Module-2

Water Treatment
 Water softening methods: - Lime-soda, Zeolite and ion exchange
processes and their applications.

 Specifications of water for domestic use (ICMR and WHO);

 Unit processes involved in water treatment for municipal supply -

Sedimentation with coagulant- Sand Filtration - chlorination;

 Domestic water purification – Candle filtration- activated carbon

filtration; Disinfection methods- Ultrafiltration, UV treatment,
Ozonolysis, Reverse Osmosis; Electro dialysis.
 Softening methods

• The process of removing the hardness producing substance

from the water is called softening of water
• In Industry three main methods are employed for
softening of water
– Lime soda process
– Zeolite process
– Ion exchange process

2
Lime-Soda process:
• In this process, lime [(Ca(OH)2)] and soda [Na2CO3] are the reagents
used to precipitate the dissolved salts of Ca+2 and Mg+2 as CaCO3 and
Mg(OH)2 which are later on filtered off.
• Lime reacts with temporary hardness causing salts, Mg
permanent hardness, CO2, acids, bicarbonates and alums.
• Lime cannot remove permanent hardness which should be
removed by soda.
Precautions to be followed during process:
• Only calculated amounts of lime and soda must be added. Excess of
lime-soda causes boiler troubles like corrosion and caustic
embrittlement.
• The chemical reactions of lime and soda are slow and the
precipitates CaCO3 and Mg(OH)2 are very fine.
• Proper time must be given for the reactions of softening process to
complete, because all the reactions of the process are slow.
Lime Soda Process - Reactions of Lime and Soda
Permanent Hardness
Ca2+ + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + 2Na+ S
Mg2+ + Ca(OH)2  Mg(OH)2 + Ca2+
Ca2+ + Na2CO3 CaCO3 + 2Na+ L+S

Temporary Hardness
Ca(HCO3)2 + Ca(OH)2  2CaCO3 + 2H2O L

Mg(HCO3)2 + 2Ca(OH)2  2CaCO3 + 2H2O + Mg(OH)2 2L

Reaction of HCO3- (NaHCO3):
2 HCO3- + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + 2H2O + CO32- L–S
4
Reaction of CO2
CO2 + Ca(OH)2  CaCO3 + H2O L
Reaction of H+ - free acids, HCl, H2SO4, etc
2H+ + Ca(OH)2  Ca2+ + 2H2O
L+S
Ca2+ + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + 2Na+
Reactions of Coagulants
Reaction of FeSO4
Fe2+ + Ca(OH)2  Fe(OH)2 + Ca2+
Fe(OH)2 + H2O + O2  2Fe(OH)3 L+S
Ca2+ + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + 2Na+
Reaction of Al2(SO4)3
2Al3+ + 3Ca(OH)2  2Al(OH)3 + 3Ca2+ 3L +3 S = L+S
3Ca2+ + 3Na2CO3  3CaCO3 + 6Na+
Reaction of NaAlO2
2NaAlO2 + 4H2O  2Al(OH)3 + 2NaOH -L
2NaOH = Ca(OH)2
If the treated water contains OH- and CO32- due to excess of
Ca(OH)2 and Na2CO3 - account to the calculations

NaCl, KCl, Na2SO4, SiO2, Fe2O3 – do not impart any hardness

- do not consume any lime or soda
- do not account for calculating lime or soda requirement
Deficiencies in L-S method:
1. The chemical reaction between the salts and the L-S are very slow.
2. The precipitates [Mg(OH)2 and CaCO3] formed are very small (colloidal)
and hence, produce a super-saturated solution.
3. This results in “after-deposition” in the pipes and tubes producing
sludges which eventually cause blockage and corrosion.

How to solve the deficiencies in L-S method?

1. Thorough mixing of L-S with the hard water is carried out.
2. Enough time for the completion of reactions is given.
3. The reaction rate can be increased by using hot L-S method instead
of cold L-S.
4. Accelerators like activated charcoal that adsorb the fine
precipitated particles using physical adsorption technique can be
used.
5. Coagulants or flocculants that help in the formation of coarse
precipitates (which can be removed by sedimentation/filtration) are
added.
6. Suitable sedimentation chamber is provided before final filtration.
Cold lime-soda process
• Operates at room temperature
• Precipitate formed are fine,
hence do not settle down easily
- It is essential to add small
amount of coagulant (alum,
sodium aluminate)
• Coagulant hydrolyse to form
gelatinous ppt. and entraps the
fine ppt.
• NaAlO2 + H2O  NaOH +
Al(OH)3
• ‘Mg’ hardness is brought down
to Zero, but ‘Ca’ hardness
remains
• It provides water with a residual
hardness of 50 to 60 ppm
8
Hot lime-soda process
• Occurring at 80 to 150 °C close
to the boiling point of the
solution

• Reaction proceed faster

• The precipitate and sludge

formed settle down rapidly so
no coagulant needed

• Viscosity of the softened water

is lower, so filtration of water
becomes much easier

• Produce water contain the

residual hardness of 15 to 30
ppm

9
 Difference between hot and cold lime-soda
processes
Cold lime-soda process Hot lime-soda process
• Operation temp. 25 to 30 oC • Operation temp. 80 to 150 oC
• Slow process • Rapid process
• Coagulants is must • Coagulants not necessary
• Filtration is difficult • Filtration is easy – at
elevated temp. viscosity is
low.
• Residual hardness is 60 ppm • Residual hardness is ~15 ppm
• Dissolved gases - not • Dissolved gases are removed
removed
• Low softening capacity • High softening capacity
10
 Advantage of Lime-Soda process

• Lime-soda process is economical

• Treated water is alkaline and hence has less corrosion
tendencies
• Due to alkaline nature of treated water, amount of
pathogenic bacteria in water is considerably reduced

Disadvantage of Lime-Soda process

• It removes not only hardness causing salts but also minerals
• Disposal of large amounts of sludge poses a problem
• This can remove hardness only up to 15 ppm, which is not
good for boilers
• The process requires careful operation and skilled supervision

11
 A. No. of parts by mass of Lime [Ca(OH)2] required:

= 74 Temp Ca2+ + 2 x Temp Mg2+ + Perm. (Mg2+ + Fe2+ + Volume of

Al3+) + CO2 + H+ (from Acids)+ (HCO3– – NaAlO2) X water
100

B. No. of parts by mass of Soda [Na2CO3] required :

= 106 Perm. (Ca2+ + Mg2+ + Fe2+ + Al3+) + H+ (Acids) – HCO3 – Volume of

X water
100

All in terms of CaCO3 equivalents

100 parts by mass of CaCO3 = 74 parts of 100 parts by mass of CaCO3 = 106 parts of
Ca(OH)2 Na2CO3
1 part of CaCO = 74/100 of Lime 1 part of CaCO = 106/100 of Soda
 Zeolite process
Sodium Aluminium Silicate: Complex chemical
compound occurs as a natural mineral called ‘Zeolite’.

Zeolites are known as permutits and in Greek it means “boiling

stone”

13
 Zeolite or permutit process
• Zeolite is a three-dimensional silicate.
• The chemical formula of zeolite is hydrated sodium
aluminum silicate represented as
‘Na2O.Al2O3.xSiO2.yH2O’.
• It is capable of exchanging reversibly it’s sodium ions for
Ca2+ and Mg2+.
Na2 Ze + Ca2+  CaZe + 2Na+
• Naturally occurring zeolite is Na2O.Al2O3.3SiO2.2H2O and is
known as Natolite. Others include gluconites, green sand
etc. are used for water softening.
 Types of zeolites
Natural Synthetic
These are non-porous, There are porous and possess a
amorphous and durable. gel structure. Prepared by
Ex: Natolite, heating together Na2CO3, Al2O3
Na2O.Al2O3.4SiO2.2H2O and SiO2
They possess high exchange
capacity per unit weight
compared to natural zeolites
 Synthetic Zeolite
• Synthetic zeolite used for softening purpose in permutit process.
These are porous and glassy and have greater softening capacity
than green sand.
• They are prepared by heating together china clay (Al2Si2O5(OH)4),
feldspar (KAlSi3O8 – NaAlSi3O8 – CaAlSi3O8) are a group of rock-
forming tectosilicate minerals which make up as much as 60% of
the earth’s crust)} and soda ash (Na2CO3). and soda ash.
• For softening of hard water by zeolite process, hard water is
percolated at a specified rate through a bed of zeolite.
• Ze holds sodium ions loosely and can be represented as Na2Ze.
• The hardness causing ions (Ca2+, Mg2+) are retained by the zeolite
as CaZe and MgZe respectively, while the outgoing water contains
sodium salts. During this process, the water becomes free from
Ca2+ and Mg2+. 16
 Zeolite process
o Method of softening:

Na2Ze + Ca(HCO3)2 CaZe + 2 NaHCO3

Na2Ze + Mg(HCO3)2 MgZe + 2 NaHCO3
Na2Ze + CaSO4 CaZe + Na2SO4
Na2Ze + CaCl2 CaZe + 2 NaCl
zeolite hardness
o Regeneration of Zeolite using Brine solution:

CaZe (or) MgZe + 2 NaCl Na2Ze + CaCl2 or MgCl2

Exhausted Brine Reclaimed
zeolite zeolite

The washings are led to the drain and the regenerated zeolites are used for softening
purpose again
Zeolite Process
 Limitations
• If the supplied water is turbid, the suspended matters must be
removed before it is being fed into the zeolite bed. Otherwise results
in clogging and becomes inactive.

• If water contains large quantities of colored ions like Mn2+ and Fe2+,
they must be removed, as these have the tendency to form MnZe
and FeZe, which cannot be regenerated easily.

• If mineral acids are present in water, they must be neutralized before

feeding into the zeolite bed, as these can destroy the zeolite bed.
 Advantages
1. Hardness of water can be removed completely upto about 10 ppm
2. The equipment used is small and easy to handle
3. It requires less time for softening
4. There is no sludge formation, hence the process is clean
5. Easy to regenerate with brine solution
6. Any hardness can be removed without any adjustments of the
process
Disadvantages
1. Treated water contains more Na+ ions than in the L-S process.
2. Replaces only Ca2+ and Mg2+ ions but leaves the acidic ions (HCO3-
and CO32-) as such in the softened water; HCO3- decompose to
produce CO2 which causes corrosion in boilers; CO32- hydrolyze to
NaOH to cause caustic embrittlement.
3. Colored water or water containing suspended impurities cannot be
used before filtration.
4. Water containing acid cannot be used for softening since acid may
destroy the zeolite 20
# Lime-Soda method Permutit Method
1. Residual water hardness: 15 to 60 ppm Residual water hardness: about 10 ppm
2. Treated water contains lesser amount of Treated water contains large amount of Na+ ions
Na+ ions than in original water than in original water
3. Capital cost is lower Cost of plant and material is higher
4. Operational cost is higher Operational cost is lower
5. No such limitations Cannot be used for treating acid water because
the zeolite material undergoes disintegration
6. Plant occupies more space The plant occupies less space
7. No such limitations Raw water containing suspended impurities block
the pores of the permutit and the zeolite bed loses
its exchange capacity
8. Cannot operate under pressure Can operate under pressure, fully automatic
9. Involves difficulties in settling, coagulation, No settling, coagulation, filtration or formation of
filtration and removal of precipitates sludges / precipitation
10. To be tested for frequent changes in water Water analysis tests only the hardness of treated
hardness, control and adjustment of water
reagents
11. Treated water contains lesser dissolved Treated water contains more dissolved solids
solids but more precipitated solids
 Ion-Exchange Process
 Ion-exchange resins are insoluble, cross-linked, long chain
organic polymers with a microporous structure.
 Functional groups present are responsible for ion-exchange
properties
 Acidic functional groups (-COO-H+, -SO3-H+) exchange H+ for
cations
 Basic functional groups (-NH3+OH-) exchange OH- for anions.

22
 Cation Exchange Resin

Styrene-divinyl
benzene copolymers,
SO3¯H+
which on sulphonation SO3¯H+
or carboxylation, RH+
become capable to
exchange their
hydrogen ions with the SO3¯H+
SO3¯H+
cations in the water

23
 Anion Exchange Resin
Styrene-divinyl benzene or
amine-formaldehyde
copolymers, which contain
amino or quaternary
ammonium or quaternary
phosphonium or tertiary
sulphonium groups as an
ROH-
integral part of the resin
matrix.
The resin after treatment
with dil. NaOH solution
capable to exchange their
OH¯ ions with the anions in
the water

24
Water emerging from the cationic column will be acidic in nature,
while passing through the second anionic resin column, H+ and
OH- ions combine during softening process to give water molecule
25
H2O

26
 Regeneration
When the capacity of the ion exchange resins to exchange H+ and OH- ions are
exhausted, they are treated with dil HCl and dil NaOH for regeneration
Regeneration of cation exchange column

Regeneration of anion exchange column

Advantage
• The process can be used to soften highly acidic or alkaline water
• it produces water of very low hardness (2 ppm)

Disadvantage
• The equipment is costly and more expensive chemical are
needed
• If the water contains turbidity (>10 ppm), then the output of
the process is reduced
27
 Contains essentially of a single cylinder containing an intimate mixture
of cation exchanger and anion exchanger.
 The outgoing water from the mixed-bed contains even less than 1 ppm of
dissolved salts
Regeneration: When the resins are exhausted, the mixed-bed is backwashed
using compressed air. The lighter anion exchanger gets displaced to the top
and the heavier cation exchanger stays below.
Anion and cation exchanger were regenerated using NaOH and H2SO4
28
respectively.
 Treatment of water for municipal supply
 Drinking or potable water should be safe to drink and should satisfy
the following requirements:
 Sparklingly clean and odorless, Pleasant in taste and perfectly cool
 Turbidity should not exceed 2.5 ppm.
 Free from dissolved gases like H2S, minerals like Pb, As, Cr and Mn
salts
 Alkalinity should not be too high (pH should be around 8.0)
 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) should be less than 500 ppm
 Free from disease producing pathogenic micro-organisms.
Purification of water for domestic use
The following are the steps of purification:
A. Removal of suspended impurities: B. Removal of micro-organisms:

1. Screening 1. By boiling the water

2. Sedimentation with 2. By adding bleaching powder

coagulation 3. By chlorination
3. Filtration 4. By using chloramine (ClNH2)
5. Disinfection by ozone
A. Removal of suspended impurities:
1) Screening: Raw water is passed through screens having large number of
holes which retain the floating particles.

2) Sedimentation: To remove suspended particles, water is allowed to stand

undisturbed in big tanks (about 5m deep) where most of the
suspended matter settles down in the bottom due to the force of
gravity. The retention period of water in the tank ranges from 2-6
hours. Supernatant water is pumped off.

Sedimentation with Coagulation: If water contains colloidal and fine clay

particles, a coagulant is added before sedimentation and the process is
called “Sedimentation with coagulation” .
Coagulant when added to water forms an insoluble gelatinous flocculent
ppt. which descent through the water, adsorb and entangle very fine
suspended impurities and form bigger flocs which settle down in the
bottom.
Alum (K2SO4.Al2(SO4)3.24H2O, Sodium Aluminate (NaAlO2) and Ferrous
sulphate (FeSO4.7H2O) are normally used coagulants.
1.

coagulant

2.
MgSO4 + 2CO2
coagulant

3.

3 Ca(HCO3)2
3) Filtration:
• Filtration is the process of removing colloidal matter, and most of the microorganisms,
etc.
• Filtration is carried out by passing water through an inlet through a bed of fine sand,
coarse sand and granular materials.
• The irregular pores in the sand filter hold the sediment particles thereby allowing the
filtered water to pass through an underground drain.

Note: Fine sand layer height = 30 to 60 cm.

Coarse sand + gravel layer height = 30 to 60 cm.
When the flow rate of the filtered water
becomes slow, the setup is stopped and
about 2 to 3 cm of the top fine sand layer is
scrapped off, replaced with clean sand and
the filter is back to use again.

The scrapped sand is washed with water,

dried, and stored for reuse at the time of
next scrapping operation.
B) Removal of microorganisms:
The process of destroying the disease producing bacteria, pathogenic
microorganisms, etc., from the water and making it safe for use is called
“Disinfection”.
The chemicals or substances, which are added to water for killing the
bacteria, etc., are known as “disinfectants”.

Disinfection can be carried out by:

1. By Boiling: Boiling the water for 10 to 15 minutes can kill all the disease producing
microorganisms.
Disadvantages: (a) This method does not provide protection to the drinking water
against future contamination.
(b) Very costly method to employ in municipal water works.

2. By adding bleaching powder: In small water-works, 1 kg (1000 g) of bleaching

powder (CaOCl2) is added to 1000 Liters of water (1 gm/1 L = 1000 mg/L = 1000
ppm) and allowed to stand for several hours. The chemical action produces HOCl
(Hypochlorous Acid, a powerful germicide).
CaOCl2 + H2O Ca(OH)2 + Cl2
Cl2 + H2O HCl + HOCl
Germs + HOCl Germs are killed.
The disinfecting action is due to the chlorine produced from the bleaching powder.
Drawbacks: CaOCl2 introduces Ca2+ ions in water (increase water hardness); bleaching
powder deteriorates or decomposes with its storage time; and excess beaching
powder gives a bad taste and smell to treated water.
3. By Chlorination: Chlorine (gas or in concentrated solution form) produces
Hypochlorous acid which is a powerful germicide.
Chlorine is more effective as an effective disinfectant at lower pH values (below 6.5).
Cl2 + H2O HOCl + HCl
Germs + HOCl Germs are killed.
Mechanism of Action:
Enzymes are essential for the metabolic processes of the micro-organisms.
The death of microorganisms, bacteria, etc., resulted from the chemical reaction
between HOCl and the enzymes (in the cells of the microorganisms).
The enzymes are inactivated by HOCl.

Liquid chlorine: Liquid chlorine is widely used as an disinfectant.

Most effective when applied to filtered water at such a point where adequate mixing is
done. Apparatus used for mixing liquid chlorine with filtered water is called Chlorinator.
Chlorinator is used for adding adequate quantity of chlorine (0.3 to 0.5 ppm) so that,
after the treatment, the residual chlorine will be 0.1 to 0.2 ppm in treated water.

Factors affecting efficiency of chlorination:

(a) Time of Contact: The no. of micro-organisms destroyed by chlorine per unit time is
directly proportional to no. of micro-organisms that were alive initially. Therefore, the
death rate is maximum at the start and then gradually decreases with time.
(b) Temperature of water: With increasing water temperature, the rate of reaction between
chlorine and the enzymes increases thereby increasing the death rate of microorganisms.
(c) pH of water: Lower pH of water (5 to 6.5) and a small contact time is required.
Diagram of chlorinator
Raw water Concentrated
inlet chlorine solution

Baffle plates

High tower

Advantages of chlorine:
 Effective and economical Sterilized water outlet
 Requires very little space for storage
 Chlorine is stable and does not deteriorate unlike CaOCl2
 Can be used at low and high temperatures
 Does not introduce any salt impurities in the treated water
 Most ideal disinfectant

Disadvantages of chlorine:
 Excess of chlorine produces characteristic taste and odour.
 Excess of chlorine causes irritation to mucus membrane
 Residual chlorine should not exceed 0.1 to 0.2 ppm.
 It is most effective below pH 6.5 and not very effective at higher pH.
 Break-point Chlorination or Free-residual Chlorination
Q: Illustrate chlorination and break point chlorination with a neat diagram.
It involves the addition of sufficient amount of chlorine to oxidize:
(a) organic matter, (b) reducing substances, and (c) free ammonia in raw water, thereby leaving
behind mainly free chlorine which is further used for disinfection against disease-producing
pathogenic bacteria.

(i) The addition of chlorine

at the dip or break is
called “break-point
chlorination”. Cl2 consumed Chloramines
Chlorine by reaction broken down
is with organic & converted
(ii) At this point, the water reduced
matter. If NH3 to nitrogen
to
is free from color and chlorides is present, gas which
by easily chloramine leaves the
odor. formation system
oxidizabl
e stuff begins
(iii) Any type of pathogenic (H2S, (Breakpoint).
Fe2+,
organisms present in etc.)
water are destroyed,
thereby making the
disinfection highly
efficient.
Advantages of break point chlorination
1. Oxidizes completely the organic compounds, ammonia and other reducing
compounds.
2. Removes bad taste and color in water which was due to the presence of
organic matter.
3. Destroys completely (100%) all the micro-organisms.
4. Prevents the growth of any weeds in the water.

Dechlorination:
1. Excess chlorine beyond the break-point produces bad taste and smell.
2. Excess chlorine can be removed by passing the excess chlorinated water
through a bed of molecular carbon or activated carbon. Allow a short
reaction time and remove the carbon by filtration.
3. Adding small quantities of sulphur dioxide or sodium sulphite or sodium
thiosulphate:
SO2 + Cl2 + 2H2O H2SO4 + 2 HCl
Na2SO3 + Cl2 + H2O Na2SO4 + 2 HCl
Na2S2O3 + Cl2 + H2O Na2SO4 + 2 HCl + S
 Disinfection of water
4. By using chloramine (ClNH2):
 When chlorine and ammonia are mixed in the ratio of 2:1 by volume,
chloramine is formed.
Cl2 + NH3 ClNH2 + HCl
 Chloramine is more reactive and long lasting than chlorine and is a better
bactericidal agent than chlorine.
ClNH2 + H2O HOCl + NH3
 Excess of ClNH2 does not produce any bad smell but adds good taste to water.

 5. Disinfection by Ozone:
 Ozone gas is a very good disinfecting agent.
 Produced by passing silent electric discharge through cold and dry oxygen.
3O2 2O3 (ozone)
 Ozone is highly unstable and breaks down to give nascent oxygen.
O3 O2 + [O] (Nascent oxygen, a single oxygen atom with a short life)
 Nascent oxygen is a powerful disinfecting agent and kills all the microorganisms
and oxidizes the organic matter present in the water.
 Disadvantage: Expensive than chlorine, not employed for municipal water
treatment. Advantages: simultaneous removal of color, smell and taste in water
without giving any residue. Excess not harmful, since O3 is unstable and
decomposes to O2.
 Complete Flow diagram of municipal water treatment
Raw Alum
water

Sand filter
Mixing
tank
Fine sand
Coarse sand
gravel

Liquid To
chlorine Supply
 Desalination of brackish water
o Water containing dissolved salts with a peculiar salty (brackish) taste is known as
“brackish water”. Ex.: Sea water (brine) contains 3.5% of salts.
o The process of removing common salt (NaCl) from water is known as
“desalination”.
The methods of desalination are:
1. Electrodialysis
2. Reverse osmosis

Electrodialysis:
 Electrodialysis consists of a large container with two membrane
separators, one permeable to positive ions (cations) and the other
permeable to negative ions (anions).
 In the outer compartments cathode (-) and anode (+) are arranged to
pass DC Voltage.
 When DC voltage/current is passed through the cell, Na+ cation will move
towards cathode and Cl- anion will move towards anode through the
membrane.
 Hence, the concentration of salt decreases in the middle compartment
and increases in the side compartments.
 Water from the middle compartment is collected and this water is known
as desalinated water.
 Electrodialysis diagram

For efficient separation, ion-selective membranes are used which selectively allow cations or
anions to pass through them.
Electrodialysis cell
o Electrodialysis cell consists of
Large number of pairs of
rigid Plastic membranes.

o Saline water at a pressure of

5-6 kg/cm2 is passed
through the membrane pairs.

o DC current is applied
perpendicular to the direction
of water flow.

Advantages are:

1. Unit is compact and

installation is economical

2. Best suited if electricity is

available.
Reverse Osmosis
 When two solutions of unequal
concentrations are separated by a Semi-
permeable membrane, solvent will flow
from lower conc. to higher conc.
 This phenomenon can be reversed (solvent
flow reversed) by applying hydrostatic
pressure on the concentrated side.
 In reverse osmosis, pressure of 15-40
kg/cm2 is applied to sea water.
 The water gets forced through the semi-
permeable membrane leaving behind the
dissolved solids.
Advantages:
 Removes colloidal silica
 Cost is only the replacement cost of
membranes (life is 2 years)
 Easy Membrane replacement
 Low operating cost, high reliability
 Aqua-guard water purification setup

Candle Filters
 Activated carbon Filtration
Activated carbon is produced from carbonaceous source materials such as nutshells, coconut
husk, peat, wood, coir, lignite, coal, etc.
• Activated carbon is a material derived mostly from charcoal that has been treated with oxygen
creating many tiny pores between the carbon atoms.
• Activated carbon works via a process called adsorption, whereby pollutant molecules in the
fluid to be treated are trapped inside the pore structure of the carbon substrate.
• Carbon filtering is commonly used for water purification. Active charcoal carbon filters are most
effective at removing chlorine, sediment, volatile organic compounds (VOCs), taste and odour
from water.
• They are not effective at removing minerals, salts, and dissolved inorganic compounds.
• Typical particle sizes that can be removed by carbon filters range from 0.5 to 50 µm.

Zoomed images
of Carbon
Surface and
Pores
 Principal mechanisms for Purification
The two principal mechanisms by which activated carbon removes contaminants from
water are (a) adsorption and (b) catalytic-reduction.

(a) Organic Removal: Organics are removed by adsorption

Organic material in public water supplies comes from decaying plant life, which
becomes more soluble in water over time and exists as large, high-molecular weight
organic acids.

(b) Residual disinfectants removal: by catalytic reduction

Activated carbon can remove and destroy residual disinfectants (chlorine and
chloramine) through a catalytic reduction reaction.

This is a chemical reaction that involves a transfer of electrons from the activated
carbon surface to the residual disinfectant. In other words, activated carbon acts as a
reducing agent.
Designing an activated carbon filtration system needs to take into account the
differences in the water to be treated, the type of activated carbon used, and the
effluent quality and operating parameters.

The efficacy of a carbon filter is also based upon the flow rate regulation. When the
water is allowed to flow through the filter at a slower rate, the contaminants are
exposed to the filter media for a longer amount of time.
Types of Membranes - Micro-, Ultra- and Nano-filtration

What is Microfiltration?
 Microfiltration (MF) is a low pressure-driven process (0.02 and 0.5 Mpa) in which a
membrane separate particles from an aqueous solution.
 A microfiltration (MF) filter has a pore size around 0.1 µ (100 nm), many microorganisms
are removed, but viruses remain in the water.

What is Ultrafiltration?
 Ultrafiltration (UF) is basically a pressure-driven separation process governed by a
screening principle and is dependant on particle size.
 UF membranes have a pore size between 1 nm and 100 nm, thus allowing retention of
compounds with a molecular weight of 300 to 500,000 Dalton.

What is Nanofiltration?
 Nanofiltration (NF) filter has a pore size of around 1 nm (0.001 µ).
 Removes most organic molecules, nearly all viruses, most of the natural organic matter
and a range of salts (divalent ions). Water is softened.
 The separation mechanism involves size exclusion as well as electrostatic interaction.