POPULATION DYNAMICS ▪ logistic growth (growth that slows as it

reaches carrying capacity).

Growth Factors ▪ regulated by limiting factors
- refer to the elements that influence the size, Linear growth occurs when a population
composition, and distribution of a population increases by a fixed amount over time.
over time. These factors determine whether a
population increases, stabilizes, or declines. Characteristics:
- categorized into environmental factors and
• The rate of increase remains
- resource factors.
unchanged over time.
factors are things that directly affect how fast or
• The population does not accelerate or
slow a population grows:
decelerate in growth.
▪ Birth Rate: More births lead to population
• The graph of linear growth is a straight,
growth, while fewer births slow it down.
▪ Death Rate: If more people die, the upward-sloping line.
population shrinks, but if fewer die, the Exponential growth is a rapid increase in
population can grow. population size without constraints, resulting
▪ Immigration: When individuals move into in a J-shaped curve where the growth rate
a population from other places. This can remains constant.
increase the population size.
▪ Emigration: When individuals leave a Characteristics:
population and move to other places. This
• Constant Growth Rate
reduces the population size.
• Unrestricted Resources
Environmental factors are external elements • No Competition
both abiotic (non-living) and biotic (living) that • J-Shaped Curve
influence the growth, survival, reproduction, and
distribution of organisms in an ecosystem. Logistic growth reflects a more realistic
situation, considering environmental
• Resources limitations and density-dependent factors. It
• Climate occurs when a population approaches its
• Predation carrying capacity, stabilizing growth due to
• Competition limited resources.
• Habitat Quality
Characteristics:
Resource factors refer to the essential elements
• Limited Resources: Logistic growth
or conditions in an environment that organisms
considers the finite availability of
need in order to survive, grow, and reproduce.
resources in an environment, which
• Food imposes constraints on population
• Water growth as it approaches carrying
• Shelter or Habitat capacity.
• Nutrients • Carrying Capacity: The maximum
• Space population size that can be supported by
the available resources and
• Oxygen
environmental conditions.
• Mates
• S-Shaped Curve.
Population growth follows different patterns, • Density-Dependent Factors: As the
including population density rises, factors such as
competition for resources, predation,
▪ linear growth (steady increase)
▪ exponential growth (rapid increase)
 disease, and territory influences it, which Increase
contributes to the deceleration of growth. - birth
- immigration
Carrying capacity (K) is the maximum number - good environmental conditions
of organisms that an ecosystem can support - high resource availability
without depleting its resources. It's dependent on Decrease
the availability of resources like food, water, and
- death
shelter.
- disease
Factors Affecting Carrying Capacity: - emigration
- competition for resources
• Food supply - human activities
• Water availability - harsh environmental conditions

• Shelter and living space ESTIMATING POPULATION SIZE

• Disease prevalence - is a method used to determine the abundance of

one or more species living in a habitat.
• Predation
1. Direct Methods (Actual Counting)
Limiting factors are environmental factors that - These methods involve directly
restrict population growth, preventing it from counting individuals in a population.
growing indefinitely. They are accurate but often expensive
and time-consuming.
Types of Limiting Factors: a. Census Method
▪ Density-Dependent Factors: - A complete count of every individual
in a population.
• Food shortage - Used for human populations (e.g.,
national censuses).
• Competition
- Rarely used for wildlife due to
• Disease logistical challenges.
b. Quadrant Sampling (for Plants &
• Predation Slow-Moving Animals)
▪ Density-Independent Factors: - The study area is divided into smaller
sections (quadrats).
• Natural disasters (earthquakes, - Individuals in selected quadrats are
floods, wildfires) counted, and the data is extrapolated
to estimate total population size.
• Climate changes c. Aerial or Drone Surveys
• Human activities (deforestation, - Used for large animals in open areas
pollution) (e.g., counting elephants or whales).
- Involves taking images or videos and
POPULATION ECOLOGY manually or AI-assisted counting.
d. Mark-Recapture Method (if used as a
- is the study of populations in relation to the
direct approach)
environment. It includes environmental
- Some individuals are captured,
influences on population density and
marked, and released.
distribution, age structure and variations in
population size. - Later, a second capture is done, and
the proportion of marked individuals
helps estimate total population size.
Population is a group of individuals of the same
species living in the same habitat. Potential
Causes for the change in a population
 2. Indirect Methods (Estimating PATTERNS OF POPULATION
Population Without Direct Counting) DISTRIBUTION
- These methods infer population size
based on evidence left behind,
behaviors, or statistical models.
- They are useful when direct
observation is difficult.
a. Mark-Recapture Method (as an
indirect approach)
Random dispersion is essentially the "null
- When the method relies on statistical
model" -- the pattern we might expect if no
models rather than direct counting of
special forces were acting on the spatial
marked individuals.
distribution of individuals in the population.
- The Lincoln-Petersen index or
Schnabel method can be used. Examples of uniform dispersion can result from
b. Transect Sampling (Distance behavior (e.g., territoriality) or allelopathy
Sampling) (production of toxins that keep others from
- Observers record individuals seen establishing nearby in plants).
along a line (transect).
- Mathematical models estimate total Clumped distributions can result, for example,
population based on detection from aggregative behavior (herding or schooling)
probability. or from restricted availability of suitable habitat
c. Indirect Sign Surveys or microhabitat.
- Uses signs like footprints, nests, dung, INTRINSIC POPULATION
burrows, or calls to estimate
population size. Refers to factors that are internal to the population
- Common in studies of elusive animals itself.
(e.g., tigers, birds, and nocturnal
1. Reproductive Rate – The birth rate
species).
(natality) of a species determines how fast
d. Genetic Sampling
a population can grow. Organisms with
- Collecting DNA samples (from hair,
high reproductive rates tend to have faster
feces, or skin) to estimate individual
population growth.
counts through genetic markers.
2. Genetic Variation – Greater genetic
- Used for rare or endangered species.
diversity allows populations to adapt to
Population Density environmental changes, reducing the risk
of extinction.
- is the number of individuals per unit area 3. Physiological and Behavioral
or volume. Adaptations – Certain behaviors, such as
- can be used to describe the location, migration, mating rituals, and social
growth, and migration of many structures, affect population stability.
organisms. 4. Competition Within the Population –
Population distribution is the geographic area Limited resources lead to competition
where a particular population of a species occurs. among individuals for food, mates, and
This area of occupancy is determined by the local shelter, regulating population size.
availability of appropriate habitat. 5. Density-Dependent Regulation – As
population density increases, factors like
disease, predation, and competition
become more intense, naturally controlling
population growth.
EXTRINSIC POPULATION Populations cannot grow indefinitely due to
limiting factors, which include:
Refers to factors external to the population that
influence its dynamics. • Density-Dependent Factors:
1. Climate and Weather Conditions – o Competition for resources
Temperature, rainfall, natural disasters, and o Predation
seasonal changes can impact population o Disease
survival. o Parasitism
2. Availability of Resources – Food, water,
and habitat availability directly influence • Density-Independent Factors:
population growth and survival rates. o Natural disasters (fires, floods,
3. Predation and Competition from Other droughts)
Species – Interactions with predators and o Climate change
competing species can limit population o Habitat destruction
expansion.
4. Human Activities – Urbanization, Carrying capacity (K): is the maximum
deforestation, pollution, and climate population size an environment can sustain based
change can drastically alter population on available resources.
dynamics.
DYNAMIC CHANGES IN POPULATION:
5. Disease and Epidemics – Pathogens
spreading from one population to another PREDATION AND SPATIAL
can reduce numbers, especially in high-
density areas. Predation is a biological interaction in which one
organism (the predator) hunts and consumes
Populations have several key characteristics: another organism (the prey). This interaction
plays a crucial role in regulating population sizes
▪ Size: The total number of individuals.
and maintaining ecosystem stability.
▪ Density: Number of individuals per unit
area or volume. → Predator-Prey Relationship
▪ Distribution: The spatial arrangement of A predator-prey relationship is a biological
individuals (clumped, uniform, and interaction in which one organism (the
random). predator) hunts, captures, and eats another
▪ Age Structure: The proportion of organism (the prey).
individuals in different age groups → Effects of Predation on Population Size
(juveniles, adults, elderly).
▪ Sex Ratio: The proportion of males to Spatial distribution refers to how individuals
females, which affects reproduction. within a population are arranged in an
▪ Growth Rate: How quickly a population environment. The distribution pattern affects
increases or decreases. resource use, reproduction, and survival rates.
Populations change due to four main processes: Types of Spatial Distribution
▪ Births: The production of new 1. Clumped
individuals. 2. Uniform
▪ Deaths: The loss of individuals due to 3. Random
aging, predation, or disease.
Factors Affecting Spatial Distribution
▪ Immigration: The movement of
individuals into a population from other ▪ Resource Availability
areas. ▪ Social Interactions
▪ Emigration: The movement of ▪ Environmental Conditions
individuals out of a population.
INFECTIOUS DISEASE AND HARVEST Note this form:
MODEL
Y = b + mX
"Modeling in population dynamics" refers
to the practice of using mathematical equations where b is the Y-intercept and m is the slope of a
to describe and predict how a population size standard linear regression equation. Thus
changes over it essentially creates a
{Y-intercept
representation of how a population behaves
under different conditions using mathematical m = (1 - g - r) {slope}
tools.
Now let's set the left hand side of Eqn 31.1 to zero
Infectious Disease Modeling to get an equilibrium point and solve for It.
A wildlife disease is any disease that affects wild
animals that is caused by a variety of pathogens,
including bacteria, viruses, fungi, parasites, and
prions. and finally to the equilibrium value of It, which
Chronic Wasting Disease we will call I*

Chronic wasting disease (CWD) is a fatal,

progressive brain disease that affects deer, elk,
simple difference (discrete) equation model for
moose, and other members of the deer family.
the spread of an infectious disease.
It's caused by misfolded proteins called prions.

which has the following equilibrium value (I*)

What does equilibrium mean here?

Here's the starting equation for the change in the
level of infection: • It means that there will be no change in
the infection level -- that is the rate of
addition of new infections will be
• where It is the proportion of infected balanced by the recovery rate (a
individuals at time t, population growth analog would be
• g is the probability of becoming infected dN/dt = 0 when births = deaths) .
per unit of time (say a year), Lotka-Volterra (Predator-Prey Model)
• L is an upper limit on the proportion of
the population that is susceptible, The Lotka-Volterra model is a mathematical
because some individuals are immune model that describes the dynamics of biological
(for whatever reason), systems, specifically the interaction between two
• r is the probability of recovering, if species: one as a predator and the other as prey.
infected.
Rearranging this to be in recurrence
form (meaning the value of some variable at
time t+1, as a function of the value of that
variable at time t) we get
 from the population is fixed, leading to a constant
harvest rate over time.

SIGMOID HARVEST FUNCTION

A sigmoid harvest function typically follows an

S-shaped curve (logistic function). This function
reflects situations where the harvest rate increases
with population size, but at a diminishing rate as
the population grows. It models more realistic
Harvest Model harvest scenarios, where the harvest rate
accelerates when the population is low, but slows
Harvest model is used to describe the down as the population approaches the carrying
management and sustainable use of a population capacity (K) of the environment.
of organisms, such as fish, wildlife, or other
renewable resources. It essentially examines the
effects of harvesting (removal) of individuals
from a population over time, and how this affects
the overall population size and health.

Different Kinds of Harvest Functions

LINEAR HARVEST FUNCTION
A linear harvest function assumes that the harvest
rate is directly proportional to the population size.
This means that as the population increases, the
amount of harvest (the number of individuals
removed) increases at a constant rate. The harvest
rate grows in a straight line as the population
increases.
CONSTANT HARVEST FUNCTION
A constant harvest function assumes that a fixed
number of individuals are harvested regardless of
the population size. In this case, the harvest rate
does not change as the population increases or
decreases. The number of individuals removed
▪ Inflection of logistics - refers to the turning where:
point in a logistic growth curve, where the • P(t) - is the population at time
growth rate shifts from accelerating to • K - is the carrying capacity
decelerating. • r - is the intrinsic growth rate
▪ Asymmetric Gompertz curve is a • t - is the inflection point
modification of the logistic curve that is often (mid-point of growth)
used in population dynamics, especially for Inflection Point: The logistic curve is symmetric
modeling biological populations that grow around t, meaning growth before and after the
more quickly in the early stages and then inflection is mirrored.
slow down more rapidly in the later stages.
▪ Inflection point is where the acceleration Asymmetric Gompertz Curve: Skewed
(second derivative) switches from positive to Growth
negative.

The logistics curve and the Gompertz curve are

both commonly used in population dynamics to where:
model growth, but their inflection points and
asymmetry behave differently. • P(t) - is the population at time
• b - controls the growth rate
• Logistic Growth follows a symmetric S- • t - shifts the curve
curve, where growth is fastest at the • e - is the base of the natural
inflection point (halfway to carrying logarithm.
capacity) and then slows down Inflection Point: The Gompertz curve has a
symmetrically. right-skewed inflection, meaning growth starts
• Gompertz Growth is asymmetric, quickly but slows more gradually as it approaches
meaning the point of maximum growth K
occurs earlier than in a logistic model.
This results in a slower approach to
carrying capacity.

The vertical dotted lines indicate their respective

inflection points. The logistic curve's inflection is
centered, while the Gompertz curve's is skewed
left, showing slower decay in growth.

Logistic Growth Curve: Symmetric Growth