eventually
yielded to the pressure and allowed people to pass through. East and West Germans
came together, celebrating and dismantling sections of the wall. This momentous
event symbolized the reunification of Germany and the end of the Cold War division.
Reunification of Germany:
The fall of the Berlin Wall paved the way for the reunification of East and West
Germany. Negotiations between East and West German leaders, as well as the
international community, led to the signing of the Unification Treaty in 1990. The two
German states formally reunified on October 3, 1990, becoming a single sovereign
nation.
The fall of the Berlin Wall was a transformative event that marked the end of
communist rule in Eastern Europe and set the stage for the reunification of Germany.
It served as a powerful symbol of freedom, unity, and the triumph of the desire for
democracy and human rights.
21. Which were the internal consequences of the collapse of the Soviet Union?
The collapse of the Soviet Union had significant internal consequences that affected
the former Soviet republics and the people living within them. Here are some of the
key internal consequences:

Dissolution of the Soviet Union:

The collapse of the Soviet Union in 1991 led to the disintegration of the centralized
Soviet state. The union of 15 Soviet republics dissolved, and independent nations
emerged in their place, including Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, and others. Each newly
independent country had to establish its own political systems, economic structures,
and foreign policies.
Economic Challenges:
The transition from a centrally planned economy to market-oriented systems
presented numerous economic challenges. Former Soviet republics faced economic
hardships, including hyperinflation, unemployment, and a decline in living standards.
The shift from state-controlled industries to a more market-driven economy was often
accompanied by economic instability and a loss of previously guaranteed social
benefits.
Political Transformations:
The collapse of the Soviet Union brought about significant political transformations.
The newly independent states had to establish their own political systems and
institutions. Some countries embraced democracy and adopted multiparty systems,
while others experienced political instability, authoritarianism, or internal conflicts.
The process of nation-building and creating new identities within the former Soviet
republics was complex and varied.
Ethnic and Nationalist Tensions:
The breakup of the Soviet Union brought to the forefront long-standing ethnic and
nationalist tensions within the various republics. Ethnic conflicts and separatist
movements emerged in different regions, such as the conflicts in Chechnya, Nagorno-
Karabakh, and Transnistria. The process of delineating borders and determining the
rights of minority groups often led to tensions and disputes.
Loss of Superpower Status:
The collapse of the Soviet Union marked the end of its status as a global superpower
and rival to the United States. Russia, as the successor state to the Soviet Union,
faced the challenge of adjusting to its new role and redefining its international
position. The loss of the Soviet Union's political and military influence had a significant
impact on global geopolitics.
Humanitarian and Social Consequences:
The collapse of the Soviet Union had humanitarian and social consequences, including
the disruption of social services, healthcare systems, and education. Many people
faced economic hardships, unemployment, and social dislocation. The transition from
a socialist society to a market-based one brought about significant changes in people's
daily lives and societal structures.
The internal consequences of the collapse of the Soviet Union varied across the former
Soviet republics, with some countries managing the transition more successfully than
others. The process of establishing stable political systems, rebuilding economies, and
addressing social challenges has been ongoing since the collapse and continues to
shape the region to this day.
22. How did Gorbachev’s rule end?
Mikhail Gorbachev's rule as the General Secretary of the Communist Party of the
Soviet Union and the President of the Soviet Union came to an end in December 1991,
following a series of events that unfolded during that year. Here's an overview of how
Gorbachev's rule ended:

August Coup Attempt:

In August 1991, a group of hardline members within the Communist Party, opposed to
Gorbachev's reforms and the direction of the country, attempted a coup to overthrow
him and halt the process of political liberalization. The coup plotters, known as the
State Committee on the State of Emergency, detained Gorbachev while he was
vacationing in Crimea and declared a state of emergency.
Popular Resistance:
The coup attempt faced widespread public resistance and opposition. Large-scale
protests and demonstrations took place in major cities, with people taking to the
streets to voice their support for Gorbachev and the ongoing reforms. Many
individuals, including high-ranking officials and military officers, refused to support the
coup and rallied behind Gorbachev.
Collapse of the Coup:
The coup collapsed within a few days due to a combination of factors. The coup
plotters failed to gain broad support from key institutions and faced opposition from
the military and public. Gorbachev, who was initially detained, managed to reemerge
and played a crucial role in rallying public support against the coup. By August 21, the
coup collapsed, and Gorbachev was reinstated as the President of the Soviet Union.
Dissolution of the Soviet Union:
The failed coup attempt further weakened Gorbachev's authority and accelerated the
disintegration of the Soviet Union. Following the coup, there was a surge in demands
for greater independence from the various Soviet republics. The leaders of Russia,
Ukraine, and Belarus, meeting in Belovezhskaya Pushcha in December 1991, declared
the dissolution of the Soviet Union and established the Commonwealth of Independent
States (CIS) as a new organization.
As a result of the failed coup and the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Gorbachev's
position as the President of the Soviet Union became untenable. He resigned as the
President on December 25, 1991, and the Soviet Union ceased to exist. Boris Yeltsin,
the President of Russia, became the leading figure in the new Commonwealth of
Independent States, while Gorbachev's era came to a close.