DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

LABORATORY MANUAL

ENGINEERING MATERIALS LAB

FEB 2025
 DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
23MEI201 - Engineering Materials

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 23MEI201 - Engineering Materials
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 List of Exercises

S. Date Title Page Marks Faculty

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Average (out of 20)

Continuous Assessment Marks – Practical (out of 75)

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List of Experiments 30
1. Conduct the annealing operation for given ferrous alloy and analyze the microstructure.
2. Conduct the normalizing operation for given ferrous alloy and analyze the microstructure.
3. Conduct the Quenching operation for given ferrous alloy and analyze the microstructure.
4. Analyze the microstructure on non-ferrous alloy.
5. Analyze the hardness of the given material (Brinell and Rockwell).
 Dr. Mahalingam College of Engineering &Technology, Pollachi.
23MEI201 Engineering Materials
Rubrics for Laboratory Exercises
Needs Not
Criteria Excellent Good Satisfactory
Improvement satisfactory
Marks:5 Marks:4 Marks:3 Marks:2 Marks:1
Preparation
Procedure for Procedure for Procedure for Procedure for Procedure for
(5 Marks) implementation is implementation is clearly implementation is implementation is implementation is not
clearly defined. defined with missing partially defined. partially defined with known
parameters. missing parameters.
Marks:5 Marks:4 Marks:3 Marks:2 Marks:1
Observation Implementation Implementation Implementation Implementation Implementation
addresses all addresses almost all addresses most of the addresses few does not address
(5 Marks) requirements of the requirements of the requirements of the requirements of the few requirements
problem statement. problem statement. problem statement. problem statement. of the problem
statement.
All the procedural Almost all the Most of the procedural Few procedural steps Procedural steps
Experimentation steps are correctly procedural steps are steps are correctly are correctly followed are not correctly
followed correctly followed followed followed
(5 Marks)
Marks:5 Marks:4 Marks:3 Marks:2 Marks:1
Interpretation of Result Successful Successful execution Successful execution of Execution of few test Test cases are not
(5 Marks) execution of all test of almost all test cases most of the test cases cases at all executed
cases
Marks:5 Marks:4 Marks:3 Marks:2 Marks:1
Viva voce All the questions are Almost all the Most of the questions Few questions are Questions are not
(5 Marks)
correctly answered questions are correctly are correctly answered correctly answered correctly
answered answered

Total Marks 25 20 15 10 5
 HEAT TREATMENT PROCESSES

In general, heat treatment can be defined as an operation, or the combination of operations that involve
heating and cooling of a metal in solid phase to obtain certain required properties. The ferrous materials can be
heated to above transformation temperature and can be heat treated to obtain different structure. The different
heat treatment processes are based on heating the material to certain temperature and employing different cooling
rates. In this process, heating temperature and rate of cooling adopted plays an important role. The different
processes are:

Annealing

• Stress-relief annealing.
• Process annealing.
• Spheroidsing.
• Full annealing.
• Normalizing
• Hardening(Quenching)
• Tempering

 Austenite, also known as gamma phase Iron(γ-Fe), is a metallic, non-magnetic allotrope of Iron
or a solid solution of carbon in gamma Iron(γ-Fe).
 It forms above 7230C.

 It has a FCC crystal structure.

 The maximum solubility of carbon in austenite is 2.13 % at 1147°C.

Fig. 1 – Iron- Iron Carbide Diagram
 EXPERIMENT-1
Annealing operation for given ferrous alloy and analyze the microstructure

Aim:
To perform the annealing of plain carbon steel and analyze the microstructure

Apparatus Required:

 Hacksaw blade
 Plain Carbon Steel (Mild Steel) Sample
 Muffle Furnace
 File
 Emery Paper
 Double disc polisher
 Etchant (Nital) [98% C2H6OH + 2% HNO3]
 Metallurgical Microscope

Theory:

 Annealing generally involves heating to a predetermined temperature, holding at this temperature and finally
cooling at a very slow rate

 The temperature and holding time depend on a variety of factors such as composition, size, shape and final
properties desired

 Annealing treatment can be classified into subdivisions based on temperature of treatment, phase
transformation occurring during the treatment and the purpose of the treatment.
Purposes:

 Relieve internal stresses developed during solidification, machining, forging, rolling and welding
 Improve or restore ductility and toughness
 Enhance machinability
 Eliminate chemical non uniformity
 Refine grain size
 Reduce gas content in steel

The three important parts of full annealing are:

1. Proper austenitising temperature

2. Soaking time
3. Very slow cooling through A1(critical temperature)
Proper Austenitising Temp: The austenitising temp varies with variation in carbon%. Proper austenitising temp
is required to get fine grains of austenite
⦿ Soaking Time: soaking at the austenitising temp is of utmost importance as it leads to formation of
homogeneous austenite
 ⦿ Very Slow Cooling through A1: this is done so that austenite always transforms at a temperature just below
A1 to obtain equi-axed and relatively coarse grained ferrite as well as pearlite with large inter lamellar
spacing to induce softness and ductility.

The formation of austenite destroys all structures that have existed before heating. Slow cooling yields the original
phases of ferrite and pearlite in hypo euetectoid steels and that of cementite and pearlite in hypereutectoid steels.
The slow cooling of full annealing causes austenite transformation to ferrite and pearlite close to A3 and A1
temperatures, respectively, and ensures that coarse-grained equi axed ferrite and pearlite with coarse inter lamellar
spacing will form, producing micro structures of high ductility and moderate strength.
Once the austenite has fully transformed to ferrite and pearlite, the cooling rate can be increased to reduce processing
time and thereby improve productivity.

PROCEDURE:

 Keep the Specimen inside the furnace and close the door.
 Switch on the furnace, set the temperature control knob to given temperature.

 The specimen kept in the furnace allowed heat between 35 minutes to 1 Hr.

 The specimen is taken out and any of the following steps are adopted as required

 The furnace is switched off and the specimen is cooled slowly inside the furnace.

 After the specimen reaches the room temp, measure the Rockwell hardness and record it in the
observation table.
 CONCLUSION:

1. White patches indicate formation of ferrite

2. Black patches indicate pearlite formation

Sl. No Criteria Marks Obtained Maximum Marks

1 Preparation 5
2 Observation 5
3 Experimentation 5
3 Interpretation of Result 5
4 Viva voce 5
TOTAL 25
 EXPERIMENT-2
Normalizing operation for given ferrous alloy and analyze the microstructure

Aim:
Normalising of plain carbon steel

Apparatus Required:

 Hacksaw blade
 Plain Carbon Steel (Mild Steel) Sample
 Muffle Furnace
 File
 Emery Paper
 Double disc polisher
 Etchant (Nital) [98% C2H6OH + 2% HNO3]
 Metallurgical Microscope

Theory:

 Normalizing is a technique used to provide uniformity in grain size and composition throughout an alloy.
 The term is often used for ferrous alloys that have been heated above the upper critical temperature and then cooled
in open air.
 It is a process of heating steel to about 40-50°C above upper critical temperature (A3 or Acm), holding for
proper time, then cooling in still air or slightly agitated air to room temperature.

Objectives of Normalizing:

1. To refine the coarse grains of steel castings, forgings, etc. which have not been worked under high
temperatures.
2. To improve the mechanical properties of plain carbon steels particularly forged shafts, rolled stocks and
castings for moderate load conditions.

3. To eliminate, or reduce microstructural irregularities.

4. To increase machinability of low carbon steels.

5. To eliminate, or break coarse cementite network in hypereutectoid steels.

6. General refinement of structure prior to hardening of steel.

Normalizing is also used to relieve internal stresses induced by heat treating, welding, casting, forging, forming,
or machining.
Normalizing also improves the ductility without reducing the hardness and strength. Steel is heated to austenitic
temperature and then cooled in air.
Purpose is
• To refine grain structure
• To increase strength of steel
• To reduce segregation in castings or forgings

In special cases cooling rate is controlled either by air temperature or by changing air volume. Normalizing process

consists of three steps.

 The first step involves heating the steel component above the A3 cm temperature for hypo eutectoid
steels and above A (upper critical temperature for cementite) temperature for hypereutectoid steels by
300C to 500C.

 The second step involves holding the steel component long enough at this temperature for homogeneous
austenization.

 The final step involves cooling the hot steel component to room temperature in still air. Due to air
cooling, normalized components show slightly different structure and properties than annealed
components.

 Normalizing is used for high-carbon (hypereutectoid) steels to eliminate the cementite network that may
develop upon slow cooling in the temperature range from point Acm to point A1.

 During normalizing, we use grain refinement which is associated with allotropic transformation upon heating
γ→α.

 Parts that require maximum toughness and those subjected to impact are often normalized.

 The microstructure obtained by normalizing depends on the composition of the castings (which dictates
its hardenability) and the cooling rate.

 By normalizing, an optimum combination of strength and softness is achieved, which results in

satisfactory level of machinability in steels.

 This method of improving machinability is especially applicable to hypo eutectoid steels.

 Normalizing is the very effective process to eliminate the carbide network form during annealing of
hypereutectoid steels.

 Due to shorter time available during cooling, this network does not appear in normalized structure.

PROCEDURE:

 Keep the Specimen inside the furnace and close the door.

 Switch on the furnace, set the temperature control knob to given temperature.
 The specimen kept in the furnace allowed heat between 35 min to 1 Hr.
 The specimen is taken out and any of the following steps are adopted as required

 The specimen is cooled against the air blower or fan.

  After the specimen reaches the room temp, clean with an abrasive paper.

 Measure the hardness and record it in the observation table.

Conclusion

It is evident from figure that normalized microstructure is almost fully pearlite, as indicated by the black regions. The
difference in microstructure is attributed to a higher rate of cooling in normalizing, as compared to annealing.

Sl. No Criteria Marks Obtained Maximum Marks

1 Preparation 5
2 Observation 5
3 Experimentation 5
3 Interpretation of Result 5
4 Viva voce 5
TOTAL 25
 EXPERIMENT – 3

Quenching operation for given ferrous alloy and analyze the microstructure

Aim:
Hardening (Quenching) of plain carbon steel

Apparatus Required:

 Hacksaw blade
 Plain Carbon Steel (Mild Steel) Sample
 Muffle Furnace
 File
 Emery Paper
 Double disc polisher
 Etchant (Nital) [98% C2H6OH + 2% HNO3]
 Metallurgical Microscope

Theory:

 Quench hardening is a mechanical process in which steel and cast Ironalloys are strengthened
and hardened

The different stages of quenching are as follows:

STAGE 1: VAPOUR BLANKET STAGE

Immediately on quenching, coolant gets vaporized as the steel part is at high temperature and thus, a continuous
vapour- blanket envelope the steel part.

Heat escapes from the hot surface very slowly by radiation and conduction through the blanket of water vapour.
Since the vapour-film is a poor heat conductor, the cooling rate is relatively low (stage A in fig.). This long stage
is undesirable in most quenching operations.
 STAGE 2: INTERMITTENT CONTACT STAGE

Heat is removed in the form of heat of vaporization in this stage as is indicated by the steep slope of the cooling
curve. During this stage, the vapour-blanket is broken intermittently allowing the coolant to come in contact with
the hot surface at one instant,but soon being pushed away by violent boiling action of vapour bubble. The rapid
cooling in this stage soon brings the metal surface below the boiling point of the coolant. The vaporization then
stops. Second stage corresponds to temperature range of 500◦ to 100◦C , and this refers to nose of the CCT curve
of the steel , when the steel transforms very rapidly ( to non martensite product ).

Thus, the rate of cooling in this stage is of great importance in hardening of steels

STAGE 3 : DIRECT CONTACT STAGE

This stage begins when the temperature of steel surface Is below the boiling point of coolant. Vapours do not
form. The cooling is due to convection and conduction through the liquid. Cooling is slowest here. Some of the
common quenching mediums are Water, Brine, Oils and Polymer quenchants. In quenching of steels, this may be
caused by thermal stresses, structural stresses, or both, or even premature failure of part in service. Cooling during
quenching lakes place non-uniformly, i.e., causes temperature gradient across the section. Surface layers
contract more than the central portion. Contraction of surface is resisted by the central portion, and this puts the
central portion under the compressive stresses, and the surface layers in tension . If the magnitude of stress becomes
more than the yield stress of steel (at that deformation occurs.
.
 These stresses that develop in a quenched part as a result of unequal cooling are called thermal stresses.
Structural stresses are the stresses which develop due to due to phase change (mainly austenite to martensite), and
at different times.

Structural stresses are developed due to two main reasons:

1. Austenite and its transformation products have unequal specific volume i.e. change involume occurs
when transformation occurs.

2. Phase changes occur at different times in the surface and in centre.

Under right conditions, both types of stresses get superimposed to become larger than the yield strength to cause
warping. But when the tensile internal stresses become larger than the tensile strength cracks appear. If an
austenitised steel is quenched, it contracts thermally till Ms temperature is attained .As surface cools faster than
centre, i.e., contracts more than centre distribution of stresses across the section is illustrated in fig(b), i.e, the
surface is under tensile nature of stress, while centre is under compressive stresses. Only thermal Stresses are
produced in stage 2, surface having attained Ms Temperature, transforms to martensite, and thus expands, while
the centre is still contracting as it is getting cooled.

In stage II, centre may get plastically deformed, a s it is still ductile austenite.

In stage 3, martensite of surface and austenite of centre continue contracting leading to slight increase in stress
levels.

PROCEDURE:

 Keep the Specimen inside the furnace and close the door.

 Switch on the furnace, set the temperature control knob to given temperature.
 The specimen kept in the furnace allowed heat between 35 min to 1 Hr.

 The specimen is taken out and any of the following steps are adopted as required

 The specimen is allowed to cool suddenly by quenching in cold water or oil bath Orsalt bath.
 Dry the specimen, with the help of a piece of cloth and an abrasive paper is used to remove the fins or
scales adhere to the surface.
 Measure the hardness and record it in the observation table.
Conclusion:

Microstructure is seen to consist of huge amount of fine, needle like structures. This structure is called
martensite, which is hard, but brittle too. In quenching, the steel specimen experienced a very
rapid rate of cooling. As such, the austenitic structure transformed into martensite.

Sl. No Criteria Marks Obtained Maximum Marks

1 Preparation 5
2 Observation 5
3 Experimentation 5
3 Interpretation of Result 5
4 Viva voce 5
TOTAL 25
 EXPERIMENT-4

Analyze the microstructure on non-ferrous alloy

Aim:
Tempering of plain carbon steel

Apparatus Required:

 Hacksaw blade
 Plain Carbon Steel (Mild Steel) Sample
 Muffle Furnace
 File
 Emery Paper
 Double disc polisher
 Etchant (Nital) [98% C2H6OH + 2% HNO3]
 Metallurgical Microscope
Theory:

Hardening of metal produces Martensite structure with some retained austenite. The martensite structure
makes the metal very hard and brittle. The retained austenite is unstable and it will change with time. This
transformation of retained austenite even at room temperature leads to distortion of metal. Due to these factors
the hardened metal cannot be used as it is. Hence tempering is carried out on the metals.

Tempering treatment involves:

Heating the metal just above Martensite structure temperature (50C), Holding it at that temperature for some time and
then cooling either rapidly or slowly. The purpose of tempering is to remove brittleness and improve ductility in the
material.
The Properties obtained after Tempering are:

• Improvement in ductility and toughness.

• Slight reduction in hardness.
• Increase in tensile strength.
• Reduction in internal stress.
STAGES OF TEMPERING:

On reheating as-quenched martensite, the tempering takes place in four distinct but overlapping stages:

 Stage 1, up to 250°C — precipitation of E-Ironcarbide; partial loss of tetragonality in martensite.

 Stage 2, between 200 and 300°C — decomposition of retained austenite.

 Stage 3, between 200 and 350°C — replacement of &Ironcarbide by cementite; martensite loses
tetragonality.

 Stage 4, above 350°C — cementite coarsens and spheroidizes; recrystallization offerrite.

PROCEDURE:

 Keep the Specimen inside the furnace and close the door.

 Switch on the furnace, set the temperature control knob to given temperature.
 The specimen kept in the furnace allowed heat between 35 min to 1 Hr.

 The specimen is taken out and any of the following steps are adopted as required

 The specimen is allowed to cool suddenly by quenching in cold water or oil bath Orsalt bath.
 After the normalization, the specimen is subjected for reheating between 150 to
 4000C.

 Now remove it from the furnace and quench it in the quenching bath.
 Clean it, measure its hardness and record it in the observation table

Conclusion:
When M artensite is reheated during tempering, it transforms into S orbite or Troostite resulting in
reduced hardness levels and increased ductility. It is seen that tempering leads to a decrease in
hardness. This is actually desirable, as low hardness and good toughness will be beneficial for machining
purposes, as cutting forces and specific energy required will be less. The microstructure consists of finer
grains and hardness decreases, but not by much, which ensures good machinability.
Sl. No Criteria Marks Obtained Maximum Marks
1 Preparation 5
2 Observation 5
3 Experimentation 5
3 Interpretation of Result 5
4 Viva voce 5
TOTAL 25
 EXPERIMENT – 5 A

HARDNESS TEST ON METALS (ROCKWELL HARDNESS TEST)

Aim:
To determine the Rockwell hardness number of the given specimens.
Apparatus required:
Hardness testing Machine
Theory:
The hardness of a material is its resistance to penetration under a localized pressure or resistance to
abrasion. Hardness test provides an accurate, rapid and economical way of determining the resistance of
materials to deformation.
In this test an indentor is usually a ball or cone or pyramid of material much harder than that being used.
Hardened steel, sintered tungsten carbide or diamond intentors are generally used. In indentation test, a load
is usually applied by pressing the indentor at right angles to the surface being tested.

Description:
The test consist in forcing an indentor of standard cone or ball in to the surface of a test piece in two
operations and measure the permanent increase of depth of indentation of this indentor under specified
condition.
The specimen may be mild steel, brass, cast Iron& Aluminium etc. The specimen surface should be flat &
smooth and free from oxides, scale and foreign maters. The thickness of the test piece shall be atleast 8 times
the permanent indentation of depth.
Procedure:

Sample Preparation:

 Ensure the test surface is clean, smooth, and free from any oxide or debris.

 Select the appropriate test scale based on the material being tested.

 Position the specimen securely on the testing machine's anvil.

Applying the Minor Load:

 Bring the indenter into contact with the test surface and apply a small initial load (minor load).

 This sets the zero reference point for measuring the depth of indentation.
Applying the Major Load:

 While maintaining the minor load, gradually increase the force to apply the major load.

 Hold the major load for a predetermined "dwell time" to allow for plastic deformation.
 Load Removal:

 After the dwell time, carefully remove the major load, returning to the minor load level.
 Reading the Hardness Value:
 The machine automatically reads the depth of indentation based on the difference in position between
the minor load and the major load application, displaying the Rockwell hardness value on the scale selected.

Tabulation:
Mean
S. Value
Specimen Rockwell Hardness No.
No. of
HRB
1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Result:
The Rockwell hardness numbers of given specimens are

Sl. No Criteria Marks Obtained Maximum Marks

1 Preparation 5
2 Observation 5
3 Experimentation 5
3 Interpretation of Result 5
4 Viva voce 5
TOTAL 25
 EXPERIMENT – 5 B

HARDNESS TEST ON METALS (BRINELL HARDNESS TEST)

Aim:
To determine the Brinell hardness number of the given specimens.
Apparatus required:
Hardness testing Machine
Theory:
The hardness of a material is its resistance to penetration under a localized pressure or resistance to
abrasion. Hardness test provides an accurate, rapid and economical way of determining the resistance of
materials to deformation.
In this test an indentor is usually a ball or cone or pyramid of material much harder than that being used.
Hardened steel, sintered tungsten carbide or diamond inventors are generally used. In indentation test, a load
is usually applied by pressing the indentor at right angles to the surface being tested.

Description:
The test consist in forcing an indentor of standard cone or ball in to the surface of a test piece in two
operations and measure the permanent increase of depth of indentation of this indentor under specified
condition.
The specimen may be Mild steel, Brass, Cast Iron& Aluminium etc. The specimen surface should be flat
& smooth and free from oxides, scale and foreign maters. The thickness of the test piece shall be at least 8
times the permanent indentation of depth.

Procedure:
 Sample preparation:

Ensure the test surface is clean, flat, and free from any irregularities that could affect the indentation.

 Select load and indenter:

Choose the appropriate load based on the material being tested (higher loads for harder materials, lower loads
for softer materials). A standard Brinell indenter is a 10mm diameter hardened steel ball.

 Position the indenter:

Place the indenter on the test surface, ensuring it is perpendicular to the surface.

 Apply load:

Apply the selected load gradually and hold it for a predetermined time (usually 10-15 seconds for most
metals).
  Remove load:

Carefully remove the load from the indenter.

 Measure indentation:

Using a microscope with a calibrated reticle, measure the average diameter of the indentation left on the
material by taking measurements at two perpendicular diameters.

 Calculate Brinell Hardness Number (BHN):

Use the formula BHN = (Load / (πD² (1 - ( (d²/D²) )^1/2 ))) where "P" is the applied load, "D" is the diameter
of the indenter, and "d" is the average diameter of the indentation.

Tabulation:

Mean
Name of the
[Link]. Brinell Hardness No. Value of
Specimen
BHN

1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Result:
The Brinell hardness numbers of given specimens are ---------------------.

Sl. No Criteria Marks Obtained Maximum Marks

1 Preparation 5
2 Observation 5
3 Experimentation 5
3 Interpretation of Result 5
4 Viva voce 5
TOTAL 25