Chapter 1

Introduction

1
 Desalination of water
Introduction
Only 1 percent of the earth's water is liquid freshwater; 97 percent of available
water resources are contaminated by salt. This makes desalination an essential
component of efforts to address water shortages, especially in densely
populated coastal regions. Egypt faces nowadays severe challenges to our
ability to meet our future water needs, So we as a nation will need to make
additional water resources available to all segments of our nation’s and provide
additional water resources at a cost and in a manner that supports urban, rural
and agricultural prosperity and environmental protection; Meeting these
challenges may lead us to use saline water for a greater national focus on water
conservation.

Earth’s water distribution

Figure 1.1

2
Brackish water and seawater
Brackish water is saltier than fresh water, but not as salty as seawater. Brackish
water usually has a salt concentration between 5 and 20 parts per thousand
(ppt) and seawater generally has a concentration of salt greater than 20 ppt.
Brackish waters may also be found in aquifers.

Classification Of Water Salinity

Figure 1.2

3
Water type and Total Dissolved Solid:

Water type TDS(mg/l)

Sweet waters 0-1000

Brackish waters 1000-5000

Moderately saline waters 5000-10000

Severely saline waters 10000-30000

Seawater More than 30000

Table 1.1

Figure 1.3

4
• Significance of Desalination
Desalination technologies will contribute significantly to ensuring a safe,
sustainable, Affordable, and adequate water supply for Egypt.

• Provide safe water:

A safe water supply is one that meets all drinking water standards, meets all
standards for use by agricultural and industrial interests, and that strives to
move toward greater water security during drought, natural disasters, transport.

• Ensure the sustainability of the nation’s water supply:

A sustainable water supply is one that meets today’s needs without jeopardizing
the ability to meet the needs of future generations.

• Keep water affordable:

An affordable water supply is one that provides water to the nation’s future
citizenry at rates comparable to that of today.

• Ensure adequate supplies:

An adequate water supply is one that guarantees local and regional availability
of water.

Figure 1.4

5
 Figure 1.5

Desalination techniques
1.Distillation:
1.1Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF)
1.2Multiple-effect evaporator (MED|ME)
1.3Vapor-compression evaporation (VC)

Membrane processes:
2.1Electrodialysis reversal (EDR)
2.2Reverse osmosis (RO)

6
 Figure 1.6

Desalination techniques:-
1. Multi-stage flash distillation ( MSF )

• Multi-stage flash distillation (MSF) is a water desalination process that

distills seawater by flashing a portion of the water into steam in multiple
stages of what are essentially countercurrent heat exchanger. Multi-stage
flash distillation plants produce [64%] percent of all desalinated water in the
world, although a different type of desalinators, Reverse osmosis plants, are
more numerous.

• Multi-stage flash distillation plants have been built since the late 1950s.
Some MSF plants can contain from 15 to 25 stages, but are usually no larger
than 15 mgd in capacity.

7
 Figure 1.7

Principle :-
• The MSF system consists of three sections:
heat-rejection, heat-recovery and brine heater. The heat-
rejection and heat-recovery consist of a number of flash
chambers (stages) connected to one another.

• This process involves the use of distillation through several

(multi-stage) chambers. In the MSF process, each successive
stage of the plant operates at progressively lower pressures. The
feed water is first heated under high pressure, and is led into the
first ‘flash chamber’, where the pressure is released, causing the
water to boil rapidly resulting in sudden evaporation or ‘flashing’.
This ‘flashing’ of a portion of the feed continues in each
successive stage, because the pressure at each stage is lower
than in the previous stage. The vapor generated by the flashing
8
 is converted into fresh water by being condensed on heat
exchanger tubing that run through each stage. The tubes are
cooled by the incoming cooler feed water. Generally, only a small
percentage of the feed water is converted into vapor and
condensed.

1.2. Multiple-effect distillation (MED)

Multiple-effect distillation is a distillation process often used for

seawater desalination. It consists of multiple stages or "effects". In
each stage the feed water is heated by steam in tubes. Some of the
water evaporates, and this steam flows into the tubes of the next
stage, heating and evaporating more water. Each stage essentially
reuses the energy from the previous stage.
The tubes can be submerged in the feed water, but more typically
the feed water is sprayed on the top of a bank of horizontal tubes,
and then drips from tube to tube until it is collected at the bottom of
the stage.

Figure1.8

9
Principle :-
Multi-effect distillation occurs in a series of vessels (effects) and uses the
principles of evaporation and condensation at reduced ambient pressure. In
MED, a series of evaporator effects produce water at progressively lower
pressures. Water boils at lower temperatures as pressure decreases, so the
water vapor of the first vessel or effect serves as the heating medium for the
second, and so on. The more vessels or effects there are, the higher the
performance ratio. Depending upon the arrangement of the heat exchanger
tubing, MED units could be classified as horizontal tube, vertical tube or
vertically stacked tube bundles.

Figure 1.9

1.3. Vapor-compression desalination ( VC )

• The VC operates mainly at a small scale, on small locations. The main
mechanism is similar to MED except that it is based on compression of the
vapor generated by evaporating water to a higher pressure, Which allows
reuse of the vapor for supplying heat for the evaporating process.

• Vapor compression (VC) units have been built in a variety of configurations.

Usually, a mechanical compressor is used to generate the heat for

10
 evaporation. The VC units are generally small in capacity, and are often
used at hotels, resorts and in industrial applications.
• The compression is mechanically powered by something such as a
compression turbine. As vapor is generated, it is passed over to a heat
exchanging condenser which returns the vapor to water. The resulting fresh
water is moved to storage while the heat removed during condensation is
transmitted to the remaining feedstock.

Figure 1.10

2.Membrane desalination:
2.1.Electrodialysis reversal ( EDR )

• It is an electro dialysis reversal water desalination membrane process that

has been commercially used since the early 1960s. An electric current
migrates dissolved salt ions, including fluorides, nitrates and sulfates,
through an electrodialysis stack consisting of alternating layers of cationic
and anionic ion exchange membranes. Periodically, the direction of ion flow
is reversed by reversing the polarity applied electric current.

• Electrodialysis reversal desalination, commonly abbreviated EDR, is a

water desalination process in which electricity is applied to electrodes to pull
naturally occurring dissolved salts through an ion exchange membrane to
separate the water from the salts. EDR produces two effluent streams: a
low salinity product water and a high salinity concentrate.

11
• In the reversal process, the polarity of the electrodes is switched at fixed
intervals to reduce the formation of scale and subsequent fouling and allow
the EDR to achieve higher water recoveries.

• EDR is used to treat brackish waters with moderate total dissolved solids
(TDS) and waters that have a high scaling potential due to elevated levels
of particular contaminants such as barium (Ba) and strontium (Sr). EDR is
also effective on high silica (SiO2) feedwaters.

Figure 1.11

2.2. Reverse osmosis ( RO )

• Reverse osmosis (RO) water desalination was conceived and laboratory-
demonstrated in the late 1950s. A quantum jump to practicality was made
in 1960 with the discovery of the anisotropic RO membrane which combined
good desalination with adequate permeate flux at a reasonable hydrostatic
pressure. Since then there has been progressive improvement in these
membranes and development of ingenious means for packaging them. As
a result, present day RO plants are compact and simple to operate, and can
take advantage of the fact that in RO there is no phase change required.
Therefore, the required energy input can approach fairly closely to the
thermodynamic minimum free energy of separation, an advantage no other

12
 desalination process can surpass, and usually cannot approach. An
important factor in the commercial success of reverse osmosis desalination
has been the development of pretreatment methods appropriate for the
particular feed brine being used. For all of these reasons reverse osmosis
enjoys a leading position today in the installation of commercial water
desalination.

• Reverse osmosis (RO) is a filtration method that removes many types of

large molecules and ions from solutions by applying pressure to the solution
when it is on one side of a selective membrane. The result is that the solute
is retained on the pressurized side of the membrane and the pure solvent is
allowed to pass to the other side. To be "selective," this membrane should
not allow large molecules or ions through the pores (holes), but should allow
smaller components of the solution (such as the solvent) to pass freely.

Principle :-
• A solution is separated from its solvent by a semipermeable membrane, one
permeable to the solvent but not the solute. The natural permeation from
solvent to solution is called osmosis. If hydrostatic pressure is applied
increasingly on the solution side the permeation rate will decrease
accordingly, stop at a hydrostatic pressure called the osmotic pressure, and
reverse direction at a greater hydrostatic pressure. This is reverse osmosis
(RO). Technical and Economical Relevance of Reverse Osmosis Reverse
osmosis has a number of innate advantages. Because it is all-liquid and
uses hydrostatic pressure as an energy source, RO modules and plants can
be very compact, operation is relatively simple, and modules are readily
replaced. Furthermore, the energy input can be quite low because it can
approach the free energy of separation. These advantages have been
realized by the necessary development of membranes having an
adequately high value of the water permeation constant, A, m3 m –2 d–1
bar, thus combining relatively low hydrostatic pressures with minimization
of required membrane area to obtain the lowest fresh water cost. An
important and necessary factor in RO's success has been the development
of customized pretreatment, suiting feed brines to membranes to increase

13
membrane life. Starting from zero in1968 reverse osmosis now occupies a
dominant position in desalination.

Figure 1.12

Figure 1.13

14
 Energy consumption of seawater desalination methods

Mechanical
Multi-Effect
Multi-stage Vapor Reverse
Desalination Method >> Distillation
Flash MSF Compression Osmosis RO
MED
MVC

Electrical energy (kWh/m3) 4–6 1.5–2.5 7–12 3–5.5

Thermal energy (kWh/m3) 50–110 60–110 None None

Electrical equivalent of
9.5–19.5 5–8.5 None None
thermal energy (kWh/m3)

Total equivalent electrical

13.5–25.5 6.5–11 7–12 3–5.5
energy (kWh/m3)

Table 1.2

15
Advantages and disadvantages of desalination techniques:

Table 1.3

16
Figure 1.14

Figure 1.15

17
Chapter 2
Membrane

18
What is a membrane ?
It is defined essentially as " Barrier which separates 2 phases and restricts
transport of various molecules in a selective manner ".

It is driven by :-
• Pressure
• Concentration
• Temperature
• Electrical Potential Gradients

Membrane can be :-
• Thick & Thin
• Liquid & Solid
• Symmetric & Asymmetric
• Natural & Synthetic
• Neutral & Charged
• Homogeneous & Heterogeneous

History of the membrane :-

• In 1748, Abbe Jean-Antonie Nollet; French physicist separated degassed
alcohol using pig's bladder.
• In 1824, Rene-Joachim-Henri Dutrochet, French physiologist introduced "
Osmosis " Movement of water through a biological membrane.
• 1846 _ Discovery of nitrocellulose ( gave scope to MF ).
• 1855 _ Frick discovered cellulose nitrate membranes.
• 1861, Thomas Graham ( Father Of Modern Dialysis ) : Coined "
Dialysis " – Separated Dissolved substances based on mol.wt., n
concentration.
• 1865, Moritz Traube invented first artificial membrane using copper
ferrocyanide precipitates.
• 1875, Wilhelm Friedrich Philipp Pferrer : Made the membranes to
withstand operational pressures.
• 1906, Bechhold devised a technique to prepare nitrocellulose membranes
of graded pore size.
• 1930's-Micro porous colloidal membranes became commercially available.
• 1950's- Department n significant use of MF technology in the filtration of
drinking water samples at the end of World War 2; Research effort was
sponsored by US army.
• 1959, Samuel yuster made a breakthrough in RO by the invention of Lobe-
sourirajan membrane at UCLA.
19
• By 1960-Elements of modern membrane science had been developed such
as Gas Separation, Membrane Distillation etc.
• In the early 80's-Henis & Tripodi made industrial GS: economically feasible.
• Kober and coworkers developed Pervaporation. Later in 2000's modified for
large scale applications.

Figure 2.1

Four common types of membranes :-

1. Reverse Osmosis
2. Nanofilteration
3. Ultrafiltration
4. Microfiltration

20
Table 2.1

Figure 2.2

21
Figure
22 2.3
 Figure 2.5

Figure 2.4

Working Mechanism :-
Membrane process : The feed stream is divided into two streams:
• Concentrate Stream
• Permeate Stream

Figure 2.5

• Either the concentrate or permeate stream is the product of our interest.

23
Figure 2.

Figure 2.6

24
Membrane Processes :-

1. First generation membrane processes :-

1.1 Microfiltration ( MF )
1.2 Ultrafiltration ( UF )
1.3 Nanofiltration ( NF )
1.4 Hyper filtration ( HF ) / Reverse Osmosis ( RO )
1.5 Electro Dialysis ( ED )

2. Second generation membrane processes :-

2.1 Gas Separation ( GS )
2.2 Pervaporation ( PV )
2.3 Membrane Distillation ( MD )

1.1 Microfiltration ( MF )

• Separates suspended solids and some colloidal materials ( >0.1 μ ) from a

feed stream.

Figure 2.7
• The concentrate requires periodic removal or cleaning to prevent the
eventual plugging of membrane feed passage ways.
• Pore size : ( 0.1 to 10.0 ) microns
• Pressure difference : Approx. : ( 10 to 500 ) KPa

25
1.2 Ultrafiltration ( UF )

• Separates colloidal materials, emulsified oils, micro biological

materials, and large organic molecules.
• Someone dependent on charge of the particle, and is much more
concerned with the size of the particle.
• Pore Size Ranges : ( 10 to 1000 ) A : ( 10^-3 to 0.1 ) microns : most
typical 0.005 μ
• Pressure difference : Approx. ( 0.1 to 1.0 ) MPa
• Typically not effective at separating organic streams.

1.3 Nanofiltration ( NF )

• Used when low molecular weight solutes such as inorganic salts / small
organic molecules ( glucose, sucrose ) have to be separated.
• Uses a membrane that is partially permeable to perform the separation
( like in RO ), but ( NF pores >>> RO pores ).
• Can operate at much lower pressures, and passes some of the
inorganic salts due to larger pore size.
• Pore Size is typically 1 nm
• Pressure difference : ( 10 to 20 ) bars

1.4 Reverse Osmosis ( RO ) ( Hyper filtration )

• Specifically used for the separation of dissolved ions from water (
dissolved solids, bactreia, viruses, salts, proteins, and other germs ).
• Charged ions and other materials greater than or equal to 0.001
• Essentially a pressure driven membrane diffusion process for separating
dissolved solutes.
• Relatively a low energy process.
• Smallest pore structure, ( 5 to 15 ) A : ( 0.5 to 1.5 ) nm
o Allows only the smallest organic molecules and unchanged
solutes to pass through the semi-permeable membrane along
with the water.

• >95-99% of inorganic salts and charged organics will also be rejected by

the membrane due to charge repulsion established at the membrane
surface.

26
1.5 Electro Dialysis ( ED )

• In the ED process a semi-permeable barrier allows passage of either

positively charged ions ( cations ) or negatively charged ions ( anions )
while excluding passage of ions of the opposite charge. These semi-
permeable barriers are commonly known as ion-exchange, ion-selective or
electrodialysis membranes.

Figure 2.8

2.1 Gas Separation ( GS )

• Used for separation of gas mixtures.
• Separation of gases is due to their different solubility n diffusivity in the
polymer membrane.

Rate of permeation :
• Proportional to pressure difference across the membrane, solubility of gas
in the membrane, diffusivity of gas through membrane.
• Inversely proportional to the membrane thickness.
• Driving force : Concentration difference
• Pore Size : <1nm
• Ex : Palladium membranes -Hydrogen separation

27
 Figure 2.9

2.2 Pervaporation ( PV )
• Separation of miscible liquids.
• Liquid is maintained at atmospheric pressure on the feed side of the
membrane, and permeate is removed as a vapor because of a low vapor
pressure existing on the permeate side.
• Differs from all other membrane processes because of the phase change
of the permeate.
• Transport is affected by maintaining a vapor pressure gradient a process
the membrane.
• Membrane used : Zeolite n poly Dimetyl Siloxane.

Three steps sequence :-

• Selective sorption of one of the components of the liquid into the
membrane on the feed side.
• Selective diffusion of this component across the membrane.
• Evaporation, as permeate vapour, into the partial vacuum applied to the
underside of the membrane.

28
 Figure 2.10

2.3 Membrane Distillation ( MD )

• Is a process in which two liquid or solutions at different temperatures are
separated by a porous hydrophobic membrane.
• The liquid / solution must not wet the membrane otherwise the pores will
be filled for capacity force.
• Membrane distillation is a type of low temperature, reduced pressure
distillation due at the use porous hydrophobic membranes.

Membrane technologies
• Reverse Osmosis utilizes the unique properties of a semi-permeable
membrane to allow fluid to pass while restricting the flow of dissolved
ionic material. With pressure applied to impure water on the side of such
membrane materials, pure water will pass through, leaving most of the
impurities behind. The rejection of the dissolved ionic material is a
function of both molecular weight and ionic charge.

• Reverse osmosis membrane separations are, most importantly,

governed by the properties of the membrane used in the process.
These properties depend on the chemical nature of the membrane
material (almost always a polymer) as well as its physical structure.

• Properties for the ideal RO membrane include that it is resistant to

chemical and microbial attack, mechanically and structurally stable over
long operating periods, and have the desired separation characteristics

29
 for each particular system. However, few membranes satisfy all these
criteria and so compromises must be made to select the best RO
membrane available for each application.

• The reverse osmosis process which uses polymeric membranes to

achieve selective mass transport has become the simplest and most
efficient technique to desalt the seawater and brackish water .

• The desalination performance of a RO membrane depends largely on the

membrane material and the membrane structure.

• An industrially useful RO membrane must exhibit several characteristics

such as high water flux, high salt rejection, mechanical stability,
tolerance to temperature variation, resistance to fouling, and low cost.
So far, a number of polymer materials such as cellulose acetates,
polyamides, cross linked poly (furfuryl alcohol) and sulfonated
polyethersulfone have been used to make RO membranes.

Of these, the following two have been the most successful :-

1. Cellulose acetate ( CA ) :-

• It was the first high-performance RO membrane material discovered. A

typical CA membrane exhibits a flux of 0.9 m /day at 425 psi and an
average NaCl rejection of 97.5% from a 2000 mg/L NaCl feed solution.
The main advantage of CA is its low price and hydrophilic nature which
makes it less prone to fouling.

• CA also has a good chlorine resistance up to 5 ppm. Thus, today, CA

membranes still maintain a small fraction of the market. However, an
inherent weakness of CA is that it can be eaten by microorganisms. It
also slowly hydrolyzes over time and is generally not used above 35 o
C , Operating pH of a CA membrane is limited to 4-6.

2. Thin film composite ( TFC ) :-

• aromatic polyamide membrane A more successful, commercially available

RO membrane for desalination , the TFC membranes have dominated the
water desalination market because they show both high flux and very high
salt rejection. A typical membrane exhibits a NaCl rejection of 99.5 % and
a flux of 1.2 m/day for a feed solution of 35,000 mg/L NaCl at 800 psi.

30
 Table 2.2
A typical composite reverse osmosis membrane as commercially produced
today is shown schematically in Figure :

Figure 2.11

• A base layer of a woven or a nonwoven fabric is over coated with a layer

of an anisotropic microporous polymer (usually polysulfone).
• The surface of the microporous support is coated with an ultrathin layer
of a crosslinked aromatic polyamide.
• The porous support provides mechanical strength, whereas the
separation is performed by the thin polyamide top-layer, Operating pH of
a TFC membrane is limited to 2-12 , TFC also has low chorine resistance
, and fair fouling tolerance.

31
 Figure 2.12

membrane manufacturing & coating

Figure 2.13

32
Modules:-
• A module is the simplest membrane element that can be used in practice.
• Module design must deal with the following issues :-
1. Economy of manufacture
2. Minimum waste of energy
3. Membrane integrity against damage and leaks.
4. Easy egress of permeate
5. Permit the membrane to be cleaned

Membrane Modules :-

Figure 2.14

Membrane Modules

• Reverse osmosis membranes for industrial applications are typically

modularized using configurations that pack a large amount of
membrane area into a relatively small volume. This makes the RO
system more economical to use in that the system requires a smaller
footprint, and membranes can be replaced in smaller modules rather
than system wide.

33
There are four basic forms for RO membrane modules :-

1. Plate and frame

2. Tubular
3. Spiral wound
4. Hollow fine fiber

Table 2.3

34
Spiral wound RO membrane element

Figure 2.15

Spiral wound RO membrane mechanism & water tracing

35
 Figure 2.16

• To create our standard spiral round membranes we construct the flat sheet
membranes using automated casting equipment we begin the process with
a fabric support base and then coat it with a micro porous poly cell foam
layer.

• this provides additional support for the top point two micron thick membrane
barrier layer. This top barrier layer makes the actual separation purify the
water the semi permeable polyamide layer consists of a thin film of
polymeric material a few thousand angstroms thick formed on a porous
supporting material.

• The semi permeable membrane skin is formed on the poly cellphone

substrate by interfacial polymerization of monomers containing amine and
carboxylic acid chloride functional groups.

`
Figure 2.17

• A combination of these three layers makes a durable membrane flat that

is used in each spiral wound element. The membrane flat sheet is then
combined with a sheet of feed channel spacer.

36
• This provides turbulence and create space between the membrane sheets
to allow uniform flow of the water to the entire membrane surface.

Figure 2.18
• The leaves of membrane and feed channel spacer and then
combined with a sheet of permeate spacer which provides open
flow channels for the permeate even under high pressure.
• The leaves are glued along each of the three exposed sides and
then rolled around the core tube.

Figure 2.19

37
• With the back of the membrane completely sealed to the edges of the
permeate spacer the feed water is forced through the feed channel spacer
contacting the front or barrier layer of the membrane clean water or
permeate passes through the membrane surface into the permeate
channel.

Figure 2.20
• then flows in a spiral direction to the center of the element and is collected
into the core tube hydronaut expire around elements can then be loaded
into pressure vessels and interconnected with additional elements to
complete any number of design specifications once the end adapter is
connected to the last element and the pressure vessel is sealed.

Figure 2.21

38
• Feed water can be introduced and then treated the feed water that does not
permeate through the membrane becomes enriches in salts as it travels
through the feed channel spacer due to permeate water being removed
typically eight to ten percent of the water is removed in one forty inch long
membrane element.

Figure 2.22

• The permeate water then flows at the end of the vessel and is collected as
the product and the reject and concentrated from that vessel may then flow
through another vessel producing more permeate.

Figure 2.23

39
• The remaining concentrate may then be disposed of as waste or partially
recycled as the feed typically 70 to 90 percent of the water can be recovered
as pure product water.

Figure 2.24

What RO can do?

• Remove purified water from a feed stream (permeate)
• Concentrate chemicals in a feed stream (reject)
• Selectively separate small ions and molecules

What RO cannot do?

• Cannot concentrate to 100%
• Cannot separate to 100%

40
Osmotic pressure – rule of thumb
• Convert TDS to osmotic pressure:
– TDS in ppm divided by 100: osmotic pressure in psi
– TDS in ppm divided by 1400: osmotic pressure in bar

• Examples:

– 100 ppm TDS » 1 psi osmotic pressure (» 0.07 bar)

– 1,000 ppm TDS » 10 psi osmotic pressure (» 0.7 bar)
– 35,000 ppm TDS » 350 psi osmotic pressure (» 25 bar)

Osmotic pressure

For dilute solutions, osmotic pressure is approximated using the Van’t

Hoff equation:

p = f Ci RT

p - osmotic pressure, atm

f - osmotic pressure coefficient
Ci - molar concentrate of the solute, mol/l
R - gas constant
T - absolute temperature ( °K)

Homogenous solution diffusion model

Describes water flux, salt flux and mass-transfer in pressure-driven

membrane systems

41
 Fw = Kw (DP - Dp)

Fw - solvent flux [gallons per square foot per day=gfd]

Kw - solvent mass transfer coefficient [gfd/psi] (A value)
DP - transmembrane pressure differential [psi]
Dp - osmotic pressure differential [psi]

Fs = Ks (DC)
Fs - solute flux [pounds per square foot per day, lbfd]
Ks - solute mass transfer coefficient [gfd] (B value)
DC - transmembrane concentration differential [lb/gal]

Mass balance equations

Qf = Qp + Qc
QfCf = QpCp + QcCc

Qf - feed flow [gal/min]

Qp - permeate flow [gal/min]
Qc - concentrate flow [gal/min]
Cf - feed solute concentration [lb/gal]
Cp - permeate solute concentration [lb/gal]
Cc - concentrate solute concentration [lb/gal]

42
Basic definitions

Simplified RO system

Factors which effect membrane performance

• Feedwater

– Concentration
– Temperature
– Osmotic pressure
– pH

• Operation parameters

– Pressure
– System recovery

• Concentration Polarization

43
Affect of feedwater pressure on flux and salt rejection

Figure 2.25

Pressure Affect

44
Feedwater temperature vs. flux and salt rejection

Figure 2.26

Temperature Affect
Permeate flow
• The higher the temperature the higher the permeate flow
• Why? Lower viscosity makes it easier for the water to permeate through the
membrane barrier
• RULE OF THUMB – for every 1ºC the permeate flow will increase ~ 3%
Salt passage
• Rule of Thumb: salt passage increases 6% for 1ºC increase.
• Increasing temperature increases salt passage more than water passage.
• Generally you will get better rejections at lower temperatures

45
Salt concentration vs. flux and salt rejection

Figure 2.27

Salt concentration affect

• Salt concentration affect on permeate flow
• Higher salt concentration will decrease the permeate flow.
• Why? Because higher osmotic pressure will reduce the NDP.
• Salt concentration affect on salt passage
• Higher salt concentration will increase the salt concentration gradient and
increase
the rate of salt passage.
• Salt concentration affect on permeate quality
• Overall water quality is lower for two reasons, higher rate of salt passage
combined with less permeate water.

46
 Figure 2.28

pH influence on salt rejection

Boundary layer

47
Concentration polarization

Factors affecting membranes solute rejection

Membrane type/condition

• SW30XHR NaCl 99.75%,

• XFRLE NaCl 99.4%
• NF90: NaCl 85-95%

Solute characteristics

• Charge
• Polarity and/or Degree of Dissociation
• Degree of Hydration
• Molecular weight and Degree of Branching

48
RO membrane problems :

Figure 2.29

scaling
Scaling Scaling of RO membranes is a result of precipitation of saturated salts
onto the surface of the membrane.

Figure 2.30

49
Fouling
Membrane fouling is a result of deposition of suspended solids, organics, or
microbes on the surface of the membrane, typically on the feed /concentrates
side.

Figure 2.31

50
over pressure effect on membrane ( mechanical damage ) :
Part of the pretreatment scheme should be pre and post RO system pl
umbing and controls. If ‘hard starts’ occur mechanical damage to the
membranes can occur. Likewise, if there is too much backpressure on
the RO system then mechanical damage to the RO membranes can al
so occur. These can be addressed by using variable frequency drive
motors to start high pressure pumps for RO systems and by installing
check valve(s) and/or pressure relief valves to prevent excessive back
pressure on the RO unit that can cause permanent membrane damage
.

Figure 2.32

Chemical Attack
Modern thin film composite membranes are not tolerant to chlorine or
chloramines. Oxidizers such as chlorine will ‘burn’ holes in the membra
ne pores and can cause irreparable damage. The result of chemical at
tack on an RO membrane is a higher permeate flow and a higher salt
passage (poorer quality permeate water). This is why microorganism gr
owth on RO membranes tends to foul RO membranes so easily since
there is no biocide to prevent its growth.

51
Chapter 3
Pretreatment

52
 Reverse Osmosis Pretreatment
Since the design of an RO system is quite standardized, we find few
differences at the end of the day between two different approaches for the
design of the same RO System for an specific project.

We can say that apart than being more or less aggressive on setting the
Design Flux of the system, other variations are almost negligible between one
design and another at equality conditions for other important characteristics
as, for example, the Energy Recovery System.

Therefore, with the exception of some projects with special characteristics, we

can say that the core of a smart design for a RO Plant in order to ensure its
proper operation regarding quantity and quality of the Treated Water is the
Selection and Design of the Pretreatment.

The performance and successful operation of an RO system depends directly

on the quality of water feeding the RO. The nature of feed water constituents
can influence membrane performance by causing scaling, fouling, or
degradation of the membrane.

Main Factors for Pretreatment Selection:

The proper Selection and Design of the Pretreatment must take into
consideration not only the Pretreatment itself but also the whole RO Plant to
ensure a continuous operation and production of a Treated Water
downstream the RO system complying with the required Quantity and Quality.

As a way of example, if we have a Pretreatment composed by a set of

Pressurized Dual Media Filters (DMF) with an inappropriate design, means
that the outlet water from these filters will have a SDI, Turbidity, Colloidal
Matter and TSS higher than the calculated in the design of this Pretreatment.

Therefore, the RO membranes will suffer a fouling process much faster than
predicted in the Design Calculations.

Therefore the Number of Backwash Cleanings for the DMFs will increase, the
Number of Cleanings of the RO Membranes will increase and the Operating
Life of the RO membranes will decrease, that means a lower time of operation
in continuous than the predicted in the Design of the RO System.

Therefore, in this case, an incorrect Design of the Pretreatment brings

associated an increase in the OPEX of the RO System and a decrease of the

53
time of operation in continuous of the whole plant and therefore a decrease in
the flowrate production of Treated Water.

As we can see, the Selection and Design of the Pretreatment affects not only
to the Pretreatment, but also to the whole RO Plant OPEX.

Water Characteristics:-
1-TDS:-
Total dissolved solids (TDS) is found to be in a wide range of levels in drinking
water.The TDS level of a drinking water supply should be less than 500 mg/L
however, high level of TDS from dissolved ions is not usually considered
dangerous or harmful, and at worst results in water being “hard” (hard to
make soap suds),or gives it a slightly bitter or salty taste.

*And can be mesured by TDS meter

A TDS meter is basically a electrical charge (EC) meter whereby two

electrodes equally spaced apart are inserted into water, and used to measure
charge. The result is interpreted by the TDS meter and converted into a ppm
figure.

Figure

Table 3.1

2-Turbidity:-
Turbidity is a measurement of the cloudiness (or lack of clarity) of water. The
standard for turbidity of drinking water is a value of less than 5 Nephelometric
Turbidity Units (NTU). Water with readings in this range will appear to be
54
clear. To reach low levels of turbidity during water treatment, it is sometimes
necessary to remove particles or suspended particulates by filtration,
screening, or flocculation.

Figure 3.1

3-pH:-
pH is a measurement of how acidic or basic a water sample is. The pH scale
ranges from 0 to 14. Drinking water with a pH greater than 7 is basic, and with
a pH less than 7 is acidic. It is quite common for drinking water to be slightly
basic (between 7 and 8.5), due to the presence of hard-water minerals. the
drinking water is recommended to be in the pH range of 6.5-8.5. Because
slightly acidic water can cause metal pipes to corrode, if drinking water has a
pH less than 7, communities will sometimes adjust that PH to a value that is
greater than 7.

Figure 3.2

4-SDI (Silt Density Index):-

Suspended solids and colloidal materials in feed water are one of the biggest
problems in reverse osmosis systems. Even though most systems have some
pretreatment including 5 micron prefilters, these fine particles are responsible
for fouling of reverse osmosis membranes.

55
In order to have some measure of the degree of this fouling problem, a
concept called Silt Density Index is used. Here a 0.45 micron filter is exposed
to the feed water under pressure and filtration rates are calculated.

An SDI of less than 5 is considered acceptable for the reverse osmosis

systems. This means that at values of SDI of less than 5, the membranes
should foul at a very low rate. Even though the concept works most of the
time, there are exceptions when a lower SDI (less than 3) is desirable due to
the nature of the suspended solids in that feed water.

Figure 3.3

SDI of <5: No prefiltration is necessary.

SDI of 5-10: A media (sand-type) filter is required.

SDI of >10: A 2-stage media filtration is necessary - possibly with the aid
of coagulants or settling tanks.

5-Water Hardness:-

• The simple definition of water hardness is the amount of dissolved calcium

and magnesium in the water. Hard water is high in dissolved minerals,
both calcium and magnesium.
• Hardness can cause scaling of the membrane, which over time will defeat
the whole purpose.
• It will reduce the output of the membrane itself and it will reduce the quality
of water that the membrane is putting out. Essentially, it slowly kills the
membrane.

56
 Figure 3.4

The proper selection of the Pretreatment depends on the following

factors:-

1-Source of Raw Water.

2-Specific Composition of Raw Water.

3-Final Application of the Treated Water.

*The main targets of a proper Pretreatment are:

1. Maximize Efficiency of the RO System.

2. Maximize Operating Life of the RO Membranes.

These two main targets are achieved by:

1-Minimizing:-
1-Fouling

2-Scaling

3-Membrane Degradation

2-Optimizing:-
1-Product Flow.

2-Product Quality (Salt Rejection).

3-Product Recovery (Product Quantity).

4-Operating & Maintenance Costs.

57
• Appropriate pretreatment techniques for a given RO application needs to
be selected based on the quality of the influent water to be treated by RO.
Some water, such as well water with low concentrations of iron and
manganese, may require very little, if any, pretreatment, while other water,
such as river or lake water, may require extensive pretreatment using
sequenced techniques and technologies. Obtaining historical influent
water quality data as well as pilot testing of proposed pretreatment unit
operations are both good practice in designing and optimizing the
pretreatment system.

Pretreatment Techniques

Coagulation & Flocculation

For raw waters containing high concentrations of suspended matter resulting
in a high SDI, the classic coagulation-flocculation process is preferred. The
hydroxide flocs are allowed to grow and settle in specifically designed reaction
chambers. The hydroxide sludge is removed, and the supernatant water is
further treated by media filtration.

Type of coagulants
1-Aluminum salts (alum).
2-Ferric and ferrous salts.
3-Lime.
4-Polymers.

Figure 3.5

58
Cartridge filters
Cartridge filters are simple, modular filters that are inserted into a housing and can be
used to remove particles, or sometime chemicals, from the water. Cartridge filters
can be composed of a number for materials. Some may be made from wound
strands of a material such as polypropylene.

Carbon Filters Activated

carbon filters are used to reduce the concentration of organics in RO feed
water. These filters are also used to remove oxidants such as free chlorine
from RO feed water.

Activated carbon is derived from natural materials such as bituminous coal,

lignite, wood, fruit pits, bones, and coconut shells, to name a few.

Chlorine and other oxidants are removed using activated carbon by an

oxidation/reduction reaction. Chlorine oxidizes the carbon while the chlorine is
being reduced. Chlorine ends up forming hydrochloric acid.

Figure 3.6

Melt blown

The term 'Melt blown' means the filter has been manufactured using a computer
controlled process where fibres are collected in a graded pore structure about a
moulded core.

*used for For Suspended solids removal.

59
 Figure 3.7

Multimedia Pressure Filters

Multimedia pressure filters are designed to reduce turbidity and colloids
(measured as SDI) in water. These filters can remove particles down to about
10 microns in size. If a coagulant is added to the fil- ter influent stream,
reduction of particles down to 1-2 microns can sometimes be accomplished.

Figure 3.8
Particles are subsequently removed through the filter using physical
entrapment. Larger particles are removed on top through the anthracite, while
smaller particles are subsequently removed through the sand and garnet.

Iron Filters
Many well waters contain soluble iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfide that
oxidize in the presence of oxygen or chlorine to form insoluble hydroxides and
elemental sulfur, all of which foul RO membranes.
60
Manganese Greensand Filters
Manganese greensand requires the use of oxidizers to aid in the oxidation
and removal of iron, manganese, and hydrogen sulfite. Iron can be removed
with the use of chlorine as the oxidizer. Manganese removal via manganese
greensand requires the use of potassium permanganate to adequately oxidize
the metal.

Figure 3.9

Sodium Softeners
Sodium softeners are used to treated RO influent water to remove soluble
hardness (calcium, magnesium, barium, and strontium) that can form scale on
RO membranes. Once known as sodium zeolite softeners, zeolites have been
replaced with synthetic plastic resin beads. For sodium softeners, these resin
beads are strongly acidic cation (SAC) polystyrene resin in the sodium form.
The active group is benzene sulfonic acid, in the sodium, not free acid, form.
Figure 8.12 shows styrene-divinylbenzene gel cation resin.

Figure 3.10

61
Ultraviolet Irradiation
Ultraviolet (UV) irradiation is used to destroy bacteria and reduce organic
compounds (measured as TOC) as well as destruction of chlorine and
chloramines. This technique involves passing water over a UV lamp that is
operating at a specific wavelength of energy.

Figure 3.11

A significant advantage of UV over use of chemical oxidizers for microbial

control is that no trihalomethane (THM) compounds are generated.
Additionally, the need to store and feed a hazardous chemical oxidizer is
avoided.
For UV to be effective, certain water conditions must be met. The water must
be free of suspended solids, which can foul quartz sleeves, thereby reducing
the amount of radiation reaching the water.

Chlorination
is commonly used to kill microbes in pretreatment prior to RO and to break up
organics that may foul RO membranes. It is used rather than other halogens
because of its higher OW. Chlorine is available in many forms, such as
chlorine gas, sodium hypochlo- rite (bleach), chloramines, and chlorine
dioxide. Chlorine gas and sodium hypochlorite each react with water to form
hypochlorous acid, as shown in Equations 8.5 and 8.6, respectively.

62
Dechlorination
Dechlorination of feed water to polyamide composite membranes is
necessary as a polyamide membrane polymer cannot tolerate oxi- dizers of
any kind. The options for dechlorination include activated carbon, sodium
metabisulfite chemical feed, and UV radiation. Carbon has its own set of
difficulties, as described previously, and UV radiation can be capital intensive.
Sodium metabisulfite is the most commonly used technique to dechlorinate
RO influent. In water, the sodium metabisulfite forms sodium bisulfite.

Ozone
Ozone is a very powerful disinfectant. Its ORP is greater than that of chlorine.
Although ozone can be generated in a number of different fash- ions, the most
economical method is by dielectric barrier discharge.'O This method involves
the passing of a high-voltage, alternating cur- rent (6 to 20kV) through either
air or pure oxygen.

When added to water, ozone quickly converts to oxygen, leav- ing behind no
residual ozone. This makes it difficult for ozone to provide residual disinfection
of RO feed water. Although no triha- lomethanes are produced when using
ozone, side reactions have been known to form carcinogenetic compounds
such as aldehydes and phthalate.

Antiscalants
Sequestering agents (also known as scale inhibitors or antiscalants) are used
to minimize the potential for forming scale on the surface of an RO membrane

There are three methods of scale control commonly employed:-

1)Acidification:-
Acidification: acid addiction destroys carbonate ions, removing one of the
reactants necessary for calcium carbonate precipitation. This is very effective
63
in preventing the precipitation of calcium carbonate, but ineffective in
preventing other types of scale. Additional disadvantages include the
corrosivity of the acid, the cost of tanks and monitoring equipment and the fact
that acid lowers the pH of the RO permeate.

2)Ion exchange softening:-

this method utilizes the sodium which is exchanged for magnesium and
calcium ions that are concentrated in the RO feed water, following the
chemical equations:

Ca2+ + 2NaZ => 2Na+ + CaZ2

Mg2+ + 2NaZ => 2Na+ + MgZ2

(NaZ represents the sodium exchange resin).
When all the sodium ions have been replaces by calcium and magnesium, the
resin must be regenerated with a brine solution. Ion exchange softening
eliminates the need for continuous feed of either acid or antiscalant.

3)Antiscalant addiction:-
They are surface active materials that interfere with precipitation reactions in
three primary ways:

Threshold inhibition: it is the ability of an antisclant to keep supersaturated

solutions of springly soluble salts.

Crystal modification: it is the property of an antiscalants to distort crystal

shapes, resulting in soft non adherent scale. As a crystal begin to form at the
submicroscopic level, negative groups located on the antiscalant molecule
attack the positive charges on scale nuclei interrupting the electronic balance
necessary to propagate the crystal growth. When treated with crystal
modifiers, scale crystals appear distorted, generally more oval in shape, and
less compact.

Dispersion: dispersancy is the ability of some antiscalants to adsorb on

crystals or colloidal particles and impart a high anionic charge, which tends to
keep the crystals separated. The high anionic charge also separates particles
from fixed anionic charges present on the membrane surface.

Membrane
Membrane pretreatment includes microfiltration (MF), ultrafiltra- tion (UF), and
nanofiltration (NF). Microfiltration and UF membrane processes can remove
microbes and algae. However, the pores of MF and UF membranes are too
large to remove the smaller, low- molecular weight organics that provide
nutrients for microbes. As a result, MF and UF can remove microbes in the
source water, but any microbes that are introduced downstream of these
membranes will have nutrients to metabolize. Therefore, chlorination along
with MF and UF is often recommended to minimize the potential for microbial
64
fouling of RO membranes. The MF or UF membranes used should be chlorine
resistant to tolerate chlorine treatment. It is suggested that chlorine be fed
prior to the MF or UF membrane and then after the membrane (into the
clearwell), with dechlorination just prior to the RO membranes.

Micro filtration
1-Remove particles in range 0.1 to 1 micron

2-Remove SS , large colloid , Bacteria

3-Low exit turbidity

4-0.7 bar (Applied pressure )

Ultra Filtration
1-Remove particles in range 2 Nano to 0.1 Micron

2-colloid , Bacteria , Proteins , microbiological contaminants

3-Remove biological fouling

4-1-7 bar (Applied pressure )

Nano Filtration
1-Remove particles in range 1 Nano

2-Calcium , Sodium , magnesium , color , TOC

3-Softening , surface water , waste water

4-3.5-16 bar (Applied pressure )

65
 Figure 3.12

Sample reverse osmosis and pretreatment process

flow diagram

Figure 3.13

66
 Post Treatment
Water from a desalination process is typically void of dissolved solids resulting
in finish water with low hardness , low alkalinity and high amount of dissolved
gases.

As a result, desalinated watear without posttreatment is corrosive toward the

metal and concrete surfaces of pipelines

The aims of the post treatment:

• Remove corrosion effect of water

• Make sure that the water permeate matching the specifications and
standards required, such as pH

FIRST Method:
with water after RO:

1- to improve their acceptability and particularly

2- to reduce their aggressive attack on materials, the major ions added are
sodium and chloride.

67
 • Post treatment technologies vary upon final application:
Which:)sodium adsorption ratio)

Drinking water Irrigation water Process water

Sodium
< 450 mg/L minimized
chloride SAR optimization

Calcium,
Hardness 6-10oD minimized
Magnesium

pH 6.5-8.5

1- PH adjustment Reverse Osmosis (RO)

• Systems can lower the pH of Process Water by (1 - 2 )points, creating
slightly acidic
• water so that can pose a risk to piping and equipment of (RO) unit . The
Adjustment of pH as Pre/post treatment and that depend on the applicable
conditions

2- Degasification or Decarbonation
• Degasification is the removal of dissolved gases from liquids,
• The purpose of the post treatment decarbonation is to remove dissolved
carbon dioxide in the reverse osmosis (RO) permeate water in order to
increase the pH value.

3- Ultra violet (UV)

• Ultraviolet radiation (254 nm) Uses in pre/post treatment to disinfect water
that occur when UV rays penetrate the cells of harmful bacteria and viruses
in our drinking water, destroying their ability to reproduce, and same any
system UV has Advantages and Disadvantages of using .

68
Chapter 4
Solar Energy

69
 Introducing Solar Energy

Figure 4.1

• Solar energy is radiant light and heat from the Sun that is harnessed using
a range of ever-evolving technologies such as solar heating,
photovoltaics, solar thermal energy, solar architecture, molten salt power
plants and artificial photosynthesis.
• Directly or indirectly, our sun provides all the power we need to exist and
supports all life forms. The sun drives our climate and our weather.
Without it, our world would be a frozen wasteland of ice covered rock.
• Solar electricity is a wonderful concept. Taking power from the sun and
using it to power electrical equipment is a terrific idea. There are no
ongoing electricity bills, no reliance on a power socket: a free and
everlasting source of energy that does not harm the planet!
• It is an important source of renewable energy and its technologies are
broadly characterized as either passive solar or active solar depending
on how they capture and distribute solar energy or convert it into solar
power. Active solar techniques include the use of photovoltaic systems,
concentrated solar power and solar water heating to harness the energy.
Passive solar techniques include orienting a building to the Sun,
selecting materials with favorable

70
 thermal mass or light dispersing properties, and designing spaces that
naturally circulate air.

• The large magnitude of solar energy available makes it a highly appealing

source of electricity. The United Nations Development Program in its 2000
World Energy Assessment found that the annual potential of solar energy
was 1,575–49,837 exajoules (EJ). This is several times larger than the total
world energy consumption, which was 559.8 EJ in 2012.
• In 2011, the International Energy Agency said that "the development of
affordable, inexhaustible and clean solar energy technologies will have
huge longer-term benefits. It will increase countries’ energy security
through reliance on an indigenous, inexhaustible and mostly import-
independent resource, enhance sustainability, reduce pollution, lower the
costs of mitigating global warming, and keep fossil fuel prices lower than
otherwise. These advantages are global. Hence the additional costs of the
incentives for early deployment should be considered learning
investments; they must be wisely spent and need to be widely shared".

The source of solar power:-

• Deep in the center of the sun, intense nuclear activity generates huge
amounts of radiation. In turn, this radiation generates light energy called
photons. These photons have no physical mass of their own, but carry
huge amounts of energy and momentum. Different photons carry different
wavelengths of light. Some photons will carry nonvisible light (infrared and
ultra-violet), whilst others will carry visible light (white light).
• Over time, these photons push out from the center of the sun. It can take
one million years for a photon to push out to the surface from the core. Once
they reach the sun’s surface, these photons rush through space at a speed
of 670 million miles per hour. They reach Earth in around eight minutes. On
their journey from the sun to earth, photons can collide with and be deflected
by other particles and are destroyed on contact with anything that can
absorb radiation, generating heat.
• Our atmosphere absorbs many of these photons before they reach the
surface of the earth. That is one of the two reasons that the sun feels so
much hotter in the middle of the day. The sun is overhead and the photons
have to travel through a thinner layer of atmosphere to reach us, compared
to the end of the day when the sun is setting and the photons have to travel
through a much thicker layer of the atmosphere.
• This is also one of the two reasons why a sunny day in winter is so much
colder than a sunny day in summer. In winter, when your location on the
earth is tilted away from the sun, the photons have to travel through a much
thicker layer of atmosphere to reach us.

71
The principles of solar electricity:-
• Solar electricity refers to generating electrical power using photovoltaic
solar panels. A solar panel generates electricity using the photovoltaic
effect, a phenomenon discovered in the early 19th century when
scientists observed that certain materials produced an electric current
when exposed to light.
• Two layers of a semi-conducting material are combined to create this effect.
One layer has to have a depleted number of electrons. When exposed to
sunlight, the layers of material absorb the photons. This excites the
electrons, causing some of them to ‘jump’ from one layer to the other,
generating an electrical charge.
• The semi-conducting material used to build a solar cell is silicon, cut into
very thin wafers.
• The wafers are then aligned together to make a solar cell.
• Conductive metal strips attached to the cells take the electrical current.
When a photon hit the solar cell, it can do one of three things: it can be
absorbed by the cell, reflected off the cell or pass straight through the cell.
• It is when a photon is absorbed by the silicon that an electrical current is
generated. The more photons (i.e. the greater intensity of light) that are
absorbed by the solar cell, the greater the current generated.
• Individual solar cells typically only generate tiny amounts of electrical
energy. To make useful amounts of electricity, these cells are connected
together to make a solar module, otherwise known as a solar panel or, to
be more precise, a photovoltaic module.

Why choose a solar electric system?

There are a number of reasons to consider installing a solar electric system:

• Where there is no other source of electrical power available, or where the

cost of installing conventional electrical power is too high
• Where other sources of electrical power are not reliable. For example, when
power cuts are an issue and a solar system can act as a cost-effective
contingency
• When a solar electric system is the most convenient and safest option. For
example, installing low voltage solar lighting in a garden or providing
courtesy lighting in a remote location
• You can become entirely self-sufficient with your own electrical power
• Once installed, solar power provides virtually free power without damaging
the environment

72
Cost-justifying solar
Calculating the true cost of installing a solar electric system depends on
various factors:

• The power of the sun at your location at different times of the year
• How much energy you need to generate
• How good your site is for capturing sunlight
• Compared to other power sources, solar electric systems typically have a
comparatively high capital cost, but a low ongoing maintenance cost.
• To create a comparison with alternative power sources, you will often need
to calculate a payback of costs over a period of a few years in order to
justify the initial cost of a solar electric system.
• On all but the simplest of installations, you will need to carry out a survey
on your site and carry out some of the design work before you can
ascertain the total cost of installing a photovoltaic system.

In conclusion :-

• Solar electricity can be a great source of power where your power

requirements are modest, there is no other source of electricity easily
available and you have a good amount of sunshine.

• Solar panels absorb photons from sunlight to generate electricity.

• Direct sunlight generates the most electricity. Dull still, generate some
power.

• Solar electricity is unlikely to generate enough electricity to power the

average family home, unless major on buildings or mounted on the ground
if economies in the household power requirements are made first.
• Larger solar electric systems have a comparatively high capital cost, but
the ongoing maintenance costs are very low.
• Smaller solar electric system can actually be extremely cost-effective to buy
and install, even when compared to a conventional electricity supply.
• It can be much cheaper using solar electricity at a remote building, rather
than connecting it to a conventional grid electricity supply.

• Stand-alone solar energy systems can have a big environmental benefit

if they negate the need for a connection to grid power.
• Grid-tie solar energy systems have an environmental benefit in sunny
climates where typical electricity usage patterns are similar to the supply of
sunlight.
• In colder regions, where electricity usage is highest when sunlight is in short
supply, the environmental benefits are less certain.

73
Types of Solar PV System :-
• Solar PV systems can be classified based on the end-use application
of the technology.
• There are two main types of solar PV systems: grid-connected (or grid-
tied) and off-grid (or stand-alone) solar PV systems.

Grid-connected solar PV systems :-

The main application of solar PV in Singapore is grid-connected, as Singapore’s
main island is well covered by the national power grid. Most solar PV systems
are installed on buildings or mounted on the ground if the land is not a
constraint. For buildings, they are either mounted on the roof or integrated into
the building. The latter is also known as Building Integrated Photovoltaics
(“BIPV”). With BIPV, the PV module usually displaces another building
component, e.g. window glass or roof/wall cladding, thereby serving a dual

purpose and offsetting some costs.

Grid-connected solar PV system configuration

Figure 4.2

• A building has two parallel power supplies, one from the solar PV system
and the other from the power grid. The combined power supply feeds all the
loads connected to the main ACDB. The ratio of solar PV supply to power
grid supply varies, depending on the size of the solar PV system.

• Whenever the solar PV supply exceeds the building’s demand, excess

electricity will be exported to the grid. When there is no sunlight to generate
PV electricity at night, the power grid will supply all of the building’s demand.

74
• A grid-connected system can be an effective way to reduce your
dependence on utility power, increase renewable energy production and
improve the environment.

Off-grid solar PV systems :-

• Off-grid solar PV systems are applicable for areas without the power grid.
Currently, such solar PV systems are usually installed at isolated sites
where the power grid is far away, such as rural areas or off-shore islands.
But they may also be installed within the city in situations where it is
inconvenient or too costly to tap electricity from the power grid.
• For example, in Singapore, several URA parking sign lights are powered by
off-grid solar PV systems.
• An off-grid solar PV system needs deep cycle rechargeable batteries such
as lead-acid, nickel-cadmium or lithium-ion batteries to store electricity for
use under conditions where there is little or no output from the solar PV
system, such as during the night, as shown in Figure below.

Off-grid solar PV system configuration

Figure 4.3

75
Solar PV Technology:-

• This section gives a brief description of the solar PV technology and the
common technical terms used.

• A solar PV system is powered by many crystalline or thin film PV modules.

Individual PV cells are interconnected to form a PV module. This takes the
form of a panel for easy installation.

Mono-and Poly-Crystalline Silicon PV Cell

Figure 4.4

• PV cells are made of light-sensitive semiconductor materials that use

photons to dislodge electrons to drive an electric current. There are two
broad categories of technology used for PV cells, namely, crystalline silicon,
as shown in Figure 4 which accounts for the majority of PV cell production;
and thin film, which is newer and growing in popularity.

• The “family tree” in Figure below gives an overview of these technologies

available today and Next Figure illustrates some of these technologies.

76
 PV technology family tree

Figure 4.5

Common PV module technologies

Figure 4.6

77
Crystalline Silicon and Thin Film Technologies :-

• Crystalline cells are made from ultra-pure silicon raw material such as those
used in semiconductor chips. They use silicon wafers that are typically
150-200 microns (onefifth of a millimeter) thick.
• Thin film is made by depositing layers of semiconductor material barely 0.3
to 2 micrometers thick onto glass or stainless-steel substrates. As the
semiconductor layers are so thin, the costs of raw material are much lower
than the capital equipment and processing costs.

Conversion Efficiency

Technology Module efficiency

Mono-crystalline Silicon 12.5-15%

Poly-crystalline Silicon 11-14%

Copper Indium Gallium Selenide (CIGS) 10-13%

Cadmium Telluride (CdTe) 9-12%

Amorphous Silicon (a-Si) 5-7%

Conversion efficiencies of various PV module technologies

Table 4.1

• Apart from aesthetic differences, the most obvious difference amongst PV

cell technologies are in its conversion efficiency, as summarized in Table
3.1

• For example, a thin film amorphous silicon PV array will need close to
twice the space of a crystalline silicon PV array because its module
efficiency is halved, for the same nominal capacity under Standard Test
Conditions (STC) rating.

78
 Types of Solar Cell

What Types of Solar Cells Are There?

Solar cells are more complex than many people think, and it is not common
knowledge that there are various different types of cell. When we take a closer
look at the different types of solar cell available, it makes things simpler, both
in terms of understanding them and also choosing the one that suits you best.

The available types :-

• Crystalline silicon cells
• Monocrystalline cells
• Polycrystalline cells
• Thin film solar cells

• Presently, around 90% of the world’s photo voltaics are based on some
variation of silicon, and around the same percentage of the domestic solar
panel, systems use the crystalline silicon cells. Crystalline silicon cells also
form the basis for mono and polycrystalline cells.
• The silicon that is in solar cells can take many different forms. However, the
thing that matters most is the purity of the silicon. This is because it directly
affects its efficiency. What purity means, in this case, is the way in which the
silicon molecules have been aligned. The better the alignment, the purer the
resulting silicon is. This, ultimately, leads to better conversion rates of
sunlight into electricity.
• As previously mentioned, the levels of efficiency work alongside the purity
of the silicon molecules – and purity can be quite a costly aspect to upgrade.
However, it may come as a surprise to learn that efficiency is not the driving
force for people who want to invest in solar energy. The cost and the amount
of space it takes up tend to be the most important aspects to potential
buyers.

Monocrystalline solar cells

Monocrystalline solar cells are made from single crystalline silicon. They are
very distinctive in their appearance as they are often colored, and the cells
hold a cylindrical shape. In order to keep the costs low and performance at
optimal levels, manufacturers cut out the four sides of the monocrystalline
cells. This gives them their recognizable appearance.

79
 Monocrystalline Cells

Figure 4.7

Advantages:-

• They have the highest level of efficiency at 15-20%

• They require less space compared to other types due to their high
efficiency
• Manufacturers state that this form of solar cell lasts the longest, with most
giving them a 25-year warranty
• They perform better in low levels of sunlight, making them ideal for cloudy
areas

Disadvantages:-

• They are the most expensive solar cells on the market, and so not in
everyone’s price range
• The performance levels tend to suffer from an increase in temperature.
However, it is a small loss when compared to other forms of solar cell
• There is a lot of waste material when the silicon is cut during manufacture

80
Polycrystalline Solar Cells:-

The polycrystalline solar panels were first introduced to the public in 1981.
Unlike the monocrystalline cells, polycrystalline ones do not require each of
the four sides to be cut. Instead, the silicon is melted and poured into square
modules. These then form perfectly shaped square cells.

Polycrystalline Cells
Figure 4.8

Advantages:-
• The manufacturing process is cheaper and easier than the
monocrystalline.
• It avoids silicon waste.
• High temperatures have less negative effects on efficiency compared with
monocrystalline cells. This makes the polycrystalline cells more attractive
to people in warmer areas as the price is lower.

Disadvantages:-

• Efficiency is only around 13-16% due to low levels of silicon purity. So they
are not the most efficient on the market.
• They have lower output rates which make them less space efficient. So
more roof space is needed for installation.

81
Thin Film Solar Cells:-

Thin film solar cells are manufactured by placing several thin layers of
photovoltaic on top of each other to creates the module. There are actually a
few different types of thin film solar cell, and the way in which they differ from
each other comes down to the material used for the PV layers.

Thin Film Cells

Figure 4.9

The types are as follows:-

• Amorphous silicon
• Cadmium telluride
• Copper indium gallium selenide
• Organic PV cells

Depending on the technology that has been used, the efficiency rates for thin
film solar cells tends to vary from 7% to 13%. Since 2002, the knowledge
levels and popularity for thin film solar cells has risen dramatically, which also
means that research and development have been increased. Due to this, we
can expect future models to hold efficiency rates of 10-16%.

82
Advantages:-

• They can be manufactured to be flexible, making them widely applicable to

a range of situations and building types
• Mass production is easy to achieve, making them potentially cheaper to
produce than crystalline solar cells
• Shading has a similar effect on their efficiency

Disadvantages:-
• They are not ideal for domestic use as thy take up a lot of space
• Low space efficiency means that they will cause further expenses in the
form of enhancers, like cables of support structures
• They have a shorter lifespan and so shorter warranty periods.

Finding Your Ideal Solar Cell Type:-

• Having now presented each type of the most commonly found forms of the
solar cell, including their various strengths and weaknesses, the decision
process can be made a lot easier. Of course, you need to take several
factors into consideration. Things like the cost, the amount of space required
for installation, and the efficiency rates to name a few.
• Monocrystalline cells are arguably the best option. This is because they
have the highest output rates and require a lot less space. However, it is
important to remember that in many cases you may not need
monocrystalline cells.
• The best thing to do is to get advice from the supplier and talk through the
option with them. They can help you and give you the best solution for your
situation.

How does this affect me?

The type of solar panel array you can install will depend on the size of your
property, the angle of your roof and the direction it points in, as well as the
affordability of the core solar panel materials

83
The Design Process:-

No matter what your solar energy system is for, there are seven steps in the
design of every successful solar electric installation:

• Scope the project

• Calculate the amount of energy you need
• Calculate the amount of solar energy available
• Survey your site
• Size up the solar electric system
• Select the right components and work out full costs
• Produce the detailed design
The design process can be made more complicated, or simplified, based on
the size of the project.

• This ensures that you will always get the best from your system

• If you are designing a grid-tie system, it can be interesting to compare the

supply of solar energy with your electricity usage pattern.
• By comparing supply with demand, you can see how closely solar energy
production matches your own usage and this, in turn, can be used as an
indicator to identify how environmentally beneficial solar energy is for you.

• Batteries do not return 100% of the energy used to charge them. The
Charge Cycle Efficiency of the battery measures the percentage of energy
available from the battery compared to the amount of energy used to charge
it.

Charge cycle efficiency :-

It is not a fixed figure, as the efficiency can vary depending on how quickly
you charge and discharge the battery.
Approximate charge cycle efficiency figures are normally available from the
battery manufacturers. However, for industrial quality ‘traction’ batteries, you
can assume 95% efficiency, whilst gel batteries and leisure batteries are
usually in the region of 90%.

84
Positioning batteries, controllers and inverters:-

It’s required to identify a suitable location for batteries. This could be a room
within a building, in a garage or in a weatherproof battery housing.
It is important to try to keep all the hardware close together, in order to keep
the cable lengths as short as possible. By ‘hardware’, I am referring to the
solar array itself, batteries, controller and inverter.
For the batteries, inverter and controller, you are looking for a location that fits
the following criteria:

• Water- and weather proof

• Not affected by direct sunlight
• Insulated to protect against extremes of temperature
• Facilities to ventilate gases from the batteries
• Protected from sources of ignition
• Away from children, pets and rodents

Lead acid batteries give off very small quantities of hydrogen when charging.
Hydrogen is explosive.

• You must ensure that, wherever your batteries are stored, the area
receives adequate external ventilation to ensure these gases cannot build
up.

• Because of the extremely high potential currents involved with lead acid
batteries, the batteries must be in a secure area away from children and
pets.

• Controllers and inverters need to be mounted as close to the batteries as

possible.

The Inverter:
• The electricity generated by a solar electric system is direct current (DC).
Electricity from the grid is high-voltage alternating current (AC).

• If you are planning to run equipment that runs from grid-voltage electricity
from your solar electric system, you will need an inverter to convert the
current from DC to AC and convert the voltage to the same voltage as you
get from the grid.

85
• A more recent invention has been the micro inverter.

• Micro-inverters are connected to individual solar panels so that each

individual panel provides a high-voltage alternating current.

• Solar panels with micro-inverters are typically only used with grid-tie
systems and are not suitable for systems with battery backup. For grid-tie
systems, they do offer some significant benefits over the more traditional
‘big box’ inverter, although the up-front cost is currently higher.

• The inverter is protected against overload and short-circuit. A power stage

with the

• A load detection system serves to provide the smallest energy consumption

and ensures a long life for the battery.

• If there is an inverter in the system, we will need to factor in the inefficiencies

of the inverter. The actual figures should be available from the manufacturer
but typically, you will find that an inverter is around 90% efficient.

Charge Controller:

• If you are using batteries, your solar electric system is going to require a
controller in order to manage the flow of electricity (the current) into and out
of the battery.

• If your system overcharges the batteries, this will damage and eventually
destroy them. Likewise, if your system completely discharges the batteries,
this will quite rapidly destroy them. A solar controller prevents this from
happening.

• There are a few instances where a small solar electric system does not
require a controller. An example of this is a small ‘battery top-up’ solar panel
that is used to keep a car battery in peak condition when the car is not being
used. These solar panels are too small to damage the battery when the
battery is fully charged.

• In the majority of instances, however, a solar electric system will require

a controller in order to manage the charge and discharge of batteries and
keep them in good condition.

86
The Battery charger:
The built-in battery charger is capable of charging the batteries
quickly and completely. A microprocessor controlled, 3 to 4 Step
charging process ensures the optimum charging of the batteries.

• The desired charging current can be set.

• The battery charger can be used for lead-acid or gel batteries.

Thanks to the floating charge ability of your Solar Inverter, the batteries can
remain continuously connected.

Battery Connections:
• Lead acid batteries usually come as either 6-volt or 12-volt batteries,
although other voltages are also available. Batteries can be connected
together in series to increase the voltage, or in parallel to keep the same
voltage but increase the capacity.

• The capacity of a battery is measured in amp-hours. The amp hour rating

shows how many hours the battery will take a specific drain: for instance, a
100-amp-hour battery has a theoretical capacity to power a 1-amp device
for 100 hours, or a 100-amp device for 1 hour.

• The reality is that lead acid batteries provide more energy when discharged
slowly: a 100-amp-hour battery will often provide 20–25% less power if
discharged over a five-hour period, compared to discharge over a twenty-
hour period. Secondly, a lead acid battery must not be run completely flat.
A minimum of 20% state of charge (SOC) should be maintained in a lead
acid battery at all times to ensure the battery is not damaged.

• For best overall battery life, you should design your system so that the
battery charge rarely goes below 50%.

87
Battery Connections
Figure 4.10

88
Types of batteries:-

There are three types of lead acid battery:

1) ‘Wet’ batteries require checking and topping up with distilled water, but
perform better and have a longer lifespan than other batteries.

2) AGM batteries require no maintenance but have a shorter overall life.

3) Gel batteries are also maintenance-free, do not emit hydrogen during

charging and provide a reasonable overall life. They can be placed on their
side or used on the move.

• In the past, most installers have recommended industrial quality ‘wet’

batteries for all solar installations. These provide the best long-term
performance and the lowest cost. Often called traction batteries (as they are
heavy-duty batteries used in electric vehicles), they can often have a
lifespan of 8–10 years for a solar installation.

• A lower cost option to the industrial-quality traction battery is the leisure

battery, as used in caravans and boats. These are typically either wet
batteries or AGM batteries. Their lifespan is considerably shorter than
traction batteries, often requiring replacement after 3–4 years and
significantly less in intensive applications.

• The third option is the gel battery; These have the benefit of being entirely
maintenance-free. They are also completely sealed and do not emit
hydrogen gas. In the past, gel batteries have not been particularly reliable
in solar installations, tending to require replacement after 1–2 years.
• However, more recently, smaller gel batteries have seen significant
improvements in lifespan and they now are comparable to AGM batteries.
The price has also dropped significantly.

• Gel batteries are not suitable for big solar applications with a power drain
of more than around 400 watthours, but they can provide an excellent, zero-
maintenance alternative to wet batteries for smaller applications.

89
• If your solar project requires batteries of 50 amp-hour capacity or less,
gel batteries are a very good alternative to traction batteries.

• Not all battery makes are the same. From experience, the very best
battery manufacturers for solar energy installations are Crown and Trojan,
both of whom have excellent batteries specifically designed for solar
installations.

• Lead-acid batteries are normally available in blocks of 2V, 6V or 12V. In

most cases, to generate the necessary operating voltage and the capacity
of the 8 batteries for the Solar Inverter, many batteries have to be
connected together in parallel and/or in series.

• Unlike solar panels, which you can mix and match to create your array,
you need to use the same specification and size of batteries to make up
your battery bank. Mixing battery capacities and types will mean that some
batteries will never get fully charged and some batteries will get
discharged more than they should be. As a result, mixing battery
capacities and types can significantly shorten the lifespan of the entire
battery bank.

90
Chapter 5
RO Design

91
Reverse Osmosis Performance & Design Calculations
There are a handful of calculations that are used to judge the performance
of an RO system and also for design considerations. An RO system has
instrumentation that displays quality, flow, pressure and sometimes other
data like temperature or hours of operation. In order to accurately measure
the performance of an RO system you need the following operation
parameters at a minimum:
1. Feed pressure
2. Permeate pressure
3. Concentrate pressure
4. Feed conductivity
5. Permeate conductivity
6. Feed flow
7. Permeate flow
8. Temperature

Salt Rejection %
This equation tells you how effective the RO membranes are removing
contaminants. It does not tell you how each individual membrane is
performing, but rather how the system overall on average is performing.
A well--‐designed RO system with properly functioning RO membranes
will reject 95% to 99% of most feed water contaminants (that are of a
certain size and charge). You can determine effective the RO membranes
are removing contaminants by using the following equation:
Salt Rejection %
Conductivity of Feed Water – Conductivity of Permeate Water
= ∗ 100
Conductivity of Feed
The higher the salt rejection, the better the system is performing. A low
salt rejection can mean that the membranes require cleaning or
replacement.

Salt Passage %
This is simply the inverse of salt rejection described in the previous
equation. This is the amount of salts expressed as a percentage that
are passing through the RO system. The lower the salt passage, the
better the system is performing. A high salt passage can mean that the
membranes require cleaning or replacement.
Salt Passage % = (1 - Salt Rejection%)

92
Recovery %
Percent Recovery is the amount of water that is being ‘recovered’ as
good permeate water. Another way to think of Percent Recovery is the
amount of water that is not sent to drain as concentrate, but rather
collected as permeate or product water. The higher the recovery %
means that you are sending less water to drain as concentrate and
saving more permeate water. However, if the recovery % is too high for
the RO design then it can lead to larger problems due to scaling and
fouling. The % Recovery for an RO system is established with the help
of design software taking into consideration numerous factors such as
feed water chemistry and RO pre--‐treatment before the RO system.
Therefore, the proper % Recovery at which an RO should operate at
depends on what it was designed for. By calculating the % Recovery
you can quickly determine if the system is operating outside of the
intended design. The calculation for % Recovery is below:
Permeate Flow Rate (gpm)
% Recovery = ∗ 100
𝐹𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝐹𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 (𝑔𝑝𝑚)

Concentration Factor
The concentration factor is related to the RO system recovery and is
an important equation for RO system design. The more water you
recover as permeate (the higher the % recovery), the more
concentrated salts and contaminants you collect in the concentrate
stream. This can lead to higher potential for scaling on the surface of
the RO membrane when the concentration factor is too high for the
system design and feed water composition.
Concentration Factor = (1 / (1- Recovery %)

• The concept is no different than that of a boiler or cooling tower.

They both have purified water exiting the system (steam) and end up
leaving a concentrated solution behind. As the degree of concentration
increases, the solubility limits may be exceeded and precipitate on the
surface of the equipment as scale.
• For example, if your feed flow is 100 gpm and your permeate flow
is 75 gpm, then the recovery is (75/100) x 100 = 75%. To find the
concentration factor, the formula would be 1 ÷ (1--‐75%) = 4.

• A concentration factor of 4 means that the water going to the

concentrate stream will be 4 times more concentrated than the feed
water is. If the feed water in this example was 500 ppm, then the
concentrate stream would be 500 x 4 = 2,000 ppm.
93
Flux
min
gpm of permeate ∗ 1,440 (
)
day
𝐆𝐟𝐝 =
# 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑂 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑠𝑦𝑠𝑡𝑒𝑚 ∗ 𝑠𝑞𝑢𝑎𝑟𝑒 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑔𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑒𝑎𝑐ℎ 𝑅𝑂 𝑒𝑙𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡

For example, you have the following:

The RO system is producing 75 gallons per minute (gpm) of permeate.
You have 3 RO vessels and each vessel holds 6 RO membranes.
Therefore you have a total of 3 x 6 = 18 membranes.
The type of membrane you have in the RO system is a Dow Filmtec
BW30--‐365. This type of RO membrane (or element) has 365 square
feet of surface area.
To find the flux (Gfd):

75 gpm x 1,440 min/day

𝐆𝐟𝐝 =
18 elements x 365 sq ft

= 108,000 = 16
6,570 so, The flux is 16 Gfd.
This means that 16 gallons of water is passed through each square
foot of each RO membrane per day.
This number could be good or bad depending on the type of feed water
chemistry and system design. Below is a general rule of thumb for flux
ranges for different source waters and can be better determined with the
help of RO design software. If you had used Dow Filmtec LE--‐440i RO
membranes in the above example, then the flux would have been 14.
So it is important to factor in what type of membrane is used and to try
and keep the type of membrane consistent throughout the system.

Table 5.1
Feed Water Gfd
Source
• Sewage Effluent 5-10
• Sea Water 8-12
• Brackish Surface 10_14
Water
• Brackish Well 14-18
Water
• RO Permeate 20-30
Water

94
Mass Balance
A Mass Balance equation is used to help determine if your flow and
quality instrumentation is reading properly or requires calibration. If your
instrumentation is not reading correctly, then the performance data trending
that you are collecting is useless.
You will need to collect the following data from an RO system to perform
a Mass Balance calculation:
1. Feed Flow (gpm)
2. Permeate Flow (gpm)
3. Concentrate Flow (gpm)
4. Feed Conductivity (µS)
5. Permeate Conductivity (µS)
6. Concentrate Conductivity (µS)

The mass balance equation is:

𝐅𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐟𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐱 𝐅𝐞𝐞𝐝 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲 =
(𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐅𝐥𝐨𝐰 𝐱 𝐏𝐞𝐫𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲) + (𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐅𝐥𝐨𝐰
∗ 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐜𝐞𝐧𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐞 𝐂𝐨𝐧𝐝𝐮𝐜𝐭𝐢𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲)

Feed Flow = Permeate Flow + Concentrate Flow

For example,
if you collected the following data from an RO system:
• Permeate Flow 5gpm
• Feed Conductivity 500µS
• Permeate 10 µS
Conductivity
• Concentrate Flow 2 gpm
• Concentrate 1200µS
Conductivity

Then the Mass Balance Equation would be:

(7 x 500) = (5 x 10) + (2*1200)

3,500 = 2,450 Then find the difference:

Difference *100 = 3500 -2450 *100 = 18%

Sum 3500 - 2450

95
A difference of +/- 5% is ok. A difference of +/- 5% to 10% is
generally adequate. A difference of > +/- 10% is unacceptable and
calibration of the RO instrumentation is required to ensure that you are
collecting useful data.

In the example above, the RO mass balance equation falls out of

range and requires attention.
Main components of a membrane system

Figure 5.1

System Configuration Types

Figure 5.2
96
 Figure 5.3

Configuration- single vessel system

Configuration- single stage system

Figure 5.4

97
Configuration- multi-stage system

Two-stage system

Figure 5.5

Three-stage system

Figure 5.6

98
Configuration – concentrate recycle
• Way to increase recovery by re-circulating reject
to increase feed flow
• Typical for special / waste water applications
• Typical for single vessel systems

Figure 5.7

System Design Guidelines

Design guidelines for 8-Inch FILMTEC elements

Table 5.2

99
Maximum permeate flow rate per element

Table 5.3

Minimum concentrate flow rate per element

Table 5.4

100
Maximum feed flow

Table 5.5

Choosing feedwater type

Table 5.6

101
 Ten steps to design a membrane system

• Define product flow rate and recovery (consider feed

quality and required permeate quality
• Select the flow configuration
• Select the membrane element type
• Select the average membrane flux
• Calculate the number of elements needed
• Calculate the number of pressure vessels needed
• Select the number of stages
• Select the staging ratio
• Balance the permeate flow rate
• Analyze and optimize the membrane system
• Step 1 – Define scope and boundaries
• Required permeate flow rate
• Required permeate quality
• Available feed water quality
• System recovery
• Focus on capital or operation costs

Focus on capital or operation costs

Focus on minimizing capital costs (CAPEX):
Implications:
• Maximize system flux
• Minimize number of elements and vessels

Focus on minimizing operational costs (OPEX):

Implications:
• Lower system flux
• Higher number of elements and vessels
• Prefer low energy membranes

• Required permeate flow rate

• Element size
• Number of elements

102
• Required permeate quality

• Element selection
• Flow configuration
• Recovery

• System recovery
• Seawater recovery limits
• High osmotic pressure of brine stream
• Osmotic pressure limits recovery to 35-55%

• Brackish water recovery limits

• Brackish waters usually contain sparingly soluble salts which can
cause scaling
• Recovery normally limited to 70-85%
• Softening or scaling inhibition required
• Recovery limits for non-treated and softened waters – calculated by
ROSA
• Recovery limits with scale inhibitors – calculated by supplier programs
• Lower recovery for feeds with higher fouling tendency

• Permeate quality limits

• Requested permeate quality may not be achieved at very high recovery

OUR EXAMPLE
Required permeate flow rate: 1,000 gpm (227 m3/h)
Required permeate quality: TDS < 20 mg/L
Available feed water quality: Local river source, TDS = 355 mg/L
System recovery: 80%
Focus on operational costs

• Step 2 – Select flow configuration

• Continuous process is standard
• Batch process in special applications – e.g. for separation of
process liquids and waste water treatment in food and pharma
industries
• Concentrate recirculation – for small systems and in special
application – e.g. waste water or process liquids

103
OUR EXAMPLE
Continuous process Yes
Batch process No
Concentrate recirculation No

• Step 3 – Select the membrane element type

According to:
• System capacity
• Feed water TDS
• Feed water fouling potential
• Required product water quality
• Energy requirements

According to system capacity

Element diameter for approximate system capacity
• 2.5-inch < 200 liters/h (1,270 gpd)
• 4.0-inch < 2.3 m3/h (10 gpm)
• 8.0-inch > 2.3 m3/h (10 gpm)
Element length
• Standard – 40 inches (1,106 mm)
• For small compact systems – 21 or 14 inches

According to feed water TDS (rule of thumb)

< 1,000 mg/L NF270, NF90, XLE, ECO, TW30, XFR, BW30
< 10,000 mg/L BW30, XFR
10,000-30,000 mg/L SEAMAXX, SW30ULE, SW30XLE
30,000-50,000 mg/L SW30HR, SW30XHR, SW30HRLE, SW30XLE

According to feed water fouling potential

• Standard feed spacer thickness – 28 mil
• Feed spacer thickness for feed waters with increased fouling
potential – 34 mil used in BW30-365, BW30-400/34,
BW30XFR-400/34, ECO-400, SW30HR-370/34
• Fouling resistant BW membrane for biofouling and organic
fouling mitigation – used in BW30XFR-400/34, ECO-400

104
OUR EXAMPLE
According to:
• System capacity: elements of 8” x 40” (1,000 gpm, 227 m3/h)
• Feed water TDS: BW or low energy
• Feed water fouling potential: 34 mil feed spacer
• Required product water quality: BW, ECO, low energy
• Energy requirements: ECO, low energy

• Step 4 – Select the average membrane flux

Select the design flux (f) based on:
• Typical design fluxes found in Membrane System DesignGuidelines
• Feed water source (type)

OUR EXAMPLE
According to:
• Design guidelines: surface water SDI < 5; design flux range = 12-16 gfd
(20-27 lmh) for pretreated river water source
• Conventional pretreatment

Step 5 – Calculate the number of elements needed

105
Step 6 – Calculate the number of pressure vessels needed

NV Number of vessels
NE Number of elements
NEpV Number of elements per vessel

OUR EXAMPLE

Step 7 – Select the number of stages

Number of serial element positions should be higher for:

• Higher system recovery
• Higher fouling tendency
Number of stages depends on:
• Number of serial element positions
• Number of elements per pressure vessel

Table 5.7

106
Step 8 – Select the staging ratio

Y System recovery (fraction)

n Number stages

OUR EXAMPLE

Calculate number of vessels of first stage Nv(1)

OUR EXAMPLE

107
Step 9 – Balance the permeate flow rate
Permeate flow rate per element decreases from the feed
end to the concentrate end of the system because of:
• Pressure drop in the feed/concentrate feed spacer
• Increasing osmotic pressure in the feed/concentrate stream

Figure 5.8

Imbalance of permeate flow rate predominant with:

• High system recovery
• High feed salinity
• High water temperature
• Low pressure elements
• New elements
Why balance the permeate flow rate?
• Avoid excessive flux of lead elements
• Reduce fouling rate of first stage
• Improve product water quality
• Make better use of tail end elements
• Reduce number of elements

108
Methods to balance the permeate flow rate:
• Boosting the feed pressure between stages
• Permeate backpressure to first stage only
• Elements with lower water permeability in the lead positions;
elements with higher water permeability in the tail positions

Step 10 – Analyze and optimize the reverse osmosis system

The chosen system should then be analyzed and refined using the Reverse
Osmosis System Analysis (ROSA) computer program.

Figure 5.9

109
ROSA : REVERSE OSMOSIS SOFTWARE ANALYSIS

110
DATA SHEET OF ROSA

111
 Case Study
Design Solar Powered Reverse
Osmosis Desalination unit

112
design of a desalination plant for a well integrated salt and the use of desalinated
water in agriculture and drinking purposes, which includes :

• Design of the desalination plant .

• Selection and location of the well .
• testing of the quality of water in the well .
• Selection of the final treatment to ensure adequate desalinated water to the
specifications and standards required WHO (posttreatment)

The station has been designed based on several factors:

• Cost .
• Availability of materials in the local market .
• Age of equipment and materials default .
• Maintenance services and parts availability .
• Quality parts and equipment, and enable them to achieve the desired goals, Ease
of use and handling

113
Selection of the well
• good water quality inside the well and free of contaminants that are difficult to
remove.
• easy to get rid of waste water in the dry valleys
• Low salinity of the well compared to other salt wells .

water tests and analysis

showing tests of water constitutes such :

• Bicarbonate
• Calcium
• Carbonate
• Chloride
• Electrical conductivity
• Hardness
• Magnesium
• Nitrate
• Nitrite
• Potassium
• Sodium
• Sulfate
• PH
• Fe
• Turbidity
These are the most important constitutes of water for reverse osmotic process and
that must be check for knowing the suitable pretreatment process and for the
osmotic pressure and other objects .

In our well selection :

114
 • The reasonable productivity of 50-65 m3^hr
• TDS DESIGIN (Cf) = 2380 PPM
• Q in (Qp) = 55 m3/h
• Q permeate = 41 m3/h
• Recovery (Y) = 0.75 %
• Membrane type >> hydronautic (Cpa3) Active membrane area (SE) =
37.1 m2
• Avg permeate flux (F) = 37 L/m2/s
• Nominal P drop (Pd) = 0.3 bar
•

Pumps selection
For solving the well water suction and movement and provide the suitable pressure
for treatment process and adding the chemicals for the water, so after doing pump
selection process we decide these kinds of pumps :

❖ Source intake pump

❖ Feed pump
❖ High pressure pump

Source intake pump

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Feed pump

By knowing the amount of water required & the resistance in pipes and
pretreatment filters

Design calculation steps :

= 29.8 membrane elements so assume 30 membrane elements

• Calculate the number of pressure vessels needed (Nv) = 30

/ 5= 6
• assume 5 element / vessel = Nev

• select staging ratio (R) :

assume 2 stages ; n = 2 ( 75 % recovery ) ; y = 0.75

• select the staging ratio :

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 =2 R=2:1

• number of pressure vessels needed in first stage =4

vessels

• number of pressure vessels needed in second stage (Nv2): so (Nv2) = Nv –

Nv1 = 6 – 4 = 2

• Temperature correction

Since the system temp between (22 c-26 c) so no correction

factor need
• Posm = (T +273 ) x ∑ MI

where T = Temperature , R = gas constant (8.3145 )

summation of molar concentration of all concentrations in the solution
approximatlly (1000 ppm) TDS equal about (0.77) bar or (11)psi of osmotic
pressure
as AFS = 1632 ppm NACL so
P osm = (AFS *0.77)/ 1000 = 1.25 bar

• NDP = NET DRIVING PRESSURE FOR CALCULATING HIGH PRESSURE PUMP HEAD

NDP = P feed – Posm – (Pdrop/2)

= 15.5 – 1.25 -0.5 *0.3 = 14.1 bar
• System Feed pressure = NDP + Posm + 0.5 (Pd)+ Pp
= 11.7 + 5.5 + 0.5 (2)- 0 = 17.77 bar

117
High pressure pump

Sometimes we need a booster pumps & dosing pumps to inject

chemicals but there power is low compared with the other three main
pumps .

Solar Energy
solar photovoltaic system or Solar power system is one of renewable energy
system which uses PV modules to convert sunlight into electricity. The
electricity generated can be either stored or used directly, fed back into
grid line or combined with one or more other electricity generators or
more renewable energy source. Solar PV system is very reliable and
clean source of electricity that can suit a wide range of applications
such as residence, industry, agriculture, livestock, etc.

Major system components

Solar PV system includes different components that should be selected

according to your system type, site location and applications. The major

118
components for solar PV system are solar charge controller, inverter,
battery bank, auxiliary energy sources and loads (appliances).

• PV module – converts sunlight into DC electricity.

• Solar charge controller – regulates the voltage and current coming
from the PV panels going to
battery and prevents battery overcharging and prolongs the battery
life.
• Inverter – converts DC output of PV panels or wind turbine into a
clean AC current for AC
appliances or fed back into grid line.
• Battery – stores energy for supplying to electrical appliances when
there is a demand.
• Load – is electrical appliances that connected to solar PV system
such as lights, radio, TV, computer,
refrigerator, etc.
• Auxiliary energy sources - is diesel generator or other renewable
energy sources.

Solar PV system sizing

1. Determine power consumption demands

The first step in designing a solar PV system is to find out the total
power and energy consumption of all loads that need to be supplied by
the solar PV system as follows:

1.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day for each appliance used.
Add the Watt-hours needed for all appliances together to get the
total Watt-hours per day which must be delivered to the appliances.

1.2 Calculate total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules.
Multiply the total appliances Watt-hours per day times 1.3 (the
energy lost in the system) to get the total Watt-hours per day which
must be provided by the panels.

2. Size the PV modules

Different size of PV modules will produce different amount of power. To

find out the sizing of PV module, the total peak watt produced needs.

119
The peak watt (Wp) produced depends on size of the PV module and
climate of site location. We have to consider “panel generation factor”
which is different in each site location. For Thailand, the panel
generation factor is 3.43. To determine the sizing of PV modules,
calculate as follows:

2.1 Calculate the total Watt-peak rating needed for PV modules

Divide the total Watt-hours per day needed from the PV modules
(from item 1.2) by 3.43 to get the total Watt-peak rating needed for the
PV panels needed to operate the appliances.

2.2 Calculate the number of PV panels for the system

Divide the answer obtained in item 2.1 by the rated output Watt-
peak of the PV modules available to you. Increase any fractional part of
result to the next highest full number and that will be the number of PV
modules required.

Result of the calculation is the minimum number of PV panels. If more

PV modules are installed, the system will perform better and battery life
will be improved. If fewer PV modules are used, the system may not
work at all during cloudy periods and battery life will be shortened.

3. Inverter sizing
An inverter is used in the system where AC power output is needed.
The input rating of the inverter should never be lower than the total watt
of appliances. The inverter must have the same nominal voltage as your
battery.
For stand-alone systems, the inverter must be large enough to handle
the total amount of Watts you will be using at one time. The inverter size
should be 25-30% bigger than total Watts of appliances. In case of
appliance type is motor or compressor then inverter size should be
minimum 3 times the capacity of those appliances and must be added to
the inverter capacity to handle surge current during starting.
For grid tie systems or grid connected systems, the input rating of the
inverter should be same as PV array rating to allow for safe and efficient
operation.

4. Battery sizing
The battery type recommended for using in solar PV system is deep
cycle battery. Deep cycle battery is specifically designed for to be
discharged to low energy level and rapid recharged or cycle charged
and discharged day after day for years. The battery should be large

120
enough to store sufficient energy to operate the appliances at night and
cloudy days. To find out the size of battery, calculate as follows:

4.1 Calculate total Watt-hours per day used by appliances.

4.2 Divide the total Watt-hours per day used by 0.85 for battery loss.
4.3 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.2 by 0.6 for depth of
discharge.
4.4 Divide the answer obtained in item 4.3 by the nominal battery
voltage.
4.5 Multiply the answer obtained in item 4.4 with days of autonomy
(the number of days that you need the system to operate when there is
no power produced by PV panels) to get the required Ampere-hour
capacity of deep-cycle battery.

Battery Capacity (Ah) = Total Watt-hours per day used by appliances x

Days of autonomy
(0.85 x 0.6 x nominal battery voltage)

5. Solar charge controller sizing

The solar charge controller is typically rated against Amperage and
Voltage capacities. Select the solar charge controller to match the
voltage of PV array and batteries and then identify which type of solar
charge controller is right for your application. Make sure that solar
charge controller has enough capacity to handle the current from PV
array.
For the series charge controller type, the sizing of controller depends
on the total PV input current which is delivered to the controller and also
depends on PV panel configuration (series or parallel configuration).
According to standard practice, the sizing of solar charge controller is
to take the short circuit current (Isc) of the PV array, and multiply it by
1.3 Solar charge controller rating = Total short circuit current of PV array
x 1.3

1. Determine power consumption demands

Total appliance use = 116.25kw per day

Losses=.3
Total power factor=1.3
Total PV panels energy
= 116.25 x 1.3
needed

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 = 151.125kw per day

2. Size the PV panel

2.1 Total Wp of PV = 151.125*1000 / 3.4

panel capacity
needed
= 44448.5 Wp
2.2 Number of PV
= 44448.5 / 110
panels needed
= 403.8 modules

Actual requirement = 404 modules

So this system should be powered by at least 404 modules of 110 Wp
PV module.

3. Inverter sizing
Total Watt of all appliances = 116.25*1000 W
For safety, the inverter should be considered 25-30% bigger size.
The inverter size should be about 139.5*1000 W or greater.

4. Battery sizing
Total appliances use = 116.25*1000 w
Nominal battery voltage = 12 V
Days of autonomy = 3 days

Battery capacity = (116.25*1000] x 3

(0.85 x 0.6 x 12)
Total Ampere-hours required 56985.2 Ah
So the battery should be rated 12 V 56986 Ah for 3 day autonomy.

5. Solar charge controller sizing

PV module specification
Pm = 110 Wp
Vm = 16.7 Vdc
Im = 6.6 A
Voc = 20.7 A
Isc = 7.5 A
Solar charge controller rating = (4 strings x 7.5 A) x 1.3 = 39 A
So the solar charge controller should be rated 40 A at 12 V or greater.

122
Chapter 6
Prototype

123
 REVERSE OSMOSIS SYSTEM
RO System Components :

Stage 1: Sediment Filter

5 µ Sediment Filter Removes Bactria, dirt, sediments, sand, and other
suspended physical particles.

Stage 2: Granular Activated Carbon

Granular Activated Carbon Reduces chemicals such as chlorine, and other
volatile organics from the water. The removal of chlorine improves the taste
and odor of the water and maintains the integrity of the membrane.

Stage 3: Carbon Block Filter

It absorbs the organic matter, colour, and odor and dissolved gases like
chlorine and disinfection by-products (chloramines, THM, TCE), Volatile
Organic Compounds (V.O.C)from the water which is left out from GAC filter.

Stage 4: Reverse Osmosis

Reverse Osmosis 0.0001 micron Membrane75 gallons per day thin film
composite reverse osmosis membrane removes 93-97% of total dissolved
solids (TDS) and a full spectrum of contaminants that could be present in your
water as inorganic, minerals, lead, cysts, dissolved metals, chemicals, and
more.

Stage 5: GAC Post Carbon Filter

A final polishing process that enhances and clarifies your drinking water by
rejecting any Volatile Organic Compounds (V.O.C), , Nitrates, , tastes,
odor.That may have slipped through the membrane, plus, adsorbs any odors
that may come from the pressure storage tank. Gives water a clean refreshed
taste on the way to your tap. We are using NSF approved post carbon to
guarantee the taste of water.

124
Stage 6: Bio-ceramic filter
pH Alkalinity Neutralizer Filtration to raise pH neutral and eliminate acidity, by
addition healthy minerals, such as Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium, Potassium
and others readily found in many natural mineral waters.

Stage 7:Far-Infra Red

This Infra-Red filter can activates water molecules in our body and improves
oxygen level in our body. Warming and eliminating fats, chemicals and toxins
from our blood and thus smoothening the flow of blood.

Figure 6.1

Table 6.1

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1. Pre-Filter :-

Once the water enters the system, they first get filtered by a number of pre-
filters that are generally the sediment filters. These filters remove the sand,
stones and other sediments commonly present in the water. Post that they also
pass the water through the carbon filters to remove all the chlorine if present in
the water.

Figure 6.2

2. reverse osmosis membrane:-

Figure 6.3

126
This is the main membrane of the system that are two separate spiral wounds
out of which one is CTA (cellulose tri-acetate) which tolerates chlorine and the
other is TFC/TFM (thin film composite/material) which does not tolerate
chlorine.

Figure 6.4

3. Post filter :-

Once the membrane passes the water, there is a final filtration to

remove the remaining taste and odours in the water through a
carbon filter.

4. Automatic shut off valve :-

ASOV is automatic shut-off valve. This valve allows your system to turn off the
water supply, using pressure from the pure water side of the system. It will turn
off the water supply to the unit, whenever there is sufficient pressure on the
pure water side of your system. ASOV is a must. It saves water, extends filter
life, and improves the performance of your unit. As the storage tank fills the
pressure inside increases, when the pressure equals ½ to 2/3 your feed water
pressure, the water to the system is shut off. No waste. Since you subtract the
storage pressure from the operating pressure, the storage pressure needs be
limited.

127
Figure 6.5

Figure 6.6

128
5. Flow restrictor :-

Flow Restrictor Purpose Flow Restrictors (also known as Flow Controls or

Capillaries) are required for all reverse osmosis systems. The Flow
Restrictor must be properly sized to the RO membrane capacity. Flow
Restrictors create pressure throughout the reverse osmosis membrane
element and maintain a desired ratio of reject flow (to drain) and permeate
(product) flow.

It is recommended that you replace the Flow Restrictor each time you
replace your reverse osmosis membrane to keep your system operating at
peak efficiency. The number on the flow restrictor indicates the flow rate, in
milliliters per minute. The flow restrictor should match your reverse osmosis
membrane's production rate.

Flow restrictors are rated by a flow rate expressed as milliliters/minute

(ml/min). The following table gives a guideline for selecting an inline flow
restrictor for your RO membrane.

Table 6.2

Figure 6.7

129
Irrespective of the incoming water flow from the tap, the flow restrictor
regulates the flow of water when it reaches the main membrane in order to
achieve 100% filtration of the water. This is required because
variable water flow could damage the membrane and its
functionality.

6. Storage tank :-
A pressurized storage tank for reverse osmosis product water is
recommended for its ability to deliver reverse osmosis water to the faucet
using air pressure within the tank. The system shut-off valve (sold separately),
will automatically turn the RO system on and off as needed.
Water is stored in a bladder within the tank
vessel opposite pressurized air. As the
bladder fills, the back pressure increases until
it reaches a pre-set pressure limit (as
determined by the shut-off valve, sold
separately), causing the shut-off valve to cut
off the feed supply to the reverse osmosis
system.
Water will remain in the bladder until the
faucet is opened, the air pressure surrounding
the bladder will force the water out of the
storage tank and a directed point of use. As
water is used, the pressure will drop until the
shut-off valve disengages, allowing feed
water to the RO system to resume until the
tank is refilled.

Figure 6.8

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7. Pressure switches :-

• RO High Pressure Switch (HPS) for All kinds of RO System Suited for
common RO water filter Purifiers available in India,Compatible with
many RO Brands and Models-Can be used in multiple water purifier
Models-Counter Top,Desk Top,Stand Mounted,Wall Hanging,Under
Sink,most of the RO Model cabinets.

• Save RO motor from Overloading due to Blockage of Water in the RO

Unit.If the Back Pressure is High,this switch will act and turn off the
power supply to Booster Pump thus saving the Pump from
Overloading.

• This HP switch is fitted on the output side of RO booster pump and will
turn off the power supply to the pump when the water back pressure
increases as a result a blockage in the Reverse Osmosis system.This
will help to avoid overload of the Booster Pump and Prevents Burning
of the Coils inside the Pump All the leading RO manufacturer
recommend this product for the RO Units.

Figure 6.9

131
8. Booster Pumps :-

The purpose of the reverse osmosis booster pump is to increase water

pressure going into the RO unit.

Reverse osmosis is a pressure-driven process. Small residential RO units will

theoretically operate on very low pressure--down to 35 psi, according to some
membrane makers--but the reality is, you won't get a lot of water and the
product water quality will be compromised if the unit runs below 45 psi. Low
inlet pressure makes the unit produce more reject water, produce less
drinking water, fill the storage tank more slowly, and produce lower quality
water.

RO units run well on typical city water pressure of 60 psi, but they run even
better with a small pump to boost the pressure to 80 psi or higher.

The picture above shows the three essential elements of the RO booster
pump. The white object at left is the transformer. It plugs into a standard wall
outlet and converts to the voltage (most commonly 24 volts) required by the
pump. The large object is the pump itself. The third device is the pressure
switch. It monitors the water pressure in the RO unit's storage tank and turns
the pump off and on in response to storage tank pressure. The most common
shutoff pressure for undersink home RO units is 40 psi.

Figure 6.10

132
Figure 6.11

Figure 8.12

133
 System Installation

Storage Tank:
As the RO system makes water it pushes it into a tank to store it, and a
pressurized bladder in the tank pushes it back out (through the same opening)
when requested (such as opening the faucet). The large male threaded fitting
on one end of the tank is the inlet and outlet of the tank.

A pressure valve on the side of the tank (usually covered with a blue screw-on
cap) is used only for checking and adding air to the bladder. The tank is
shipped with 4-6psi of air pressure in the bladder, and is sufficient in most
cases. Pressure may be increased to no higher than 10psi when the tank is
empty, this will cause water to come out of the faucet a little faster if so
desired. NOTE: As the tank is emptied, pressure from the faucet will
decrease, this is normal.

Figure 6.13

To Prepare the Tank:

1. Wrap the threaded nipple on the end of the tank with 6-7 wraps of Teflon
tape.
2. Install tank ball valve on prepared nipple, tightening hand tight only. Once
your system is connected, your tank line will connect to this fitting

Feed Water Installation:

1. The feed water assembly consists of a 1/2" slip joint adapter with 2 washers
and an angle ball valve. Locate these parts in the installation kit. If space
permits, the angle valve should be installed into the slip joint adapter before
connecting the assembly to the feed water line

134
2. (Note: Teflon tape must be used on angle valve to prevent leaks).

3. Locate cold-water angle shut off valve underneath the sink, usually on the
right side, and turn it off. Open cold water faucet to release the pressure. On
single handle faucets, the hot water may need to be turned off to prevent any
hot water from crossing over. If water continues to come out of the faucet
with angle valve turned off the main water supply will have to be turned off.

4. The slip joint adaptor is usually installed on the cold water faucet shank, but
may be installed on the cold water shut off valve. (Figure 2) If installing on
the cold water shut off valve, an adapter will most likely be required. Use the
following instructions for your particular plumbing type.

5. Once the system is ready to be hooked up, the feed water line will connect
to the angle ball valve. To connect, place the nut and ferrule (white plastic
ring) over the feed water line, insert the line into the angle valve, and tighten
the nut. Alternately, if your angle ball valve has a stem on it, slide the nut
over the feed water line, push the line onto the stem, and tighten the nut
down (no ferrule is used).

System Start Up

After all the connections have been made it is time to prepare the system for
use. If the system has a UV filter, plug the wire coming from the UV filter into
the transformer and plug the transformer into any standard 110v outlet. When
the UV bulb is working you will see a purple glow from the end of the UV filter.
NOTE: When first plugged in the UV filter may take a minute or two before it
lights up, this is normal. Once plugged in the light will remain on and should
not be unplugged except to change the bulb, this ensures effective treatment.

135
Preparing the system for use:

Note: Ball valves are open when the handle is inline (parallel) with
the tubing

Open Closed

1. Turn on feed water: Slowly, turn on your Cold water supply. Open the
Needle Valve (turn counterclockwise) to allow the raw water to enter
the system. Check for leaks!
2. Open tank valve: Open the tank’s ball valve to allow water to enter the
tank. The tank’s valve is “On” when the valve handle is parallel (in the
same direction) with the valve’s outlet (see Fig. 12).
Check for leaks!
3. Wait for tank to fill: Before usage, allow the tank to fill. Tank normally
takes 2-3 hours to fill.
When the tank is filled, the RO will shut off automatically.
4. Drain Tank: Do not use the first tank of water! Drain it out to flush the
system and
new filters. Lift the faucet lever up into a locked position to drain tank. Let
the
tank refill again and the pure water is ready for use.
5. Clean up area: Allow the system to run while cleaning up tools and work
area.
6. Check for leaks! Make sure no leaking at joints, fittings, valves, and
tubing connections.

System Maintenance

Filters:

Filters need changed regularly to ensure protection of the membrane and high
purity water production.
The replacement filter set you need depends on the optional filters you have.
With average usage and normal water conditions filters should be changed
every 6 months. The more water you use or the dirtier your water the more often
you will want to change filters. If the first filter (sediment filter) gets dirty quickly
it may need changed more often than the rest, part number for the individual
sediment filter is SED105. All filters (excluding the membrane) should be
changed at least every 12 months. The UV bulb can be checked to determine
if it is still on by looking at the end with the wire coming out, it should glow
purple. If it is not then the bulb has burnt out. Average life on the bulb is 12-18
months, though it is recommended to change it every 12 months to ensure
136
 effective filtration, as the bulb intensity diminishes over time. To change, simply
pull on the wire and the bulb will slide out.

System Filter Filters Included

Set
5-stage Sediment, GAC, Carbon Block, Post Filter
6-stage w/ ROFK5
UV
6-stage w/ Sediment, GAC, Carbon Block, Post Filter, Inline pH
ROFK6
pH
7 Stage (UV Sediment, GAC, Carbon Block, Post Filter, Inline DI
& ROFK7
DI)
8-Stage (UV, Sediment, GAC, Carbon Block, Post Filter, Inline DI,
DI, pH) ROFK8
Inline pH
UV Bulb UVB1 Standard 6W UV Bulb

Table 6.3

How to change filters:

1. Turn off the feed water supply. This is done by closing either the angle ball
valve or the feed water ball valve. The valve is closed when the handle is
at a 90° angle to the tubing (when handle is NOT parallel to tubing). If saving
water from the tank, do so after closing the valve.
2. Shut the ball valve on the tank. The valve is closed when the handle is at a
90° angle to the tubing (when the handle is NOT parallel to the tubing).
3. Open the faucet to release any remaining pressure.
4. Pull the system out to where it can be easily worked with. If the system was
installed with enough tubing to do so, simply pull it out to where it can be
worked on. If the system does not have enough tubing, you will need to
disconnect the lines to pull it out. (When changing filters, it helps to have a
towel handy, as some water may leak out.) Make note of which tube goes
where to ensure the system will be hooked up the same way it was.
5. Remove the first filter housing. To remove, use the filter housing wrench
supplied with your system. When looking down at the top of the system, the
filter housing will turn clockwise to loosen, counterclockwise to tighten.
Once the filter housing has been removed, pull the filter out and replace
with the new one. At the top of each housing is an O-ring, when changing
filters it is recommended to remove the O-ring and check for any damage
such as nicks, gouges, or kinks. If damage is found, replace before
continuing, otherwise, use a silicon based lubricant (vegetable oil can be
used if no silicone lubricant is available) and lubricate the O-ring, place it in
137
 the filter housing and screw the housing back in place. This will help prevent
leaks.
6. Repeat step 5 with each housing, replacing the old filter with the similar new
filter and checking the O-rings. If any of the filters have only one gasket (the
middle filter on most systems will have only one gasket) the filter will need
to be installed with the gasket at the top of the housing, unless dictated
otherwise by the filter itself.
7. Once the pre-filters (the filters in the housings) have been changed, it is
time to change the inline filter(s) (the post filter, as well as the DI &
pH/Mineral filter if the system has them.) To replace them, remove the
tubing and/or fittings from each end of the filter (refer to section on quick
connect fittings near the beginning of the manual if you are unsure how to
do this) and replace in the new filter, paying careful attention to the direction
of flow as indicated on the filter, and ensuring the new filter is installed in
the same direction as the old filter. Do this with each inline filter your system
has.
8. If the system was unhooked to change the filters, hook it back up now. Open
the angle ball valve or feed water ball valve on the feed water line, and open
the tank ball valve.
9. Open the faucet, and tilt the system back and forth and side to side to help
work the air out of the lines
10. Allow the system some time to start producing water from the faucet,
depending on the system and water pressure this may take up to 30
minutes. When the water first comes out it may be black as the carbon fines
in the post filter rinse out, this is normal. Once you are getting a steady flow
of water (anything from a steady drip to a small stream, depending on
membrane size and water pressure), shut the faucet off.
11. Allow the system to fill the tank. Depending on the system and water
pressure, this can take anywhere from 1 - 5 hours.
12. Once the tank has filled, open the faucet, allowing all the water to drain until
flow from the faucet is down to the slow drip or stream seen in step 10. This
flushes the system, cleaning the filters and preparing them for use.
13. Repeat steps 11-12 at least once to ensure thorough flushing of the new
filters.
14. Your filters are now changed and the system is ready to use again.

Membrane:

The RO membrane will last an average of 2 –4 years, depending on water

quality, water usage, frequency of filter changes, and quality of filters used.
Reduced water quality, reduced production rate, or no production can be an
indication of a fouled membrane, but there may not always be these signs to
tell you the membrane is bad. The best way is to monitor the rejection rate of
the membrane using a TDS meter. A functioning membrane should be
removing a minimum of 90% of contaminates under normal conditions. To test
this, simply compare the TDS of your tap water to the TDS of the water from
the membrane (before it goes to any other filters). For example, if your tap water
has a TDS of 400ppm, after the membrane your TDS should be 40ppm or less.

138
If you do not wish to use a TDS meter, it is recommended that you change your
membrane at least every 4 years.

To change the membrane:

1. Turn off the feed water supply. This is done by closing either the angle ball
valve or the feed water ball valve. The valve is closed when the handle is
at a 90° angle to the tubing (when handle is NOT parallel to tubing). If saving
water from the tank, do so after closing the valve.
2. Shut the ball valve on the tank. The valve is closed when the handle is at a
90° angle to the tubing (when the handle is NOT parallel to the tubing).
3. Open the faucet to release any remaining pressure.
4. Pull the system out to where it can be easily worked with. If the system was
installed with enough tubing to do so, simply pull it out to where it can be
worked on. If the system does not have enough tubing, you will need to
disconnect the lines to pull it out. (When changing the membrane, it helps
to have a towel handy, as some water may leak out.) Make note of which
tube goes where to ensure the system will be hooked up the same way it
was.
5. Disconnect the tube feeding the membrane (the tube going to the single
fitting on the membrane housing cap). If unsure how to disconnect the quick
connect fittings, refer to the section on quick connect near the beginning of
the manual.
6. Remove the membrane housing cap (when looking at the fitting on the cap
it will turn counterclockwise to loosen).
7. Remove the membrane from the housing. A pair of needle nosed pliers may
be needed to grip the end of the membrane. To remove, gently pull with a
twisting motion and the membrane should slide out.
8. Lubricate the O-rings on the membrane with a silicon based lubricant
(vegetable oil may be used if silicon lubricant is not available), and push
back into the housing.
9. Lubricate the O-ring on the membrane housing (some housings have 2)
and screw the membrane housing cap back onto the housing.
10. Push the tubing back into the fitting on the membrane cap.
11. If the filters need changed, now is a good time to do so, since the system is
turned off.
12. If the system was unhooked to change the filters, hook it back up now. Open
the angle ball valve or feed water ball valve on the feed water line, and open
the tank ball valve.
13. Open the faucet, and tilt the system back and forth and side to side to help
work the air out of the lines.
14. Allow the system some time to start producing water from the faucet,
depending on the system and water pressure this may take up to 30
minutes. Once you are getting a steady flow of water (anything from a
steady drip to a small stream, depending on membrane size and water
pressure), shut the faucet off.

139
15. Allow the system to fill the tank. Depending on the system and water
pressure, this can take anywhere from 1 - 5 hours.
16. Once the tank has filled, open the faucet, allowing all the water to drain until
flow from the faucet is down to the slow drip or stream seen in step 14. This
flushes the system, cleaning the membrane and preparing it for use.
17. Repeat steps 15-16 at least once to ensure thorough flushing of the new
filters.
18. Your membrane is now changed and the system is ready to use again.

O-rings:

The filter housings on the system utilize O-rings (black rubber washers, located
in a grove right below the threads on the housing) to seal themselves.

To prevent leaks it is recommended to check the Orings every time the

housings are opened. Ensure there are no nicks, kinks, or gouges in the O-ring.
If damage is found, replace before continuing, otherwise, use a silicon based
lubricant (vegetable oil can be used if no silicone lubricant is available) and
lubricate the O-ring before replacing the housing.

DO NOT USE VASELINE! This will

damage the o-rings and void any warranty
on the system. We are not responsible for
any damaged caused by using Vaseline or
other petroleum lubricants. To ensure a
good seal and minimize any possibility of
leaks, it is recommended you replace your
O-rings periodically, usually every 1-2
years.

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 TROUBLESHOOTINGS :

• Leaking around filter housing (O-ring too small or not in

place)
First of all, please check if all filter cartridges are sitting upright inside the
canister. Then, check if Oring is properly in place. The o-rings may be a little
too small, please stretch it out and put it back inside the groove. You may
over-stretch a little so when it is back to the canister, it will shrink and fit just
right. Then insert the cartridge to the top cap, screw the canister all the way
up. MAKE SURE ORINGS are staying in place during this process. Then
use a wrench to tighten (no need to over tighten it).

• Little water out of faucet, tank is heavy and appears full of

water, but the stream turns very weak after a few seconds
If there is no change in the supply water pressure, the problem is very
likely from the tank. It could be due to low tank pressure or broken bladder.
Perform the following steps first?
• Shut off main water supply
• Get a bucket under the tank and remove tank by disconnecting the ball
valve.
• Dump the water from the tank by turning it upside down (through the top
stem). You may add air from the front valve to help emptying the water.
• Use a gauge at the front air valve to check tank pressure. It should be
within 7-10 PSI. If too low, you can use a bicycle pump to add more
pressure to the tank.
• Re-connect tank to the system and turn on the water supply.

• Low water pressure at the RO faucet or output location

● Have you given the system enough time to fill up the tank? If you just
installed the system, give it 1.52 hours to fill the tank.
● What is the total distance between the tank and the output location? If it
is over 15 feet or going vertically, the pressurized tank is struggling to push
out the water at an adequate pace. Shorten the distance beetween the
tank and output location, or add a delivery/demand pump to assist with the
output. Do not confuse this with a Booster Pump which is only for raising
the INPUT pressure.
● The stage 5 Post Carbon Filter is clogged and needs to be replaced.
● If you are dispensing the RO water through your refrigerator, remove the
filter that is currently installed in your fridge.
● What is the incoming water PSI to your home? If it is below 45 PSI, we
recommend getting a system with a booster pump so the reverse osmosis
process can be performed correctly. If you water pressure is below 45 PSI,
there will not be enough water pressure to push the water through the RO

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 membrane on a continous basis.
● Incorrect air pressure in the tank. Shut off the main water supply to the
system, and open the faucet to drain the tank. After the faucet stops
dripping, close the tank valve, remove the connected yellow tube, and take
the tank outside or somewhere that can get wet. Remove the tank valve
from the top of the tank, and turn it upside down to drain out any remaining
water. Then, use a standard tire pressure gauge to check the air pressure
at the nozzle on the bottom half of the tank. The air nozzle is under a
screw off blue cap. If the pressure is not between 710 PSI, use a bicycle
pump to get the air pressure within that range and reconnect the tank to
the system.
● If the tank feels full and no water is coming from the faucet, the tank
bladder could be broken. You can verify this by measuring the tank’s PSI
and it being zero.

Continuous drain

All RO systems create drain water. The drain water should run only when the
system is making water. The ratio of drain water to RO water is about 0.8-3:1
for our RO systems (Pumped, Side-Flow systems have lower ratio). For a
regular residential household, the waste water per day is about 3 more flushes
of toilet, which is not too bad. The drain should stop after the tank is full. Allow
3 hours for the tank to fill up. If the drain is still running, the problem might be
caused by the following reasons?
• Faulty automatic shut-off valve (ASV, the white square valve that connects to
4 tubings),
• Faulty check valve (at the pure water outlet of the membrane housing),
• Faulty flow restrictor (the small tube that marks "flow 300" and connects to
the drain line).
• Low tank pressure.

• High TDS level in RO water

The RO system should produce a TDS rejection rate of about 85-95%.
Check the following first?
• What is tap water TDS reading? Is there a sudden increase in tap water
TDS level.
• Has the RO membrane been installed? It is packed in a vacuum plastic
bag and in blue color, located in the accessory box.
• Possibility of reverse drain line and pure water line. Compare your tubing
connection to the diagram on the manual and check.

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Quick Troubleshooting Guide
Problem Possible Cause Solution
No Water Supply Ensure water supply is turned
on
Minimum 40psi required, if less,
Insufficient Pressure
add booster pump
Any filter with only one gasket
GAC Filter Upside Down needs to be installed with the
gasket facing up
Clogged filters Replace filters
Fouled Membrane Replace membrane
No Water Production*
Defective Check Valve Replace check valve
Defective Auto Shut Off Replace auto shut off valve
Defective Flow Restrictor Replace flow restrictor
Permeate Pump Connected Verify pump connection,
Wrong/Defective replace pump
Ensure all valves are open and
lines are not kinked
Obstruction In Line
Trace flow of water to pinpoint
cause
Minimum 40psi required, if less,
Insufficient Pressure
add booster pump
Clogged filters Replace filters
Fouled Membrane Replace membrane
Defective Check Valve Replace Check Valve
Waste Water Runs
Defective Auto Shut Off Replace auto shut off valve
Constantly**
Defective Flow Restrictor Replace flow restrictor
Ensure all valves are open and
lines are not kinked
Obstruction In Line
Trace flow of water to pinpoint
cause
Check pressure in tank, min.
Tank Not Holding No Pressure in Tank pressure 4psi, max. pressure
Water*** 10psi, with tank empty.
Defective Check Valve Replace check valve

Table 6.4

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 Energy recovery

Energy recovery can reduce energy consumption by 50% or more. Much of the
high pressure pump input energy can be recovered from the concentrate flow,
and the increasing efficiency of energy recovery devices has greatly reduced
the energy needs of reverse osmosis desalination. Devices used, in order of
invention, are:

• Turbine or Pelton wheel: a water turbine driven by the concentrate flow,

connected to the high pressure pump drive shaft to provide part of its input
power. Positive displacement axial piston motors have also been used in
place of turbines on smaller systems.
• Turbocharger: a water turbine driven by the concentrate flow, directly
connected to a centrifugal pump which boosts the high pressure pump
output pressure, reducing the pressure needed from the high pressure
pump and thereby its energy input, similar in construction principle to car
engine turbochargers.

Schematics of a reverse osmosis desalination system using a pressure

exchanger.
1: Sea water inflow,
2: Fresh water flow (40%),
3: Concentrate flow (60%),
4: Sea water flow (60%),
5: Concentrate (drain),
A: Pump flow (40%),
B: Circulation pump,
C: Osmosis unit with membrane,
D: Pressure exchanger

• Pressure exchanger: using the pressurized concentrate flow, in direct

contact or via a piston, to pressurize part of the membrane feed flow to near
concentrate flow pressure. A boost pump then raises this pressure by
typically 3 bar / 50 psi to the membrane feed pressure. This reduces flow
needed from the high-pressure pump by an amount equal to the
concentrate flow, typically 60%, and thereby its energy input. These are

144
 widely used on larger low-energy systems. They are capable of 3 kWh/m3 or
less energy consumption.

Schematic of a reverse osmosis desalination system using an energy

recovery pump.
1: Sea water inflow (100%, 1 bar),
2: Sea water flow (100%, 50 bar),
3: Concentrate flow (60%, 48 bar),
4: Fresh water flow (40%, 1 bar),
5: Concentrate to drain (60%,1 bar),
A: Pressure recovery pump,
B: Osmosis unit with membrane

• Energy recovery pump: a reciprocating piston pump having the pressurized

concentrate flow applied to one side of each piston to help drive the
membrane feed flow from the opposite side. These are the simplest energy
recovery devices to apply, combining the high pressure pump and energy
recovery in a single self-regulating unit. These are widely used on smaller
low-energy systems. They are capable of 3 kWh/m 3 or less energy
consumption.

Example:
Seawater Flowrate: 100 m3/h
Applied Pressure: 75 bar
R.O. Recovery: 40%
Permeate Flowrate: 40 m3/h
Power required without energy recovery devices: 300 kW
Specific Energy: 300/40 = 7.5 kWh/m3
Power required with Energy Recovery Turbine: 177 kW
Specific Energy: 177/40 = 4.4 kWh/m3
Power required with Pressure Exchanger: 140 kW
Specific Energy: 140/40 = 3.5 kWh/m3

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Turbine
The hydraulic to mechanical-assisted pumping (see Figure 1-2) uses a turbine,
which is attached to a shaft that is connected to a pump and a motor. The shaft
operates on the main feed. The pump, to which the shaft is connected, may be
of two types— a kinetic centrifugal type or a positive displacement type. Other
devices used earlier include the Pelton wheel turbines and the Francis turbines,
which are also referred to as reverse running pumps. The main shortcoming of
the hydraulic to mechanical-assisted 5 pumping system is that it involves
double energy conversion. The first conversion occurs when hydraulic energy
of the brine is converted to mechanical energy of a rotating shaft. The second
conversion occurs when the mechanical energy of the shaft is then converted
to the hydraulic energy of feed

This system of hydraulic to mechanical-assisted pumping is highly inefficient

and does not significantly lower the costs associated with the process.
Therefore, the search was still on for a more efficient ERD. Devices based on
newer designs and technologies were then introduced. These devices drove a
secondary assisting pump, thereby reducing the load on the main feed pump.
In spite of its utility in reducing load and energy consumption, the reduction was
not significant enough to make a considerable difference in the costs incurred
during the process.

146
Turbo charger

The hydraulically driven pumping in series belongs to the second class of

ERDs. It has an impeller and a turbine, which are coupled to a shaft within the
same casing. The main feed pump and the impeller and runner are placed in
series. PEI's "hydraulic 6 turbocharger", Grundfos' "Pelton-drive pump" and
FEDCO's "hydraulic pressure booster HPB" are examples of the second class
of ERDs. These gained significant acceptance among consumers, especially in
small and midsized desalination plants. Their fullfledged use in larger systems,
like the plants in the Mediterranean and the Middle East for instance, was
limited because of their size limitations. Moreover, these systems failed to
address the problem of converting energy from hydraulic to mechanical and
then back to hydraulic, thereby hindering the efficiency of operation. They were,
however, an improvement over the first class of ERDs.

147
Pressure exchanger

The late 1980s saw the emergence of a new technology that functioned on the
"theory of work exchange". It involved a direct transfer of hydraulic energy of
brine to hydraulic energy of feed, lacking the "drag" that would have resulted
from the passage of the water throughthe shaft. This brought the technology
closer to 90% efficiency

This "theory of work exchange" led to the development of the third class of
energy recovery devices, namely, hydraulically driven pumping in parallel. It
employs the pumping of a 'buffer separating feed' or of freely reciprocating
pistons. The main feed pump is placed in parallel to the device and operates
on a portion of the feed, which is equal to the amount of the permeate. The
device operates on the other portion of the feed whose amount is equal to the
spent brine. This is based on the concept of "work exchange". In these ERDs,
the hydraulic energy of brine is directly converted to hydraulic energy of feed,
leading to over 90% energy efficiency. A new work exchanger device was
developed based on a technology in which the number of stationary channels
is fixed. A piston divides each of these channels into two working volumes, one
of which is in association with brine and the other (opposing one) is in
association with the feed. An exchange process ensues in these partitions,
which is synchronized using 8 valves. A similar process is employed in other
work exchangers wherein multiple channels are connected to a spinning rotor.
The PX (pressure exchanger) is one such work exchanger. This device is also
based on the same principle, in which, hydraulic energy of brine is directly
converted to hydraulic energy of feed via direct contact between the two. This
design disposes the requirement of valves, as there is no need for

148
 synchronizing the brine and the feed. The spinning rotor acquires a speed of
1500 rpm due to the angular momentum induced by the fluid. Because of the
high speed, the fluid transit time is only 1/30th of a second, which is much less,
to allow the mixing of the feed and the brine. This is thus an advantageous
process. The intermixing of the feed and brine is further eliminated with the help
of feed buffer. Along with the rotor's rotation, the feed buffer in the channel also
reciprocates. The mixing decreases with an increase in the size of the buffer.
Furthermore, the cyclic amount of feed and brine flowing through the device
also decreases. By increasing the speed of the rotor, the flow rates of the brine
and the feed can be increased. This increase is dependent on the conditions of
the system, apart from the design of the rotor. Thus, the device's performance
is limited to a small capacity, with very narrow feed and brine conditions.

SOLAR PUMPING SYSTEM

Solar pumping system is a pump running on electricity generated by

photovoltaic panels as opposed to grid electricity or diesel generator water
pumps.
The operation of solar pumping system is more economical manly due to the
lower operation, maintenance costs and less environmental impact than pumps
powered by an internal combustion engines.

Solar System Components:

Stage 1: Solar Panels

Solar panels absorb the sunlight as a source of energy to generate electricity or
heat.

Stage 2: Inverter
A power inverter, or inverter, is an electronic device or circuitry that changes
direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC).

Stage 3: Battery
An electric battery is a device consisting of one or more electrochemical
cells with external connections provided to power electrical devices such
as pump
149
 Solar panels
Simply put, a solar panel works by allowing photons, or particles of light, to
knock electrons free from atoms, generating a flow of electricity. Solar
panels actually comprise many, smaller units called photovoltaic cells.
(Photovoltaic simply means they convert sunlight into electricity.) Many
cells linked together make up a solar panel.

Figure 6.14

The Solar Panel Properities:

Pmax 256.20 w

Voc 37.79 v

Vpm 30.62 v

Ipm 8.37 A

Isc 8.94 A
Table 6.5

150
 Inverter :-

The input voltage, output voltage and frequency, and overall power handling
depend on the design of the specific device or circuitry. The inverter does
not produce any power; the power is provided by the DC source.

Figure 6.15

Inverter Properities:

- Power Inverter Fully Automatic DC-AC: 1500W

- DC12V - AC220V

Battery :-
A Solar Battery Charger circuit is designed, built and tested. It acts as a control
circuit to monitor and regulate the process of charging several batteries ranging

151
from 4 volts to 12 volts, using a photovoltaic (PV) solar panel as the input source
for the battery charging process.

Figure 6.16

Battery Properities:

12volt

100Ah

Initial current: 30A

Standby use: 13.6-13.8V

152