Alternating Currents

An electric machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy in

the form of voltage and current is known as a generator. It is based on the principle
of electromagnetic induction.
Generator was invented in August 1831 by British scientist Michael Faraday.
It was known as the Faraday Disk.
Generators are of two kinds: AC generator and DC generator. An AC
generator is a machine that converts mechanical energy into electrical energy in
the form of alternating current (AC).

AC Generator
A generator that converts mechanical energy into alternating electrical
energy i.e. alternating current and alternating EMF is known as an AC generator.
The emf generated is dependent on the number of armature coil turns,
magnetic field strength and the speed of the rotating field.
AC generators are based on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic
induction. The first AC generator was developed in 1887 by F. Augus Haselwander in
Europe.

AC Generator Diagram

Construction of AC Generator

 Field- The field is composed of coils of conductors that receive voltage from
the source and produce magnetic flux. This magnetic flux in the magnetic
field cuts the armature to produce a voltage.
 Armature- Armature consists of wire coils, large enough to carry full load
current for the generator.
 Prime Mover- Prime mover is a component used to drive the AC generator. It
is a diesel engine, a motor or a steam turbine.
 Rotor- The rotating machine in the generator is known as a rotor. It is driven
by the generator’s prime mover.
 Stator- The stator, a stationary part, the core comprises a lamination of steel
alloys or magnetic iron to minimize losses due to eddy currents.
 Slip Rings- The slip rings are electrical connections used to transfer power to
and fro from the rotor of the generator. Slip rings are designed to conduct the
flow of current from a stationary device to a rotating device.
Working Principle of AC Generator

The AC generator works on the principle of Faraday's law of electromagnetic

induction. The armature in the AC generator rotates between the poles of the
magnet upon the axis perpendicular to the magnetic field.
The flux linkage of the armature changes continuously. This results in
a magnetic effect of electric current flowing through the galvanometer, Slip rings
and brushes. There is movement in the galvanometer’s needle.
This indicates the flow of an alternating current through the galvanometer. By
using Fleming’s Right-Hand Rule, we can find the direction of the induced current.

Types of AC Generator

AC generators are generally of two types- single-phase AC generator & three-phase AC

generator

o Single-Phase AC Generator– A single-phase AC generator is an electric

machine that converts mechanical power into 1-phase electric power alternating
current by the process of electromagnetic induction.
o Three-Phase AC Generator– A three-phase AC generator is an electrical
machine that converts mechanical power into three-phase power alternating
current by the process of electromagnetic induction.

Advantages of AC Generator

AC generators have a number of advantages over DC generators, including:

 Efficiency: AC generators are more efficient than DC generators, meaning that

they can convert more mechanical energy into electrical energy.
 Transmission: AC can be transmitted over long distances with low losses using
transformers. This is because AC can be easily stepped up to high voltages
and then stepped down to lower voltages at the point of use.
 Cost: AC generators are generally less expensive than DC generators of the
same capacity.
 Simplicity: AC generators are simpler to design and build than DC generators.
This is because they do not require a commutator, which is a complex and
moving part.
 Reliability: AC generators are more reliable than DC generators because they
have fewer moving parts.

Disadvantages of AC Generator

The disadvantages of AC generators include:

 Susceptibility to sparks and heating: AC generators are susceptible to sparks

and heating issues, which may lead to electric shocks and even fires. It is,
therefore, important to increase the safety levels while using AC generators.
 Voltage fluctuations: AC generators produce a voltage that fluctuates over
time. This can cause problems for some electronic devices.
 Need for transformers: AC generators often require transformers to step up or
step down the voltage to a level that is safe and efficient for use. This can add
to the cost and complexity of an AC generator system.

Uses of AC Generator
AC generators are widely used and have various applications. The applications of AC
generators are listed below:

 Diesel-electric locomotive alternators – Locomotives need electric and

mechanical power simultaneously, and this power is provided by AC
generators
 Marine alternators – These alternators are used for generating power in
marine equipment.
 Brushless alternators –These alternators are the main source of power in
electrical power plants.
 Automotive alternators – Automobiles use generators for electric power.
This electric power in the vehicles and charging battery is generated in AC
generators.
 Radio alternators – These are used for transmission of radio frequency in
low bands.

Working Principle of a Transformer

A transformer is a static (or stationary) piece of apparatus by means of which
electric power in one circuit is transformed into electric power of the same
frequency in another circuit. The physical basis of a transformer is mutual induction
between two circuits linked by a common magnetic flux.
In its simplest form, it consists of two inductive coils which are electrically
separated but magnetically linked through a path of low reluctance .The two coils
possess high mutual inductance. If one coil is connected to a source of alternating
voltage, an alternating flux is set up in the laminated core, most of which is linked
with the other coil in which it produces mutually induced e.m.f. (according to
Faraday’s Laws of Electromagnetic Induction e = MdI/dt). If the second coil circuit is
closed, a current flows in it and so electric energy is transferred (entirely
magnetically) from the first coil to the second coil. The first coil, in which electric
energy is fed from the a.c. supply mains, is called primary winding and the other
from which energy is drawn out, is called secondary winding.

In brief, a transformer is a device that

1. Transfers electric power from one circuit to another
2. It does so without a change of frequency
3. It accomplishes this by electromagnetic induction and
4. Where the two electric circuits are in mutual inductive influence of each other.

Construction of Transformer
A transformer consists of three major parts namely a primary winding, a
secondary winding and a magnetic core. The primary winding is one that used to
input the supply and secondary winding is one that used to take output. The
magnetic core is used to confine the magnetic flux to a definite path.
 We design a transformer in such a way that it approaches the characteristics
of an ideal transformer. In practice, we incorporate the following design features for
transformer construction −
 The core of the transformer is made up of high grade silicon steel which has
high permeability and low hysteresis loss.
 The core is laminated to minimize the eddy current loss.
 It is a usual and more efficient practice to wind one-half of the primary and
secondary windings on one limb instead of placing primary on one limb and
secondary on the other. This ensures tight magnetic coupling between the
two windings and hence reduces the leakage flux considerably.
 The winding resistances R1 and R2 are reduced as much as possible so that
they cause lowest I2R loss and temperature rise and ensure higher efficiency.

A transformer can be constructed in the following two ways −

 Core Type Transformer Construction
 Shell Type Transformer Construction

Core Type Construction of Transformer

In the core type construction of the transformer, the magnetic core has two
vertical lags (called limbs) and two horizontal sections (called yokes). The half of
the primary winding and the half of the secondary winding are placed around each
limb .
This arrangement of windings minimizes the leakage flux. In practice, the low-
voltage winding (it could be primary or secondary) is placed next to the core and the
high-voltage winding is placed around the low-voltage winding. This considerably
reduces the requirement of insulating material.

The main advantage of the core-type construction of transformers is that it is

easier to dismantle for repair and maintenance. The core-type construction is most
suitable for high-voltage and high-power transformers because in the core type
construction, the nature cooling is more efficient.

Shell Type Construction of Transformer

In the shell-type construction of transformers, both primary and secondary windings
are wound on the central limb, while the two outer limbs complete the low
reluctance flux paths.

In this case, each winding is sub-divided into sections, and the low-voltage ( lv)
winding sections and high-voltage (hv) winding sections are alternatively put in the
form of a sandwich. Therefore, this type of winding is also called as sandwich
winding or disc winding.
The shell-type construction of transformers provides better mechanical
support against electromagnetic forces between the current-carrying windings. Also,
this transformer construction provides a shorter path for magnetic flux and hence
requires small magnetizing current. The shell-type construction is more suitable for
low voltage transformers because of poor nature cooling due to the embedding of
the windings.

Transformer Types Based on Voltage Level

A Transformer can have multiple types of construction. The transformer does
not have any electrical connection from one side to another; still, the two electrically
independent coils can conduct the electricity by electromagnetic flux. A transformer
can have multiple coils or windings on the primary side as well as on the secondary
side. (In several cases, multiple primary sides, where two coils are connected in
series, are often called a center tapped. This center-tapped condition can also be
seen on the secondary side.)

Transformers can be constructed in a way that it can convert the voltage level
of the primary side to the secondary side. Depending on the voltage level, the
transformer has three categories. Step Down, Step Up and Isolation
Transformer. For the Isolation transformer, the voltage level is the same for both
sides.

Step-Down Transformer

Step-down Transformer is used in both Electronics and Electrical domains. A

step-down transformer converts the primary voltage level to a lower
voltage across the secondary output. This is achieved by the ratio of primary and
secondary windings. For step-down transformers, the number of windings is higher
across the primary side than the secondary side. Therefore, the overall
winding ratio of primary and secondary always remains more than 1.
In electronics, many applications run on 5V, 6V, 9V, 12V, 24V or in some
cases 48V. To convert the single-phase power outlet voltage 230V AC to the desired
low voltage level, Step-down transformers are required. In instrumentation as well
as in many electrical types of equipment, a Step-Down transformer is the primary
requirement for the Power section. They are also used in power adapters and cell
phone charger circuits.
In electrical, step-down transformers are used in electrical distribution system
which works on very high voltage to ensure low loss and cost-effective solutions for
long-distance power delivery requirements. To convert the high voltage to a low
voltage supply line, a step-down transformer is used.

Step-Up Transformer
The step-up transformer is exactly the opposite of the step-down transformer.
The step-up transformer increases the low primary voltage to a high
secondary voltage. Again, it is achieved by the ratio of primary and secondary
winding ratio.
 For the Step-Up transformer, the ratio of the primary winding and the
Secondary winding remains less than 1. That means the number of turns in the
secondary winding is higher than in the primary winding.
In electronics, step-up transformers are often used in
stabilizers, inverters etc where low voltage is converted to a much higher voltage.
A step-up transformer is also used in Electrical power
distribution. High voltage is required for power distribution-related applications. A
step-up transformer is used in the grid to step up the voltage level before the
distribution.

Isolation Transformer

The isolation transformer does not convert any voltage levels. The Primary
voltage and the secondary voltage of an isolation transformer always remain the
same. This is because the primary and the secondary winding ratio is always
equal to 1. That means the number of turns in primary and secondary winding is
the same in the isolation transformer.
The isolation transformer is used to isolate the primary and secondary. As
discussed previously, the transformer does not have any electrical connections
between primary and secondary, it is also used as an isolation barrier where the
conduction happens only with the magnetic flux. It is used for safety purposes
and to cancel noise transfer from primary to secondary or vice-versa.

EMF Equation of a Transformer

When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to the primary winding of a transformer,
alternating flux ϕm sets up in the iron core of the transformer. This sinusoidal flux
links with both primary and secondary winding. The function of flux is a sine
function.

The rate of change of flux with respect to time is derived mathematically.

The derivation of the EMF Equation of the transformer is shown below. Let

ϕm be the maximum value of flux in Weber

f be the supply frequency in Hz
N1 is the number of turns in the primary winding
N2 is the number of turns in the secondary winding
Φ is the flux per turn in Weber
As shown in the above figure that the flux changes from + ϕm to – ϕm in half a cycle
of 1/2f seconds.
By Faraday’s Law
Let E1 be the emf induced in the primary winding

Where Ψ = N1ϕ

Since ϕ is due to AC supply ϕ = ϕm Sinwt

So the induced emf lags flux by 90 degrees.

Maximum valve of emf

But w = 2πf

Root mean square RMS value is

Putting the value of E1max in equation (6) we get

Putting the value of π = 3.14 in the equation (7) we will get the value of E 1 as

Similarly

Now, equating the equation (8) and (9) we get

The above equation is called the turn ratio where K is known as the transformation
ratio.
The equation (8) and (9) can also be written as shown below using the relation
(ϕm = Bm x Ai) where Ai is the iron area and Bm is the maximum value of flux density.

For a sinusoidal wave

Here 1.11 is the form factor.

Regulated Power Supply

A d.c. power supply which maintains the output voltage constant irrespective
of a.c. mains fluctuations or load variations is known as regulated d.c. power supply.
A regulated power supply consists of an ordinary power supply and voltage
regulating device. The output of ordinary power supply is fed to the voltage
regulator which produces the final output. The output voltage remains constant
whether the load current changes or there are fluctuations in the input a.c. voltage.
Transformer converts Ac electricity from one voltage to another with little loss
of power. Transformers work only with AC & this is one of the reasons why mains
electricity is AC.
The regulated power supply consists of the following four major parts −
 Step-down transformer
 Rectifier circuit
 DC filter circuit
 Voltage regulator
Now, let us discuss the operation of each block of the regulated power supply one by
one.
 Function of Step-Down Transformer
The step-down transformer used in the circuit of the regulated power supply
changes the input AC voltage to the desired lower voltage value. Also, this
transformer provides an electrical isolation between two circuits. The reduced
output AC voltage of the step-down transformer is used as the input to the rectifier
circuit.
 Function of Rectifier Circuit
The rectifier circuit is used to convert the input AC voltage into a DC voltage. It
consists of diodes that perform the rectification process, i.e. conversion of the AC
voltage into the DC voltage. However, the output of the rectifier is a pulsating direct
voltage. In practice, a full wave rectifier is used for the rectification due to its
technical advantages. This full wave rectifier can be a center-tapped full-wave
rectifier or a bridge rectifier. The full wave rectifier converts both positive and
negative cycles of AC voltage into DC voltage.
 Function of Filter Circuit
Since the output of the rectifier is a pulsating direct voltage which has very high
ripple content. Hence, the raw output of the rectifier is undesirable. In order to get a
pure ripple free direct voltage, a DC filter circuit is used. We have different types of
filter circuits such as capacitor filter choke input filter, π-filter, and LC filter.
Therefore, the filter circuit converts the pulsating direct voltage into the constant
direct voltage having almost zero ripple content.
 Voltage Regulator
The voltage regulator constitutes the last block of the regulated power supply. It
monitors and corrects the fluctuations in the output voltage of the power supply.
The output voltage may change or fluctuate due to any change in the input AC
voltage or the change in the load or change in any physical parameters such as
temperature of the circuit. Thus, the voltage regulator takes care of this problem.
The voltage regulator maintains the DC voltage constant at the output terminals.
A zener diode operated in zener region, a transistor series regulator, fixed and
variable IC regulators are commonly used in different regulated power supplies as
the voltage regulator.

Features of Regulated Power Supply

Following are the main features of the regulated power supply −

 The regulated power supplies have the efficiency ranging from 20% to 25%.
 Regulated power supplies are relatively more reliable.
 Regulated power supplies have less complex circuit and less weight.
 Regulated power supplies give faster response.
 The cost and noise level of the regulated power supplies is low.
 Applications of Regulated Power Supplies

As discussed earlier, the regulated power supplies are the embedded circuits that
convert an unregulated AC power supply into a steady DC power supply which is the
basic requirement of several electronic circuits. Hence, the regulated power supplies
are extensively used in several applications such as −
 Mobile charging circuits
 Testing circuits
 Bench power supplies
 Oscillators and amplifiers
 Electronic computers
 Automatic control systems, etc.

Single-Phase Induction
The single-phase motors are more preferred over a three-phase induction
motor for domestic, commercial applications. Because form utility, only single-phase
supply is available. So, in this type of application, the three-phase induction motor
cannot be used.

Construction of Single-Phase Induction Motor

A single phase induction motor is similar to the three phase squirrel cage
induction motor except there is single phase two windings (instead of one three
phase winding in 3-phase motors) mounted on the stator and the cage winding rotor
is placed inside the stator which freely rotates with the help of mounted bearings on
the motor shaft.

Single-phase induction motor also has two main parts;

 Stator
 Rotor

 Stator
` In stator, the only difference is in the stator winding. The stator winding is
single-phase winding instead of three-phase winding. The stator core is the same as
the core of the three-phase induction motor.
In a single-phase induction motor, there are two winding are used in stator
except in shaded-pole induction motor. Out of these two windings, one winding is
the main winding and the second is auxiliary winding.
The stator core is laminated to reduce the eddy current loss. The single-phase
supply is given to the stator winding (main winding)
 Rotor
Rotor of single-phase induction motor is the same as a rotor of squirrel cage
induction motor. Instead of rotor winding, rotor bars are used and it is short-circuited
at the end by end-rings.
Hence, it makes a complete path in the rotor circuit. The rotor bars are
braced to the end-rings to increase the mechanical strength of the motor.
The rotor slots are skewed at some angle to avoid magnetic coupling. And it also
used to make a motor run smooth and quiet.

Working of Single-phase Induction Motor

Single-phase AC supply is given to the stator winding (main winding). The
alternating current flowing through the stator winding produces magnetic flux. This
flux is known as the main flux.
Now we assume that the rotor is rotating and it is placed in a magnetic field
produced by the stator winding. According to Faraday’s law, the current start flowing
in the rotor circuit it is a close path. This current is known as rotor current.Due to the
rotor current, the flux produced around the rotor winding. This flux is known as rotor
flux.
There are two fluxes; main flux which is produced by stator and second is
the rotor flux which is produced by the rotor.
Interaction between main flux and rotor flux, the torque produced in the rotor
and it starts rotating.
The stator field is alternating in nature. The speed of the stator field is the same as
synchronous speed. The synchronous speed of the motor depends on the number of
pole and supply frequency.
It can represent by two revolving fields. These fields are equal in magnitude
and rotating in the opposite direction.
Let say Φm is a maximum field induced in the main winding. So, this field is divided
into two equal parts and that is Φm/2 and Φm/2.

Out of these two fields, one field Φ f is rotating in an anticlockwise direction and the
second field Φb is rotating in a clockwise direction. Therefore, the resultant field is
zero.
Φr = Φf – Φb

Φr = 0
Now consider the resultant field at different instants.
When a motor starts, two fields are induced as shown in the above figure.
These two fields are the same magnitude and opposite direction. So, resultant flux is
zero.
In this condition, the stator field cannot cut by rotor field and resultant torque
is zero. So, the rotor cannot rotate but it produces humming.

Now consider after the rotation of 90˚, both filed are rotated and pointing in the
same direction. Therefore, the resultant flux is a summation of both fields.

Φr = Φf + Φb

Φr = 0
In this condition, the resultant filed is equal to the maximum field induced by
the stator. Now, both fields rotate separately and it is alternative in nature.
So, both fields cut by the rotor circuit and EMF induced in the rotor conductor.
Due to this EMF, the current starts flowing in the rotor circuit and it induces a rotor
flux.
Due to the interaction between stator flux and rotor flux motor continues to rotate.
This theory is known as Double Revolving Theory or double field
revolving theory.

Types of Single-phase Induction Motors

The single-phase induction motors are classified as;
 Split Phase Induction Motor
 Shaded Pole Induction Motor
 Capacitor Start Induction Motor
 Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor
 Permanent Capacitor Induction Motor

Split Phase Induction Motor

 In this type of motor, an extra winding is wounded on the same core of the
stator. So, there are two windings in the stator.
 One winding is known as the main winding or running winding and second
winding is known as starting winding or auxiliary winding. A centrifugal switch
is connected in series with the auxiliary winding.
 The auxiliary winding is highly resistive winding and the main winding is
highly inductive winding. The auxiliary winding has few turns with a small
diameter.
 The aim of auxiliary winding is to create a phase difference between both
fluxes produced by the main winding and rotor winding.

 The connection diagram is as shown in the above figure. The current flowing
through the main winding is I M and current flowing through the auxiliary
winding is IA. Both windings are parallel and supplied by voltage V.
 The auxiliary winding is highly resistive in nature. So, the current I A is almost
in phase with supply voltage V.
 The main winding is highly inductive in nature. So, the current I M lags behind
the supply voltage with a large angle.
 The total stator flux is induced by the resultant current of these two winding.
As shown in the phasor diagram, the resultant current is represented as (I). It
will create a phase difference between fluxes and resultant flux produces a
rotating magnetic field. And the motor starts rotating.
 Auxiliary winding only uses to start the motor. This winding is not useful in
running condition. When the motor reaches 75 to 80 % of synchronous speed,
the centrifugal switch opens. So, the auxiliary winding is out from the circuit.
And motor runs on only main winding.
 The phase difference creates by this method is very small. Hence, the starting
torque of this motor is poor. So, this motor is used in low starting torque
applications like a fan, blower, grinder, pumps, etc.
Shaded Pole Induction Motor

 As compared to other types of single-phase induction motor, this motor has a

different construction and working principle. This type of motor does not
require auxiliary winding.
 This motor has stator salient pole or projecting pole and the rotor is the same
as squirrel cage induction motor. The stator poles are constructed specially to
create a rotating magnetic field.
 A pole of this motor is divided into two parts; shaded part and un-shaded part.
It can be created by cutting pole into unequal distances.
 A copper ring is placed in the small part of the pole. This ring is a highly
inductive ring and it is known as a shaded ring or shaded band. The part at
which shaded ring is paced is known as shaded part of the pole and the
remaining part is an unshaded part.
 The construction of this motor is as shown in the below figure.
 When an alternating supply passing through the stator winding, an alternating
flux induced in the stator coil. Due to this flux, some amount of flux will link
with shaded ring and current will flow through a shaded ring.
 According to Len’z law, the current passing through coil is opposite in nature,
and flux produced due to this coil will oppose the main flux.
 The shaded ring is a highly inductive coil. So, it will oppose the main flux
when both fluxes are in the same direction and it will increase the main flux
when both fluxes are in the opposite direction.
 So, it will create a phase difference between the main flux (stator flux) and
rotor flux. By this method, a phase difference is very less. Hence, the starting
torque is very less. It is used in applications like toy motor, fan, blower, record
player, etc.

Capacitor Start Induction Motor

 This type of motor is an advanced version of the Split phase induction motor.
The disadvantage of split-phase induction is low torque production. Because
in this motor, the phase difference created is very less.
 This disadvantage compensates in this motor with the help of a capacitor
connected in series with auxiliary winding. The circuit diagram of this motor is
as shown in the below figure.
  The capacitor used in this motor is a dry-type capacitor. This is designed to
use with alternating current. But this capacitor is not used for continuous
operation.
 In this method also, a centrifugal switch is used which disconnects the
capacitor and auxiliary winding when the motor runs 75-80% of synchronous
speed.
 The current through auxiliary will lead the supply voltage by some angle. This
angle is more than the angle increased in a split-phase induction motor.
 So, the starting torque of this motor is very high compared to the split-phase
induction motor. The starting torque of this motor is 300% more than the full
load torque.
 Due to high starting torque, this motor is used in the applications where high
starting torque is required like, a Lath machine, compressor, drilling
machines, etc.

Capacitor Start Capacitor Run Induction Motor

 In this type of motor, two capacitors are connected in parallel with series in
auxiliary winding. Out of these two capacitors, one capacitor is used only for
starting (starting capacitor) and another capacitor is connected permanently
with the motor (running capacitor).
 The starting capacitor has high capacitance value and a running capacitor has
low capacitance value. The starting capacitor is connected in series with a
centrifugal switch that will open when the speed of the motor is 70% of
synchronous speed.
 The circuit diagram of this figure is as shown in the below figure.

 During running conditions, both running winding and auxiliary winding

connected with motor. The starting torque and efficiency of this motor are
very high.
 Therefore, this can be used in the application where high starting torque is
required like a refrigerator, air conditioner, ceiling fan, compressor, etc.

Permanent Capacitor Induction Motor

 The low-value capacitor is connected constantly with the auxiliary winding.
Here, the capacitor has low capacitance.
 The capacitor is used to increase the starting torque but it is low compared to
the capacitor start induction motor.
 The circuit diagram and phasor diagram of this motor is as shown in the below
figure.
  The power factor and efficiency of this motor are very high and also it has a
high starting torque that is 80% of full load torque.
 This type of motor is used in the application like an exhaust fan, blower,
heater, etc.

Applications of Single Phase Induction Motors

Single phase motors are not self starting and less efficient than three phase
induction motor and available in 0.5HP to 15HP and still they are widely used for
multiple purposes such as:
 Clocks
 Refrigerators, freezers and heaters
 Fans, table fans, ceiling fan, exhaust fans, air coolers and water coolers.
 Blowers
 Washing machines
 machine tools
 Dryers
 Type writers, photostats and printers
 Water pumps and submersible
 Computers
 Grinders
 Drilling machines
 Other Home instrument, equipment and devices etc.