Knowledge Organiser— The origins of the Cold War, 1941-58

KEY TERMS TOPIC KEY INFORMATION

Why were there so As a result of the growing tension between the former Grand Alliance—the military alliance between the Soviet Union, United States and the United Kingdom—Berlin was divided
A final demand, often backed up with a threat to take many refugees from between east and west. Western Berlin was a hub of prosperity with a high standard of living, In contrast with the poorly governed and economically deprived communist con-
Ultimatum
action. Berlin in 1958 and trolled East. The Eastern Government was increasingly unpopular due to policies of censorship and restriction of free speech, which were enforced by the secret police known as
what was the re- Stasi. The west was the envy of the east and so by 1958, three million East Germans made the short journey across the border and into western territory. This was a further blow
Free City A city with its own independent government. sponse? to the east, as the refugees included many valuable workers such as teachers, engineers and technicians—all of whom were intended to make a better life for themselves in the
west. In the face of losing a sixth of the East German population, Soviet leader Khrushchev issued an ultimatum to his former allies, that demanded the withdrawal of the western
powers within six months and that Berlin become a free city. This ultimatum further contributed to the increasing tensions between East and West who by 1958 were both stock-
During the Cold War, those who supported going to war
Hawks were known as Hawks. Their counterparts who wanted piling nuclear weapons in preparation for war.
to find a way to have peace were known as Doves.
Why was the Berlin As more refugees crossed the border from East to West, the ultimatum lead to a breakdown in talks between the Eastern and Western powers. The East German leader Walter
Wall constructed? Ulbricht convinced Khrushchev to close the border into West Berlin—which was surrounded on all sides by the East. On the 12th of August 1961, a barbed wire fence was erected
Brinksman- Pushing disagreements to the point where there is a around the perimeter of West Berlin with the dual purpose of halting the refugee crisis and isolating West Berlin from its allies. The barbed wire was soon replaced by a concert
ship risk of war. wall, which at its peak stretched 165 kilometres splitting Berlin in two. The Walls were patrolled and there were towers used as guard posts, which ensured that no one could get
in or out of West Berlin—without the say so of the East.
Non-
Stopping the Spread of something, usually weapons or How did the building The Berlin Wall was now a physical land barrier between the East and West, which massively impacted US-Soviet relations. The wall meant that Khrushchev had to abandon plans
prolifera-
armaments. In this case nuclear weapons.
tion of the Berlin Wall to unite Germany under Soviet control and that the Soviet Union had to essentially lock in its citizens to stop them leaving for the capitalist west. The wall also meant that the Sovi-
affect US-Soviet rela- ets had closed the border without consulting the US, signalling a freezing of discussion and cooperation. Now physically divided, the chances of war between the US and Soviet
Communist countries sometimes refer to themselves as
Socialism ‘socialist’. For example the Soviet Union was also tions. Union were now slim. Despite the wall becoming a symbol of the fundamental differences between East and West until its destruction in 1989, it can be said to have decreased
known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics/ tensions between the two world superpowers

Doctrine A belief or philosophy. What happened at Geneva was the first summit between the foreign ministers of the various countries in neutral Switzerland. Both sides put forward id ea how Berlin should be governed, but no
the summit meetings agreement was reached. President Eisenhower invited Khrushchev to the USA for further talks. At the Camp David summit Eisenhower and Khrushchev met face-to-face for the
KEY DATES of 1959-61 first time. There was still no agreement about the way forward for Berlin. The Soviets did withdraw the Berlin Ultimatum. This meeting seemed to establish better relations be-
tween the two leaders. Just before the Paris meeting the Soviet Union shot down an American Spy plane as it flew over the Soviet Union. The Americans claimed it had been
knocked off course by the weather but the Soviets interrogated the pilot who admitted to have been on a spying mission. Eisenhower refused to apologise for this act and so
1959 Geneva Summit
Khrushchev walked out of the meeting, ending it without any decisions having been made.

Why did the Bay of In 1959 a group of revolutionaries led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara toppled the pro-American government of Cuba. Eisenhower was concerned about the close links between
1959 Socialist revolution in Cuba. Pigs incident hap- the USA and Cuba. American businesses had heavily invested in Cuba, with American companies owning the oil refineries, electricity, phone networks and railways. Fidel Castro did
pen ? not want his country to be controlled by the USA in this manner, which created tensions between the two nations. The American government reluctantly recognized the govern-
ment but refused to send aid. The Soviet Union sent aid and bought Cuban sugar as well as secretly sending them weapons. The USA was concerned about having a Soviet ally so
1959 Camp David Summit
close to them. President Kennedy therefore agreed to a plan that had been previously agreed to send American backed Cuban exiles to Cuba to attempt to overthrow it. On the
17th of April 1961 1,400 exiles landed in Cuba. They were no match for the battle hardened Cuban Revolutionaries who had found out about the invasion and prepared for the
1961 Vienna Summit exiles to arrive. The exiles were not supported by America air support or troops and so were defeated. Americans had assumed that they would be supported by the majority of
Cubans but they were mistaken. This event was deeply humiliating for Kennedy and his new administration. America was accused of attempting to build an empire and the USSR
quickly claimed that the people of Cuba were happy under Castro. This event led to stronger relations between the USSR and Cuba.
1961 Berlin Wall Built
What was the Cuban On the 14th of October American spy planes took pictures of what looked like launch pads for ballistic missiles, that would be able to launch against American cities. Further to this
Missile crisis? there was a fleet of Soviet ships approaching Cuba, presumably to deliver the missiles themselves. It is believed that Khrushchev was sending missiles because NATO had missiles
1961 Bay of Pigs incident
based in Turkey which was close to the Soviet Union. Many people in the Soviet Union considered the building of the Berlin wall as a failure for Khrushchev and so he hoped to
outwit Kennedy over Cuba. He was also afraid that the overthrow of Castro would be seen as another defeat for communism if it took place. Kennedy believed that missiles being
1962 Cuban Missile Crisis placed on Cuba would ruin his chances of winning re-election as well as letting Khrushchev think he could bully Kennedy. Kennedy had three choice: to attack Cuba, to sink the So-
viet ships or to bomb the missiles sites. Kennedy chose instead to set up a naval blockade around Cuba not letting in the Soviet ships. Many people were preparing for war howev-
er when the Soviet ships reached the blockade on 24th of October they turned around.

1963 President Kennedy visits Berlin. What were the conse- The Cuban Missile Crisis made it clear what could happen if relations didn't improve. Both sides leaders had been put under pressure to take actions that would start a war. Both
quences of the Cuban nations now wanted to make sure this didn't happen again. In 1963 a direct line was set up between the Whitehouse and the Kremlin. The Test Ban Treaty was signed between the
Missile Crisis? USA, USSR and Great Britain agreeing not to test weapons in space. In 1967 the Outer Space Treaty was signed preventing both sides from using space for military purposes. In
1968 the Nuclear Non-Proliferation treaty was signed, nations agreed not the share the secrets of nuclear weapons with nations who didn't currently possess the technology.
1963 Limited Test Ban treaty Some believe that the Cuban missile crisis led to the world becoming a safer place. Kennedy became very popular for his handling of the crisis, whereas Khrushchev had lost a lot
of support which was a significant factor in his dismissal in 1964.

1967 Outer Space treaty What was the ‘Prague The ‘Prague Spring’ occurred when Alexander Dubcek who was elected to attempt to placate the Czechoslovakian people who were unhappy with the purges that had taken place
Spring and how did it between 1949 and 1954 as well as the general poor conditions of life in Czechoslovakia. Dubcek thought people should be able to enjoy their lives and speak out against com-
affect ‘Soviet Policy’ munism when wanted . He therefore: relaxed censorship, discussed multi party elections and increased trade with the west. Brezhnev was concerned about losing control over the
1968 Nuclear Non-proliferation treaty. Warsaw Pact nations, with Romania and Yugoslavia already proving troublesome. On August 20th Brezhnev sent 500,000 troops in Czechoslovakia ending the Prague Spring and
arresting Dubcek. The Brezhnev Doctrine stated the belief that the actions of any singular communist country affected all communist countries and so other communist countries
would be forced to interfere. This in affect said that the USSR would prevent other communist countries from introducing reforms to make their countries more liberal.
1968 Brezhnev Doctrine What was the inter- The international community reacted in a varied manner to the Soviet measures in Czechoslovakia. Yugoslavia and Romania condemned the invasion. Italian and French com-
national reaction to munist parties cut links to the Soviet Union. East Germany and Poland welcomed the invasion as it made them feel more secure in their government. The USA and western govern-
the Soviet measures ments were outraged by the invasion and made strong protests to the Soviet Union. There was an attempt in the UN to condemn the actions but it was vetoed by the USSR. This
Warsaw Pact troops put down Prague in Czechoslovakia? showed that the USA would not take direct action against the Soviet Union in Europe. This made other countries take notice that the USA was very willing to criticize the USSR but
1968
Spring.
were not willing to take action.
Knowledge Organiser— Topic 1: Queen, government and religion, 1558-1569
TOPIC KEY INFORMATION KEY TERMS

1. What was the Elizabethan England was dangerous, there was no police force or permanent army so keeping order relied on a clear social structure. Society, government, law and order were based on inequality. People owed respect to those above. The Usually members of the nobility. They
structure of Courtiers spent most of their lives with Elizabeth
Monarch: The government centered around the monarch. Monarchs believed they had a right to rule ‘by grace of God’. Elizabeth could: declare war and make peace; call and dismiss parliament, agree to and reject any laws they voted for; I.
Elizabethan rule in some legal cases if the law was unclear; grant titles, money, land or jobs. The Queen used patronage to control people and gain their support. The Queen could just as easily take something away. The Secretary of State: This was Eliza-
Society in 1558?
beth’s most important Privy Councilor. He advised the queen on matters important to the Crown. Sir William Cecil held this position until 1573 and later became Lord Burghley. The Monarch and Parliament: Raising taxes could only be done Extraordi-
Occasional, additional taxes to pay for
with the permission of parliament so it was not possible to govern without parliament. The Queen could issue direct orders but they could not be enforced in England’s law courts. Acts of Parliament were presented to parliament for its approv- nary Taxa-
unexpected expenses i.e. wars.
al. Although it was possible to vote against the monarch, this rarely happened. Royal Prerogative: these were areas where only Elizabeth had the right to decide upon e.g. foreign policy, marriage and succession. tion

2. What prob- Problems: Legitimacy: To inherit the throne, an heir needed to be legitimate. Elizabeth’s legitimacy was in doubt because her father had divorced Catherine of Aragon to marry Anne Boleyn. Henry wanted a male heir and when he tried to A military force of people rather than
lems did Eliza- Militia soldiers usually raised in an emergen-
divorce Catherine, the Pope refused. Henry VIII created the Church of England and made himself the head enabling himself to divorce. Committed Catholics refused to recognize the divorce and believed that because Catherine was alive when cy.
beth face in Elizabeth was born, she was illegitimate. When Henry VIII had Anne Boleyn executed, he even illegitimated Elizabeth himself—later reversing this decision. Gender: In the 16th century it was very unusual for a woman to be in power. Christiani-
1558? What
ty taught women should be under the authority of men. Monarchs were expected to lead their armies into battle. Women were not deemed physically and mentally capable of governing. Marriage: Many thought Elizabeth should marry but Divine Right Belief that the monarch’s right to rule
were her
strengths? Elizabeth had other ideas. Elizabeth turned down offers from some of the most eligible men in Europe including Prince Phillip II of Spain. Strengths: Elizabeth was highly educated and intelligent; she had an eye for detail and a good understand-
ing of politics. She spoke Latin, Greek, French and Italian. Elizabeth was confident and charismatic, able to make great speeches to win over her subjects. She often took a while to make decisions and this frustrated her Privy Council.
Someone who gives encouragement
3. What chal- or financial support to an individual or
Finances: Elizabeth’s government did not have a lot of money because England had fought costly wars before she became queen. Lots of land had been sold off to raise money to fight. When she became Queen, the Crown was £300,000 in Patron
cause. For example, Elizabeth I was a
lenges did Eliza- debt. The total annual Crown income was £286,667. The French: France was wealthier and had a larger population than England. They were allied with Scotland through the Auld Alliance. France and Scotland: Scotland was independent and an patron of many explorers and funded
beth face at enemy of England. Their border was remote and hard to defend. French troops were stationed there. Calais: England had held Calais since 1547 as a military base and for trade. Following a war against the French in the 1550s, in which England
home and
sided Spain, England had to return Calais to the French under the Treaty of Cambresis. The English were humiliated and regaining it was an important part of Elizabeth’s foreign policy. Catholic Spain: Elizabeth was concerned that France and
abroad? Crown With a capital ‘C’, the crown refers to
Spain were no longer at war. They were both Roman Catholic countries. Protestant England did not have the same views. Divisions in Europe were already causing conflict. Possibility that they could unite against England. Mary Queen of Scots:
The Scottish monarch, Mary Queen of Scots was her cousin and had a strong claim to the English throne. She was also half French and married to the heir to the French throne. She became queen of France in 1559.
The issue of who was going to suc-
Succession ceed the throne after the existing
4. What reli- Elizabeth I was a Protestant but when she became Queen, most of her subjects were Catholic. Conflict was spreading around Europe as Roman Catholics and Protestants fought to establish what they saw as the true religion. The Clergy: In monarch died.
gious divisions 1558, most of England’s bishops were Catholic. Changing the religion needed an Act of Parliament. There were lots of catholic bishops in the House of Lords. Many priests changed their religion to keep their jobs but many refused to work with
were there in the Protestant Church. Geographical divisions: Parts of the North, West and diocese such as Lichfield were especially Catholic. The further North you went, the less likely it was that people would have accepted Protestantism. The more remote
1558? The form of Christianity followed
communities tended to be Catholic. London, East-Anglia and the south-east tended to be more Protestant. They had close links with the Netherlands. Protestant ideas often came into England through London and the South-East. Roman throughout the whole of Western Eu-
Catholic rope until the 16th century. Roman
5. What was Elizabeth wanted to find compromise when it came to England’s religion. This meant establishing a form of Protestantism that Catholics could accept. She did not believe the Puritan religion was the best option as it would have turned her sub- Catholics followed the church in Rome
Elizabeth’s jects against her. The Religious Settlement came in three parts: The Act of Supremacy: made Elizabeth supreme governor of the Church of England—all clergy had to swear an oath of allegiance. An Ecclesiastical High Commission was set up
religious settle- with the job of enforcing the settlement and maintaining discipline within the church. Members of the clergy whose loyalty was in doubt could be punished; The Act of Uniformity: established the appearance of churches and their services. The Roman Catholic service in which
ment? Catholics are given bread and wine.
Book of Common Prayer was to be used in all churches and the clergy had to use this wording when conducting services. Anyone who didn’t was punished. Priests had to wear special clothing. The wording of services was unclear so Protestants Mass
They believe this turned into the blood
and Catholics could interpret it individually. Catholics saw the bread and wine as the blood and body of Christ, Protestants saw it as an act of remembrance; Royal Injunctions: a set of instructions issued by Sir William Cecil on behalf of the and body of Christ.
Queen to the clergy to reinforce the two previous acts.
A challenge to the teachings and pow-
The Refor-
6. What was the The Parish Church was the central point of village life. Church Courts: mainly focused on church matters but also a range of moral issues and minor disputes e.g. marriage, sexual offences such as bigamy (being married to more than one person) er of the Roman Catholic Church said
mation
role of the to have begun in 1517.
and slander (false insults), wills and inheritance. Lawyers resented the power of the church. The church also gave guidance to communities in times of hardship, enforced the religious settlement, legitimized the power of the monarch and con-
Church of Eng- trolled what was preached. Priests needed a special license from the Queen to preach. They only preached her messages. Enforcing the Settlement: The Church conducted visitations—inspections of churches and clergy to ensure everyone took Religious leaders such as bishops and
land? Clergy
the oath of supremacy. First visitations in 1559—up to 400 clergy dismissed. Many visitations resulted in the destruction of churches and statues—Elizabeth was unhappy. After 1559, visitations took place every 4 years. They were wide- priests.
ranging—teachers, midwives, surgeons and physicians had to provide licenses.
Sacraments Special church ceremonies.
7. What was the Radical Protestants were known as Puritans because they wanted to purify the Christian religion by getting rid of anything that wasn’t in the bible. However, under the system there was no role for the Monarch as head of the Church. Soon
nature and after the religious settlement, Puritan clergymen began ignoring parts. Elizabeth’s aim of conformity and uniformity in church services was not met. The biggest issues were over clothing and the crucifix. This represented a direct challenge to Diocese An area looked after by a bishop.
extent of the her authority as Supreme Governor of the Church of England. There were some Puritans who believed they had the right to overthrow the Monarch. The Crucifix Controversy: A crucifix is an image of Jesus Christ dying on the cross. To Puritans,
Puritan Chal- Recusants The Catholics unwilling to attend
crucifixes represented idols. Elizabeth liked them and wanted churches to keep their familiar look and appeal. She demanded churches display a crucifix. She didn’t want to anger Catholics by changing things too fast. Some Puritan bishops
lenge?
threatened to resign and the Queen backed down as there weren’t enough protestant clergymen to take their place. The Vestment Controversy: Puritans believed priests should not have special clothing. Others believed it should be plain and
simple. Ecclesiasti- An adjective used to describe things

8. What was the The Papacy: The Catholic Church led the counter-reformation by supporting local communities, persecuting heretics and encouraging a war against Protestants. In 1566, the Pope issued an instruction to not attend Church of England services
nature and to English Catholics. The authorities were ordered not to investigate these recusants too closely as Elizabeth did not want to create martyrs. England’s Nobility: Approximately 1/3 of the nobility and a sizeable number of the gentry were recu- Pilgrimage A journey to an important religious
extent of the sants, especially in the North-West. Elizabeth’s favourites in court tended to be Protestant and so the old noble families who tended to be Catholic found themselves sidelined at court. In November 1569, the Earls of Northumberland and
Catholic chal-
Westmorland led a rebellion in the north of England against Elizabeth—the Revolt of the Northern Earls. The rebellion was suppressed but Elizabeth’s reaction shows how dangerous she believed it was. Hundreds of rebels were executed in the Royal Su- This is when the monarch is head of
lenge?
North. France: Religious war broke out in 1562 and Elizabeth I was concerned about its potential influence on England. She wrote to Phillip II in 1564 to explain how troubled she was. Elizabeth had agreed in 1562 to help French protestants premacy the church.
hoping to get back Calais. However this failed. The French Protestants made peace with the Catholics. In 1564 Elizabeth I signed the Treaty of Troyes—confirmed that Calais belonged to France. All she had achieved was to irritate Phillip II for
supporting Protestant rebels. Catholics who were unwilling to attend
Recusants church services laid down by the Eliz-
9. What was the Mary was a Catholic with a strong claim to the English throne. She was Henry VII’s great granddaughter, Elizabeth I’s second cousin and there were no issues with her legitimacy. She was Queen of Scotland. Her mother, Mary of Guise was from abethan religious settlement.
problem of a very powerful, French noble family. The Treaty of Edinburgh: In 1560, persuaded by William Cecil, Elizabeth I helped Scottish Protestant Lords rebel against Mary of Guise who had been ruling Scotland for her daughter Mary while she was in
Mary, Queen of France with her husband, Francis II. Elizabeth secretly sent money to help the Scottish rebels. It was important for England to have a friendly protestant, anti-French government in Scotland. Elizabeth was wary of helping to depose an anointed Papacy The system of church government
Scots, 1568-69?
monarch but was threatened by the fact that the French could easily help Mary of Scots to take over England. The rebellion ended with the Treaty of Edinburgh. Mary Queen of Scots had to give up her claim to the English throne. Mary never
approved the treaty and still maintained her claim. She returned to Scotland as Queen but with a protestant government. She wanted to be named as Elizabeth’s heir. Elizabeth had no intention of naming an heir. Choosing Mary would weaken People who have controversial opin-
England and cause religious divisions. Mary’s Arrival in England: Mary’s husband, Lord Darnley was murdered in 1567. Probably by the Earl of Bothwell. Mary was suspected of being involved but married Bothwell soon after. The scandal led to ions and beliefs at odds with those
Heretics
the protestant lords rebelling again, forcing Mary to abdicate in favor of her son, James. Mary was imprisoned in Scotland but escaped to England in 1568. Elizabeth’s response: Elizabeth did not approve of subjects trying to overthrow a held by the rest of society but espe-
monarch but saw the threat Mary posed to her own position. Mary was held in comfort under guard. Mary and Elizabeth never met but sent letters. A court was convened to hear the case against Mary. The protestant lords brought letters cially those who deny the teachings of
proving her guilt. Mary said she should not be tried as an anointed monarch and asked Elizabeth to guarantee an innocent verdict. Elizabeth refused. No verdict could solve the problem. Guilty or innocent, Elizabeth would have had a problem
Someone who is killed for his or her
so kept Mary in captivity until her death. Martyr
beliefs.
10. What were The Netherlands belonged to the Spanish King Phillip II, a strict Catholic. Following Elizabeth’s support for the protestant Scottish rebels, Phillip II banned the import of English cloth believing England was using it to spread Protestantism. Eliza- A very severe punishment which in-
the problems Excommu-
beth ceased trading with the Netherlands for one year. Elizabeth was concerned France and Spain would form an alliance. The Dutch Revolt: Since the 1550s, resentment had been growing towards Spanish rule. Phillip II had brought the Span- volves expelling people from the Cath-
with the Neth- nicated
ish Inquisition to the Netherlands. Catholics and Protestants united against Spain in the Dutch Revolt in 1566. In 1567, Phillip II sent 10,000 men with the Duke of Alba to suppress the rebellion—he succeeded. Alba established the Council of olic church.
erlands?
Troubles to enforce Catholicism and assert Spanish rule. Thousands of Dutch Protestants fled into exile in England. Elizabeth was concerned about Alba’s presence in the Netherlands. Their army, with its mission against Protestantism was in
striking distance of England. Elizabeth didn’t want to be seen as a leading Protestant monarch and provoke conflict. There was a belief in the Privy Council that the Spanish wanted to destroy Protestantism all over Europe—the Netherlands was Abidicate A king or Queen giving up their
part of a wider struggle. Elizabeth wanted to avoid a war with Spain. England did not have the money and it could provoke civil war in England. Sea Beggars: Dutch rebels fled by taking to the water. Known as Sea Beggars, they attacked Spanish
ships in the English channel carrying resources to Alba’s troops. In 1567, Elizabeth allowed them to shelter in English harbours. Genoese Loan: in 1568, Spanish ships carrying gold to pay Alba’s troops in the Netherlands took refuge in English Trade Em- When governments ban trade with
ports to hide from sea beggars. The money was a loan to Phillip II from bankers in Genoa. Elizabeth took the money for herself. This angered the Spanish. bargo another country.
Knowledge Organiser— Topic 2: Challenges to Elizabeth at home and abroad, 1569-88
KEY TERMS TOPIC KEY INFORMATION
Civil War A war between people of the same 1. What challeng- English Catholics: Increasingly under suspicion after the Revolt of the Northern Earls in 1569. In 1570, the Pope freed England’s Catholics of their duty of obedience to Elizabeth and cause her
es did Elizabeth to be overthrown. From 1574, Catholic priests were smuggled into England from Europe. Spain: Phillip II was a strict Catholic who wanted to destroy Protestantism. Spain had a large and grow-
Conspir- A secret plan with the aim of doing
face at home? ing empire in the Americas, making it rich and powerful. Mary, Queen of Scots: Mary had a legitimate claim to the throne and was the focus of several plots to depose Elizabeth after fleeing to
England in 1568. Mary’s French family, the Guise, was very powerful. They formed a Catholic League against Protestantism in France and supported plots against Elizabeth. The Dutch Revolt:
Papal A written order issued by the Pope.
Phillip II of Spain persecuted Dutch Protestants, leading to a revolt in 1566 that lasted decades. A large Spanish army sent to the Netherlands in 1567 was seen as a grave threat to Protestant
Used to implement Elizabeth’s laws England. Elizabeth’s support for the Dutch Protestant rebels was an important reason for worsening Anglo-Spanish relations.
and authority in the North of England
Council as it was far from London. The north 1.5 What plots did Ridolfi Plot, 1571: Assassinate Elizabeth with the help of Spain and the Pope. Marry Mary to the Duke of Norfolk, place Mary on the throne and restore Catholicism. Duke of Norfolk was
of the was sometimes unstable and often
North under threat from Scottish raids. The Elizabeth face and executed in June 1571.Reinforced the danger posed to Elizabeth by Mary and Catholics at home and abroad. Parliament passes a law stating that anyone who has a claim to the throne and
council could take action in emergen-
cies.
what was their knows of a plan to assassinate the monarch would be removed from the succession. Due to the increased threat from Spain, Elizabeth focused on improving relations with France.
significance? Elizabeth refused to execute Mary, Queen of Scots. Throckmorton Plot, 1583: Spanish and papal money would be used to back the Duke of Guise to invade England, free Mary, overthrow Eliza-
beth and restore Catholicism in England. Francis Throckmorton was executed in November 1583. The Bond of Association was established which mean that anyone associated with an assassi-
Cipher A secret way of writing in code. nation plot against Elizabeth would not be allowed to benefit from her death in any way. Spanish ambassadors were expelled from England, and no more lived in England for the rest of Eliza-
beth’s reign. Life became harsher for Catholics as they were now treated with increased suspicion (see notes below this table). The Babington Plot, 1586: The Duke of Guise would invade Eng-
French term referring to agents who land with 600,000 men and put Mary on the throne. The plot was supported by Spain and the pope. Babington and his accomplices were executed. Mary was put on trial by the Privy Council
become part of groups suspected of and was found guilty. Mary was executed in February 1587.
Agents
wrong-doing and encourage other
Provoca-
members to break the law so that po-
teurs The Act of Preservation of the Queen’s Safety had been passed in 1585. The act stated that, in the event of Elizabeth’s assassination, Mary, Queen of Scots, would be barred from the succession.
tential threats can be identified and 2. Why was Mary,
arrested. The Babington Plot provided enough evidence to put Mary on trial and find her guilty. This had not been possible in earlier plots. By 1587, it was clear that Spain were planning a major attack
Queen of Scots
Foreign The aims and objectives that guide a executed? against England. This reinforced the threat that Mary existence posed to England.
Policy nation’s relations with other states.

North and South America. Europeans 3. What were Eliz- Developing and improving trade to benefit the English economy; protecting England’s borders; protecting the English throne; avoiding war which would have been very costly and could have
New
only became aware of their existence
World abeth’s foreign led to Elizabeth being overthrown. The New World – during Elizabeth’s reign, English merchants began to explore new markets such as China, India, Persia and Turkey. There were huge profits
in 1492.

Historically, individuals who were

policy aims? to be made from the New World. This created some problems as Spain controlled much of the New World where there were valuable trading opportunities. Americas – Spain claimed much of
armed with their own ships who cap- the Americas as its own including Florida, the Carribean, Mexico, Panama, Chile and Peru. There were valuable crops in these places such as sugar, tobacco and silver. Anyone who wanted to
Privateer tured other ships for their cargoes—
often with the authorisation of the gov-
trade here needed a licence but many English merchants ignored this rule. They would often trade illegally and some privateers attacked Spanish ships and ports. This increased tension be-
ernment. . tween England and Spain.
Circum-
navigate
To travel all the way around the world. 4. How were Eliz- The Spanish Fury and the Pacification of Ghent, 1576: By 1576, the Spanish government in the Netherlands was all but bankrupt. Despite the silver and riches being brought from the New
abeth’s relations World, the cost of war was too great for Spain. Spain’s forces in the Netherlands finally mutinied after months of no pay. They rampaged through Dutch provinces including Antwerp in 1576.
To rob a town or city using violence, with Spain affect- This was known as the Spanish fury. The violence united all 17 Dutch provinces against Spain. They drew up the Pacification of Ghent which demanded: all Spanish troops to be expelled from
Sacking
causing a lot of damage.
ed by foreign poli- the Netherlands; the restoration of political autonomy; an end to religious persecution. Elizabeth sent a loan of £100,000 to the Dutch rebels and agreed to send an expeditionary force to the
Expedi- An armed force sent to a foreign coun- cy? Netherlands to ensure the Pacification of Ghent was carried out. In February 1577, Phillip II’s brother, Don Juan arrived in the Netherlands and agreed to all of the provinces demands.
tionary try to achieve a specific function or
force objective.
5. How did Eng- Treaty of Joinville (1584) meant that Elizabeth I could no longer avoid direct intervention in the Netherlands. June 1585, Dutch representatives offered Elizabeth I sovereignty in the Netherlands.
Empty ships set on fire and sent in the land’s involve- She refused as it would have meant removing Phillip II. Instead, on 10th August 1585, Elizabeth I signed the Treaty of Nonsuch with the Dutch Protestants. This put England and Spain at war:
Fireships direction of the enemy to cause confu-
sion. ment in the Neth- Elizabeth had agreed to support the rebels with 7,400 troops. She put Robert Dudley in command of the army. Phillip II thought England should stay out of the Netherlands. Drake and Elizabeth
KEY DATES
erlands encour- I angered Phillip when, in October 1585, she sent Drake to the Spanish settlements in the New World to raid them and disrupt their flow of resources and finances. Reasons why the intervention
age a war with was not a success: Dudley was not given enough money or supplies because Elizabeth thought she could still negotiate with Spain; Elizabeth and D udley had different aims—Dudley accept-
1569 Revolt of the Northern Earls Spain? ed the title of Governor General of the Netherlands on Elizabeth’s behalf and this made it look like Elizabeth was deposing an anointed monarch; in the Summer of 1586, English forces only
1571 Ridolfi Plot
managed to slow the Duke of Parma’s advance through the Netherlands and relations between the Dutch and English was poor because Elizabeth wasn’t very committed. Singeing of the King’s
Beard (1587): In March 1587, Elizabeth ordered Francis Drake to attack Spain’s navy. On 19th April he sailed into Cadiz harbor, Spain’s most important Atlantic port and destroyed 30 ships as
1576 Spanish Fury & Pacification of Ghent well as a lot of provisions. This was called ‘the attack on the King’s beard’. Drake then spent several weeks attacking the coast of Portugal before heading to the Azores. His aim was to capture
1583 Throckmorton Plot
Spanish treasure ships and bring silver from Spain’s New World colonies. This delayed the armada because the Spanish had to break off from building the armada.

1584 Treaty of Joinville 6. Why did Phillip Religion – Phillip II wanted to get rid of heresy/Protestantism. The Papacy had wanted Elizabeth to be overthrown since her excommunication in 1570. The invasion was to be a signal for Eng-
II launch the lish Catholics to rebel against Elizabeth. Tension – Drake’s actions in the New World. Elizabeth’s support for the Dutch rebels. Politics – the Treaty of Joinville (1584) and the Treaty of Nonsuch
1585 Treaty of Nonsuch Spanish Armada? (1585). England would be a useful addition to Spain’s empire. Spanish confidence – the Duke of Parma had been successful in the Netherlands and Elizabeth’s hesitation in taking direct action
1586 Babington Plot
made England appear weak.

1587 Mary, Queen of Scots executed

7. Why did the Supplies – the Spanish Armada was not well supplied. Drake’s raid on Cadiz had destroyed lots of barrels that had been replaced with barrels made of inferior wood. This caused food supplies
Spanish Armada to rot. Lack of a deep sea port – Spanish war ships could not dock in shallow ports. This mean it would take 48 hours to load men and supplies onto the Armada using smaller boats. Communi-
fail? cation between the Duke of Parma and the Duke of Medina-Sidonia – all communications had to go by sea and were therefore unreliable. It took a week for word to reach Parma that Medina-
Sidonia was in the English Channel. Parma’s fleet would not be ready for another 48 hours but the English were ready to attack. English ships – galleons were a new type of ship. They were eas-
ier and faster to manoeuvre. Cannons on these ships could be reloaded much quicker meaning that English ships could fire more cannons than Spanish ships. Galleons were the best warships
1588 Spanish Armada in the world. Expert advice – Elizabeth left all key decisions to her commanders: Lord Howard who was Lord High Admiral and Sir Francis Drake. Both men were very experienced and provided
excellent leadership while at sea. She also took on board the advice of John Hawkins, the treasurer of the navy, about the need for smaller and faster ships. Fireships – empty ships were set on
fire and sent in the direct of the enemy to cause damage and confusion. This created havoc for the Spanish by causing the armada to scatter.
Knowledge Organiser— Topic 3: Elizabethan Society in the Age of Exploration, 1558-88
KEY TERMS TOPIC KEY INFORMATION
Social Mobili- Being able to change your position in 1. What were No national system of schooling but the Elizabethan education system was designed to prepare you for the life you would lead. Thus, it usually focused on practical skills and only basic literacy. Only a small percentage of children went to school
ty society. Elizabethan at all and of those, there were very few girls. University: This started at age 14 or 15. Cambridge and Oxford were the only two options. The highest level was a doctorate which could be taken in Medicine, Law or Divinity. In London, the Inns of
attitudes to- Court trained lawyers. Elizabeth I was keen for these universities to educate more protestant clergymen. Punishments: The teacher maintained discipline but boys were expected to report misbehavior outside of the classroom. Punishments
Someone learning a trade or skill. They
Apprentice wards educa-
were unpaid. included: exclusion, being kept in at break time, expulsion, corporal punishment (including caning) and being ‘on report’. Girls Schools: Girls of all classes did not go to school. If they did, they went to a Dame School. Education was focused
tion?
Subsistence Growing just enough to feed the family
on the home as wives and mothers. Skilled Craftsmen or Yeomen: Much of their education came in the form of apprenticeships where they would learn the right skills to run the family business. For boys, whether they went to school or not,
Farming but not to sell. depended on whether the families needed them to work. Petty Schools: These were set up and run in the teachers home. They learnt reading, writing, as well as basic arithmetic. Beating for poor behavior was common. Bright or well-off boys
then went to a grammar school. By 1577, every town in England had them. Grammar Schools: This was the biggest development in Elizabethan England. 42 were founded in the 1560s. Previously the church had provided most of the education.
Rural The population of the country falls as They were private schools set up for boys considered bright who came from well-off families. Fees varied according to home much property your family owned. Some lower class boys who showed promise could also attend and their fees were
Depopulation people move in search of work.
paid for by money that had been left in the wills of wealthy people. The school year was long with holidays only at Christmas and Easter. The day began at 6am and lasted for 10 hours. The focus was Latin, Greek and French. There was a great
Arable Farm- emphasis on memorizing large passages of text, especially bible passages. Debating was also important. School was also attended on Saturday morning. How big an impact did schools have? 30% of men and 10% of women were literate by the
Growing crops on farm land.
ing end of Elizabeth’s reign, compared with 20% of men and 10% of women in the 1530s. Leading thinkers increasingly believed that girls should also attend school but the biggest barrier was cost e.g. loss of family income from a child not working.

Homeless people without jobs who 2. What activi- Your social class and gender largely dictated the activities on offer. Spectator Sports: People gambled large sums of money on sporting competitions such as wrestling and tennis. Baiting: Bears were chained to a post and dogs unleashed against
roamed the countryside begging for ties did Elizabe- it. Care was taken to not kill the bears as they were expensive. Special arenas were built to house bear baiting and all classes of people enjoyed watching. Bull Baiting: Most towns had a bull ring. The bulls weren’t expensive so they fought to
Vagabonds money, stealing and committing crimes thans do in
to survive. Treated harshly if found e.g.
the death. Cock-fighting: Special arenas were built for cock-fighting. Enjoyed by all classes. Large sums of money were bet. Puritans disapproved of it as they felt the animals were being mistreated. Fights were held on a Sunday—the holy day.
their spare
whipping and imprisonment. Literature: Medieval works such as Canterbury Tales were popular. History was a popular subject, as were accounts of voyages of discovery. The most popular form of writing was poetry and plays. Theatre: developed as a result of Protes-
time?
tantism. At the start of Elizabeth’s reign, Mystery Plays were common. They brought bible stories to life. Protestants believed the plays were another way of spreading Catholicism. Elizabeth was concerned that they would encourage religious
Economic When a fall in demand leads to falling violence so they were banned. New secular plays developed which were seen as more exciting. New theatre companies were set up and funded by the nobility. Only men were allowed to act: women’s parts were taken boys. Poor people could
Recession prices and businesses losing money. pay 1 penny to stand in the pit at the base of the stage. Seats were very expensive. The most expensive place to sit was above the stage. The first purpose built theatres were developed. Music and Dancing: Many people played instruments.
Bagpipes and fiddles were played by the lower classes. Lutes and spinets by the noble and upper class households. Wealthy families employed their own musicians to play during meals and feasts. Only men could be paid musicians. Books of
Financial help given to the poor, paid
Poor Relief for by a special tax call the poor rate. popular songs could be bought. New music was composed to accompany the secular plays. Dancing brought men and women together.
Justices of the Peace organised this.
3. Why did Who were the poor? Typically, people who spent 80% of their income on bread. 40% of the poor in Norwich were under 16. Many were widows. Why did poverty increase? Population growth: During Elizabeth’s reign, England’s population
Deserving Those who were unable to work be- poverty and grew by 35%. London was the fastest growing. Food was grown in the countryside and then brought to towns and cities. More mouths to feed meant the price of food rose. Rising Prices: Poor harvests led to rising food prices. Food production
Poor cause of illness or age. vagabondage grew much more slowly than the population despite books being published on improving harvests. Grain prices rose the fastest and bread was a staple diet. Wages: Wages did not rise as fast as prices. Landowners cut wages to keep their costs
increase?
Those who were fit to work but didn’t. down. The demand for land increased so landowners charged higher rents. Many tenants were evicted for sheep farming. Sheep Farming: 81.6% of exports were wool so sheep farming became very profitable. It was a large scale business that
The Idle Poor
They were treated harshly. only large farms could afford. Rural unemployment rose because sheep farming did not require as much Labour. Sheep farming took over land that had once been used for growing crops. Enclosure of the land: Large open fields were replaced
with individual fields belonging to one person. Small farms were merged and tenant farmers evicted. Those who could not afford rents suffered. More efficient techniques reduced the need for as many workers and so people lost their jobs.
Quadrant Used by sailors to help with navigation Also, as the supply of Labour (people willing to work) increased, wages decreased. Sometimes common land was enclosed in small villages. This was land used to collect firewood and graze pigs. This was subsistence farming. People were angry.

4. How and Poverty and vagabondage were seen as growing problems in Elizabethan England. The Elizabethan’s generally divided the poor into categories: the ‘idle’ and ‘deserving’ or ‘impotent’. Tudor people were sympathetic to those who were unable
Astrolabe An instrument used by sailors to help why did atti- to work because of age or illness. Those who were fit to work but didn’t, were treated harshly. Vagrants faced severe punishments. When trade was bad, the numbers of ‘able bodied’ poor increased. Unemployment came to be recognized as a
tudes towards real problem. This led to the development of new ways to help the poor. Elizabeth’s government adopted a more national approach. New laws were passed. 1563 Statute of Artificers: ensured that poor relief was collected. Anyone who re-
Colony Land under the control of another the poor
fused to pay the rates was imprisoned. 1572 Vagabonds Act: Its aim was to deter vagrancy. Stated that vagrants were to be whipped and a hole drilled through each ear. JPs were to keep a register of the poor. Towns and cities were given re-
change?
sponsibility to find work for the able bodied poor. Vagrants were to be imprisoned if arrested a second time for vagrancy, and given the death penalty. 1576 Poor Relief Act: aim was to distinguish between able bodied and impotent poor. JPs
When one person or company controls provided the able bodied poor with wool. Those who refused work where they were given help to be sent to a special prison funded by poor rates, known as Houses of Correction.
Monopoly the supply of something. They can
charge whatever price they like.
5. Why did Expanding Trade: Reports from the Americas suggested there was an abundance of different crops, animal skins and precious metals. Explorations were risky but the rewards could be enormous. There were hopes of finding riches in un-
KEY INDIVIDUALS Elizabethans discovered areas. Triangular Trade: English’s merchants began to exploit the slave trade It eventually developed on a massive, trans-Atlantic scale. John Hawkins first bought slaves from Africa in 1562, transported them across the Atlantic and
want to ex- sold them to Spanish colonists. He made a huge profit and bought ginger, animal hides, sugar and pearls. Adventure: Accounts of journeys into new lands encouraged many young men to explore in the hope of making their fortunes. Naviga-
Two native Americans who were plore the
brought back to England after the 1584 tion: Navigation was becoming increasingly precise. Thomas Harriot worked out a way of using the sun to calculate the true sailing direction of a ship. Voyages were now safer, faster and more direct. Quadrants and Astrolabes were used
world?
Manteo & expedition to conquer the Americas. to make accurate calculations about the location of ships using the position of the stars. The journeys were recorded and printed meaning others could make them. Maps: Records of voyages led to more accurate maps. The Mercator Map in
Wanchese They helped the English make first 1569 was made using parallel lines and evenly spaced lines of latitude and longitude. Printing made the maps more widespread and sailors could easily access them. Previously maps had been hand drawn which had led to many mistakes.
contact with the natives and helped to
make a dictionary. 6. How did Larger, more stable ships: ship design improved making longer journey’s possible. Galleons were developed in the 16th century and were much larger than traditional trading ships. Larger cargoes could be stowed. More supplies could be
ships develop? taken on longer journeys. They were useful for both trade and voyages of discovery. Faster, more maneuverable ships: Galleons used different sail types on the same vessel. More masts and sails enabled longer, faster and more accurate voy-
An explorer and courtier to Elizabeth I.
He popularised tobacco in England. ages. Bows and sterns were lowers making the ships more stable in heavy seas. Better fire power: Gun decks now ran the entire length of the ship. Cannons could fire from the sides as well as the bow and stern. Piracy was common so this was
Walter
Given a grant in 1584 to settle lands in important so ships had to defend themselves. English and Spanish ships often attacked each other too.
Raleigh
North America. Developed a blueprint
to be used in future expeditions. 7. What was Why did Drake circumnavigate the globe? To raid Spanish colonies in the Pacific. At the time, relations were deteriorating with Spain; Drake also wanted revenge for the Spanish attack at St Juan de Ulua in 1567. Their fleet was devastated
the significance and 325 sailors were killed; there were also great profits to be made and many people were willing to invest in order to get a good return—some estimates put Drake’s treasure at £500,000,000 in today’s money. Why was the circumnavigation
of Sir Francis so significant? England’s as a great sea-faring nation: They were only the second crew in history to have circumnavigated the globe. This was a great boost to English morale and est ablished English ships as being some of the finest in the
Circumnavigated the globe from 1577 Drake?
Sir Francis to 1580. He was knighted by Elizabeth world. This was important amidst growing fears of invasion. Encouraging Explorations: Drake and his crew survived in part by raiding Spanish ships and colonies up the coast of South America. They gathered a great deal of information about
Drake I. Drake brought back an estimated the Americas as well as keeping logs of their voyages that could be shared with other explorers. Nova Albion: Drake landed the Golden Hind in 1579 in an area that was most probably just north of San Francisco. They performed a coronation-
£500,000,000 from his travels! like ceremony on Drake and he declared Elizabeth I to be its ruler. Native Americans rights were ignored and Elizabeth didn’t recognize the previous agreement by the Pope to allow only Spain and Portugal rights to claim this land. This peaceful
welcome encouraged the idea that Europeans could settle there. Encouraging Colonies in America: Previous attempts made by Sir Humphrey Gilbert to discover North America had ended in disaster. Gilbert was bankrupted. Drake’s successes
encouraged adventures and investors to continue trying to establish their own colonies. Anglo-Spanish Damaged Relations: Drake was correct when he said that attacking Spain’s American colonies would anger Phillip II. Elizabeth I knighted
Blamed the increase in poverty on Drake on the Golden Hind—this sent a clear message to Spain. It deteriorated Anglo-Spanish relations further.
gentry and yeomen for preferring
Sir Thomas sheep to crops because of better pric- 8. What was Undermining Spain: Provided England with a base from which to attack Spanish colonies in the New World. Virginia was ideally placed —not too far from Florida for attacks to be launched but far enough away to be reasonably away from the
Smith es for wool. He argued that enclosing the significance
the land for this purpose had made Spanish. England also hoped to rival Spain’s overseas empire and undermine its influence in the New World. It also offered the Native Americans an alternative trade partner. The roots of the British Empire: the roots of the Empire can be found
of attempts to in experiments on settling new and foreign lands. Economic Benefits: Trade was vital to the English economy. Relying on the Netherlands as England’s main market and trade route had been too risky by the 1560s. Many of the things that were
people’s lives unbearable.
colonise Virgin-
supplied from southern Europe could be also found in Virginia. If England could control it, they would not be dependent on Spain, Italy and France for fruit, vines, spices and other luxuries. Tobacco was the most famous new crop to be brought
ia?
to England. Sugar cane also came from that part of America.
The artist, put in charge of the expedi-
tion to colonise Roanoke. He returned 9. Why did The first colony failed for a number of reasons. The Voyage: The colonists left England too late to reach Virginia in time to plant crops. The food rotted quickly because of the climate. The colonists were dependent on the Native Americans for
to England to update Raleigh on their attempts to food after their ship, the Tiger, was damaged. Dried peas and beans were rescued and edible but couldn’t be planted. The Reality: They had hoped to find precious metals but there were none. The men were not prepared nor ready to forage
progress but when he returned, the colonise Virgin-
John White settlement had vanished. The word for nuts. Many merchants had gone with the hope of getting rich quick. They soon realized the idyllic descriptions they had been given were far from the truth. Inexperience: The colonists were very reliant on the Natives for their survival. Many
ia fail?
‘Croatoan’ was found carved into a tree were not cut out for a life of hard work. Many problems stemmed from it being the first of its kind. Native American Resistance: Many Natives did not trust the English. The English were too demanding and there was lots of conflict and tension.
so it was thought the colonists may The local chief of Roanoke, Wingina, was suspicious of the English and grew tired of their demands. He believed that the English had supernatural powers because the English seemed to have the power to kill them without touching them. In
have relocated. However, no trace of reality this was just diseases brought from England. After a hard winter, the colonists asked for more handouts and Wingina attacked the English but ended up dead himself. Inexperience: The colonists were very reliant on the Native Americans
the colonists was ever found.
for survival. Many problems stemmed from it being the first of its kind. Many of the settlers were not set out for a life of hard work. Instead they expected quick riches. There were not the right kind of people in the right numbers.
Knowledge Organiser— c1000-c1500: Crime, Punishment and Law Enforcement in Medieval England
KEY TERMS KEY DATES TOPIC KEY INFORMATION

Anglo-Saxons believed that it was the King’s duty to 1. Crimes in Anglo- In 1000, towns were growing in importance especially London and Southampton. Trade contacts with Europe and coined money helped this. Larger communi-
King Peace take care of law and order so people could go about English King- Saxon England. ties made crime more common as there were more people in close contact. England’s population in 1000 was between 1,700,000 and 2,000,000. 90% of peo-
their everyday lives. 954 doms unite un- ple lived in the countryside. Few lived in towns. These communities were vulnerable to poor harvests, bad weather and diseases. A powerful King and nobles
der one King.
Betraying the King—for example, by helping his ene-
made laws whilst village communities and strong family ties helped enforce the law at a local level. The King relied on advisors to help him rule the country
Treason and it was his duty to keep the King’s Peace. Nobles played an important role in backing laws that protected their interests. The King gave land to nobles in
mies or plotting to kill or replace him.
William I return. Actions that threatened this social structure were classed as crimes against authority e.g. starting a fight or treason. The Church was very powerful and
Crimes 1066 crowned King of had a responsibility for stopping moral crimes e.g. stealing church property.
Crimes like assault or murder that cause physical England.
against the
harm to another person.
person 2. Anglo Saxon Law Anglo-Saxons believed it was a victim’s responsibility to seek justice but that the whole community should play a role in delivering justice. Being loyal to your
Forest Laws are
1072 Enforcement community was seen as a duty. By the 10th century, English shires were divided into small areas called hundreds. Each hundred into ten tithings. All the men
Crimes Crimes, like theft, robbery and arson that involve introduced.
against taking or damaging something that belongs to anoth-
(aged over 12) were responsible for the behavior of others. One man from each was expected to meet regularly with the King’s Shire Reeve. Anyone who wit-
property er person. Domesday nessed a crime was expected to raise a ‘hue and cry’ - literally shouting for help. Justice relied heavily on religion—hearings took place where the accused
1086
Book could swear an oath and called upon the community to support their claim. In cases with little evidence, the Church played an important role with trial by or-
Being responsible for the actions of other members deal. The accused was tested in the eyes of God including trial by hot iron, hot water. In cold water ordeals, the accused was thrown into water with their
Collective Henry II built
of your group. In a village community, if someone hands tied—floaters were judged guilty, anyone who sank was judged to be innocent. ‘Guilty’ had been rejected by the water.
Responsibil- prisons for
broke the law, it was up to everyone else to take
ity those awaiting
action. 3. Anglo-Saxon Pun- Murder was punished by fines paid to the victim’s family—this was compensation for the loss of life known as the Wergild or ‘main-price’. Wergild was paid
1166 trial. Appointed
judges to hear ishments directly to the victim’s family. The fines were determined by social status. Your class affected how much your life was worth. Treason and arson were punished
Reeve A local official appointed from the community. cases twice a by execution—usually hanging. For lesser crimes, corporal punishment including mutilation could be used. This was meant to act as a deterrent. Punishments
year. like eye-gouging or removing a hand or foot were seen as a more lenient alternative to the death penalty. Criminals with these scars also served as a perma-
Abbey Community of monks or nuns.
nent reminder to others of the consequences. Public punishments using the stocks or pillory were a combination of physical pain and discomfort along with
Coroners are
Actions that didn’t physically harm anyone or their 1194 public humiliation. The stocks were placed outdoors in full view of the village. The public added to the humiliation by throwing rubbish.
introduced.
property but that didn’t match up to society’s views
Moral 4. Crimes in Norman Anglo-Saxon Serfs (Peasants) were legally bound to work for their lord under the feudal system—running away was a crime. If a Norman was murdered by an
on decent behaviour such as having sex outside of
Crimes
marriage or not sticking to the customs of the England. Anglo-Saxon then there was a special penalty known as the ‘murdrum fine’. This was a large sum of money paid by the hundred where the body was found.
church. Richard I ap-
pointed some Designed to stop revenge murders that took place after 1066. Continued idea of a tithing and collective responsibility. William declared large stretches of the
1195 knights as keep- English countryside to be ‘royal forests’ to be used for hunting e.g. Nova Foresta. 40 villages were evicted around the New Forest. Previously common-land
Petty Theft Stealing small, low-value items.
ers of the King’s held by the people was now controlled by the King. Only those who could afford to pay for hunting rights could hunt there. Hunting for food was a crime and
peace. this hit poor communities. Created ‘social crimes’ - crimes that were against the law but most people do not disapprove of. Punishments were deliberately
Causing physical harm. A criminal could be pun-
Maiming ished by having a hand or ear cut off, or their tongue harsh. Any man aged 14 or over who tried to avoid trial by running away was declared an outlaw. They could be killed without any legal consequences for the
cut out. person responsible. Robin Hood had an outlaw gang—described as brave and heroic against the Normans.
Trial by Ordeal
1215
ends.
Capital pun- 5. Law Enforcement Norman castles were placed in every part of the Kingdom. Peasant workers were made to build the castles in which the Norman Lords would live from where
The death penalty.
ishment Edward III ex- in Norman England. they could control the local population. Castles represented the increasingly strong royal authority over law and order. When William faced rebellions to his
tended a sys- rule in York and East Anglia, he used brutal means to force people to unite under his control. He ordered extreme punishments and punished large groups to
1327
A range of punishments that caused harm or pain to tem of knights show his power. Some estimates say 100,000 people died from starvation as a result of food shortages. Trial by Combat was a method used to settle disputes
Corporal to all areas.
the body including being beaten or having body over large sums of money or land. The two people involved would fight using swords or sticks. Local collective responsibility continued as did tithings and ‘hue
Punishment
parts removed. and cry’. Community based systems made sense in small villages.
Black Death
A severe punishment meant to match the severity of 1348 reaches Eng- 6. Punishment in Continued to rely on a combination of physical punishments, fines and execution. Wergild was ended by the Normans and fines were now paid to the King’s
Retribution
the crime. land.
Norman England. officials instead of victims and their families. Punishment was centralized. Increase in the number of crimes that were punishable by death or mutilation. Under
A punishment that is frightening or painful—
the new Forest Laws, poaching was punishable by death. Mutilation was used as an alternative to the death penalty including branding. The Norman system of
Deterrent law was based around the idea of the King’s Mund—all men should expect to live safely and peacefully away from crime under the authority of the King.
designed to put people off committing the crime. Statute of La-
1351
bourers
A poor person living in the countryside who owns 7. Crime in Later The Statute of Laborers made it a law to ask for higher wages (1351). Illegal to look elsewhere for a better paid job. Laws against heresy introduced in 1382,
Peasant Middle Ages. 1401 and 1414. Punishments were severe and burning at the stake was introduced—purifying the corrupt soul.
little or no land.

8. Law Enforcement Community enforcement continued alongside increasingly centralized systems for upholding law. 1194—Richard I introduced coroners to deal with suspicious
Poaching Illegal hunting on land that belongs to someone else. Justices of the
1361 Peace (JPs) in Later Middle Ages deaths. In 1195, he appointed knights as keepers of the ‘king’s peace’ for areas where it was difficult for a community to maintain law and order. 1327—
appointed. Edward III extended this to all areas. By 1361, known as JPs (Justices of the Peace) - met 4 times a year to carry out magistrate duties or enforce the law. Repu-
Mark a criminal by burning their flesh with a hot iron. tation for being harsh on poachers. Appointed by a central government power base—selected on a basis of their wealth and power.
Brand It was permanent to remind people of their criminal
past.
9. Punishment in Fines, stocks, pillories and physical punishments such as maiming and execution usually by hanging. Hanging, drawing and quartering introduced for high trea-
Laws against
1382 heresy intro- Later Middle Ages son—plotting to kill the King. A terrifying deterrent! Semi-strangled, then revived, his abdomen cut open and intestines drawn out. Limbs spread across the
Clergy People who work for the Church including priests. country.
duced.

Holding a set of beliefs different to those of the es- 8. The Power of the The Church was incredibly powerful, c1000-1500. The Clergy were often educated and churches were often the most impressive buildings in a community—
Heresy
tablished religion of the time. Church in the Middle their size dominating the landscape and reminding people of the power of God on earth. The Medieval church taught sinners would go to hell. The Church
Burning at the
stake intro- Ages owned 1/5 of the country’s wealth. 11th century—William encouraged the Church to set up courts to deal with ’moral crimes’ - working on a basis of reform
Secular Non-religious. 1401
duced for here- for the criminal. 12th century—Henry II tried to limit the power of the church—concerns about its authority and undermining the standardized system. Consti-
tics. tutions of Clarendon enacted. In the 1290s, English Jews were ordered to convert to Christianity. In 1215, the Pope ordered that all priests should stop helping
Blessed and holy. The bread was used in trial by
Consecrated consecrated bread and believed to be the body of to organise trials by ordeal and soon the system came to an end. An alternative way of deciding if someone was guilty had to be found—’Trial by Jury’ - a group
Christ. of 12 men. Churches offered ‘Sanctuary’ to criminals—criminals could swear an oath and vow to leave the country within 40 days instead of going to court.
Henry Tudor
becomes King This ended in 1536 during the reign of Henry VIII. Senior Church officials argued that the clergy should only be tried in Church courts—’benefit of clergy’.
1485
Safe place, hiding place. Some churches offered Henry VII of Church courts rarely imposed the death penalty. System open to abuse—clergy were usually educated and the test involved reciting Psalm 51 ‘the neck verse’.
Sanctuary England.
people accused of crimes protection from the law. Criminals memorised it and escaped punishment—system criticised.
Knowledge Organiser— c1500-1700: Crime, Punishment and Law Enforcement in Early Modern England
KEY TERMS TOPIC KEY INFORMATION

Financial assistance for the poorest members of 1. How did religion affect In the 16th century, Europe was rocked by religious conflict. Martin Luther had protested against corruption in the Catholic Church and attracted followers in Germany who be-
Poor Relief
society. changing definitions of crime? came Protestants. This movement became known as the Reformation. A change of ruler could make following a certain religion a criminal act. The two most serious crimes were
heresy and treason. Heretics were punished by being burnt alive at the stake. Some people recanted in public and said they had changed their beliefs to avoid being burnt. Henry
Taxes payable on goods imported into the coun- VIII: Henry declared himself Head of the Church of England following a dispute over his divorce from Catherine of Aragon with the Catholic Church; Catholics were executed for
Import Duties
try.
treason for failing to follow Henry. Edward VI was brought up a protestant and he imprisoned Catholic bishops in the Tower of London. Mary I was a Catholic, married to Phillip II
of Spain; 300 people were burnt alive for failing to follow the Catholic faith. Elizabeth I was a protestant and she passed several laws to find a ‘middle way’ with religion. The Act of
Decriminalise Make an illegal activity no longer a crime.
Supremacy meant that Catholics who refused to swear an oath were guilty of a crime; Act of Uniformity said everyone had to go to Church on a Sunday—those who refused were
called recusants and fined. James I was a Protestant and initially lenient towards Catholics but the Gunpowder Plot changed his mind and introduced strict anti-Catholic laws.
Capital Crime A crime that is punishable with the death penalty.
2. How did changes in society Vagrancy: After 1500, growing population, falling wages and rising food prices meant that greater numbers of people were unemployed —many left their village in search of
affect definitions of crime? work. These unemployed, homeless people were known as vagabonds. The better-off population saw these people as criminals. Many people thought they were lazy. A 16th cen-
When a person is let off for a crime of which they tury pamphlet listed ‘types of beggars’. New Laws were passed to deal with this perceived threat: Vagrancy Act (1547) - any able-bodied vagrant who was without work for more
Pardon than 3 days was branded with a V and sold as a slave for 2 years. The 1597 Act for the Relief of the Poor included harsh punishments to act as a deterrent to vagrants including
have been convicted.
whipping. 1601 Poor Laws—aimed to make the system more consistent. All local parishes had to provide poor relief to anyone who was not physically fit to find work—’the de-
Being sent away from England to serve a period serving poor’. The ‘undeserving poor’ were sent to Houses of Correction and forced to work. Rural Crimes: Large areas of land were enclosed by powerful landlords to use to graze
Transportation
of punishment in a colony abroad. sheep for producing wool making it hard for poor people to survive. Many hunted illegally on enclosed land for rabbits but the 1671 Game Act made this illegal. The upper classes
saw these people as trespassers whereas poor people felt sorry for them. Poaching was a social crime—it was illegal but lots of people didn’t care if it was upheld as they thought
Colonies New settlements in foreign lands.
it was unfair. Hard to stamp out because people didn’t report it. Some men got together in gangs. Smuggling: 17th century—government introduced import duties on alcohol and
tea. Plenty of people were willing to buy these goods at a lower price from sellers who had smuggled them in and not paid taxes. Difficult to enforce as many people saw it as a
Help someone return to normal life and society beneficial crime. Puritan Moral Laws: Following the English Civil War, Cromwell made some activities illegal between 1653-1658. He was a strict Puritan and thought people should
Rehabilitate
after they have committed a crime. focus on religion. Cromwell banned Christmas and instead should spend the day reading the bible, said people must go to Church on a Sunday and shouldn’t drink or feast.

3. How was the law enforced, Broadly the same as 1000-1500. Witnesses to a crime were still expected to try and stop suspects or report them. Locals were still expected to join the hue and cry. As cities grew,
Pact A formal agreement.
1500-1700? so did the population and crimes like theft and fraud were common in cities as life was more anonymous than in villages. Many poor rural workers moved to cities to find work and
Belief based on old ideas about magic rather turned to crime. Some people were clearly more wealthy and obvious targets. The role of the Town Constable and Night Watch grew to deal with increased crime rates. Things
Superstition
than reason or science. varied greatly across towns. Rich people hired others to do the job. Constables and Watchmen weren’t effective—some hired professional thief takers who was paid a reward for
catching the criminal. This led to corruption as some became thief-makers and informed on rival gangs. Town Constables: employed by the town authorities; expected to turn in
Philosophical movement of the 17th and 18th
criminals; appointed by local people such as merchants; had powers of arrest; helped collect payments for road cleaning. Night Watchmen: carried a lamp in the dark; unpaid vol-
Enlightenment centuries that focused on the use of reason to
question and analyse previous ideas. unteers who had to do their day job; rang a bell to warn people of criminals; all householders expected to serve as a watchman; took turns to patrol between 10pm and dawn.

4. What punishments were Considerable continuity from the middle ages. Emphasis still on deterrence and retribution but new punishments emerging. Early 16th century, prisons held petty criminals, va-
Smuggling Move goods illegally into or out of a country. there in the early modern peri- grants and drunks as a holding area before trial. Usually just a room in a castle. Conditions were very poor. Violent offenders were kept in the same room as petty criminals. In-
od? mates had to pay prison wardens for bedding and food. Many prisoners died of typhus. Younger prisoners were bullied or abused. In 1556 a House of Correction was opened and
Having a belief or opinion that goes against the was called Bridewell Prison—used to punish poor people who had broken the law and to house orphans, all inmates were made to do hard labor and during the 17th century,
Heresy accepted religion or beliefs of the country. Crime
against the Church and God. more were opened. Capital Punishment: There were 50 capital crimes by 1688. Known as ‘the Bloody Code’ as many were unnecessarily harsh. The idea was to create a strong
deterrent but the system was ineffective. Many crimes were committed out of extreme poverty. Criminals could receive a pardon on account of good behavior. Many women es-
A person who wanders from place to place with caped hanging by ‘pleading the belly’. The crimes punishable included poaching fish.
Vagabond
no fixed home.
5. Why was transporta- Transportation was introduced under James I to the new colonies in North America. Transportation not seen as harsh as execution. Criminals were
KEY DATES
tion seen as a good alter- taken to do tough manual labor usually clearing trees. Sentences for those pardoned from the death penalty served 14 years. Lesser criminals served
1495 Vagabonds and Beggars Act: ‘idle’ people are put in stocks and sent back to their place of birth. native to hanging? 7. At the end, they were freed but with no money, many stayed. It was favored because it was seen as an effective deterrent; England did not have a
suitable prison system; the criminals could populate the colonies for England; some people were developing new ideas about punishment and the
1509 Henry VIII became King.
idea that criminals should be rehabilitated—it gave people a fresh start. 50,000-80,000 transported up to 1770. Young men were favored. The
1517 Protestantism began to spread across Europe following the ideas of Martin Luther. homeless were blamed for spreading the plague and this removed the problem but in reality many died on the journey.
1542 Witchcraft Act
6. Why did Catholics plot After Elizabeth I died, many were hopeful that James I would allow Catholics more religious freedom but overtime he introduced stricter anti-
1547 Edward VI became King. to overthrow the King? Catholic controls that many disliked. Under Elizabeth I, protestants were not allowed to hear mass, or be married or baptized by a Catholic. Robert
1547 Vagrancy Act Catesby was the leader of the plot; his father had been imprisoned for hiding a catholic priest and he recruited other plotters such as Guy Fawkes.
The plot was to set off an explosion that would kill the King on the opening of parliament in 1605. Elite protestants were also in attendance and it
1553 Mary I became Queen—300 people executed for heresy and refusing to be a Catholic. was hoped they could replace James with his daughter, Princess Elizabeth. Guy Fawkes pretended to be a servant and packed the cellar of the Hous-
1558 Elizabeth I became Queen—Elizabeth was a protestant. es of Parliament with 36 barrels of gunpowder. On 20th October 1605, Lord Monteagle received a letter warning him not to attend parliament.
Monteagle passed this onto Robert Cecil, the King’s spymaster who ordered a search of Westminster. Some claim the authorities knew but wanted
Elizabeth I passed several laws about religion as a ‘Middle Way’ between Catholicism and Prot- to make the punishment worse. The plotters were tortured with their bodies stretched on a wooden rack at the Tower of London. Fawkes confessed
1559
estantism.
after 12 days. The plotters were found guilty of treason and sentenced to be hung, drawn and quartered. This extreme punishment was designed to
1563 Act against Conjurations, Enchantments and Witchcraft. serve as a warning. Long Term Consequences: banned from voting until 1829, all Catholic banned from working in the legal profession in 1605 and in
1606, Catholics were forced to swear an oath to the English crown.
1597 Act for the Relief of the Poor classifies people as deserving help or not.
Poor Law sets up parish based administration for organisation poor relief. A house of correction 7. What was society’s General belief in witchcraft fueled by religious fears, James I, attitudes towards women and uncertainty created by civil wars. In 1645, Matthew Hop-
1601 attitude towards witch- kins began hunting down witches in Essex and East Anglia. James I wrote ‘Demonologie’ about witches trying to drown him at sea. Evidence of
is set up in each county to detain offenders.
craft, 1500-1700? witchcraft: a mole, birthmark or unusual skin blemish; the accused were denied sleep and food to get a confession; most notorious test—swimming
1603 James I became King and protestant. At first he was tolerant towards Catholics.
test—the guilty would float. Later 17th century - increasing demand for scientific and a more objective approach to legal matters and evidence. Su-
1605 The Gunpowder Plot—Catholics plotted to overthrow the King. perstitious ideas and witchcraft trials became less common over time, but there were still occasional cases of witchcraft accusations. 1000 people
executed between 1542-1736. The most common method was hanging. Many women accused were wise women or those who were vulnerable e.g.
1671 Game Act
widows who gave advice locally on domestic matters—the authorities thought this undermined the idea of a women being a man’s property. Wom-
1688 50 capital crimes as part of the ‘Bloody Code’. en viewed as more susceptible to the devil. Second half of the 17th century—witchcraft recognized as a superstitious idea rather than crime.
Knowledge Organiser— c1700-1900: Crime, Punishment and Law Enforcement in the 18th and 19th centuries
KEY TERMS TOPIC KEY INFORMATION

A person who dies for their beliefs and is often ad- 1. How and why did Poaching: Poaching a widespread crime after 1700 with a rise in organized gangs. 1723 Black Act was passed to try and deal with this ma king poaching a capital offence. It was also
Martyr
mired for it. highway robbery, illegal to blacken your face. Anti-poaching laws were heavily resented as they were viewed as unfair. Only men worth over £100 were allowed to poach freely. In 1823—the Black Act
An organisation that represents workers for their smuggling and was repealed in reforms led by Robert Peel. Smuggling: Continued into this period as more goods including wine, cloth and spirits were taxed. Growth of smuggler gangs. The
Trade Union
rights. poaching grow Hawkhurst Gang controlled smuggling along the South Coast from 1735-1749. The leaders were caught and hung in 1748. Lots of popular support made it difficult to catch those re-
1700-1900? sponsible. It was seen as a ‘social crime’ - many people benefitted and didn’t see it as a serious wrongdoing. Powerful upper-classes bought cut-price goods at a low price. With miles
The person responsible for law and order in a coun-
Home Secretary of unpoliced coastlines, smugglers could go undetected working at night. It became less common when William Pitt (PM) lowered import duties from the 1780s making it less profita-
try.
ble. Highway Robbery: This became more of a problem in the 18th century because: as trade increased, more people carried around large sums of cash; the growth of towns meant
Inhumane Cruel treatment. the countryside was less populated and there were isolated roads; turnpike trusts improved roads with tolls and this led to more travel. Treated as a serious crime because: it disrupt-
ed travel; it could involve the theft of mail bags; it was committed on the King’s highway and Dick Turpin & Jack Shepherd seen as heroes! 1772—Death penalty introduced. Last re-
Reform To make changes to something to improve it.
ported case—1831. Factors in the decrease of Highway Robbery: the use of mounted patrols in the 19th century and the growth of the banking system meant less people carried cash.
A confused state where sufferers have hallucinations
Psychosis 2. What do the Tol- February 1834, George Loveless was arrested along with five others for ‘administering an illegal oath’ - they had broken an old law intended to stop sailors in the navy organizing a
and delusions—seeing things that aren’t there.
puddle Martyrs mutiny. They had formed a ‘friendly society’ an early trade union where they had sworn to do what they could to protect each other’s wages. They wanted to protest about their low
Penal Involving punishment. reveal about how wages. They were sentenced to 7 years transportation to Australia—very severe punishment was a deterrent to dissuade others from forming a trade union. Why? French Revolution
the government in 1789 had sparked fears about the overthrow of the upper classes; the authorities felt vulnerable following more uprisings in the 1830s. Consequences: a demonstration was held in
A robbery committed on a public road involving dealt with threats London attended by 100,000 people and a petition of 200,000 signatures—the home secretary refused to pardon them. Four years later they were released and they returned to Eng-
Highway Robbery
threatening or attacking travellers.
to authority? land with a heroes welcome. Shows how public opinion could influence what was regarded as a crime.
KEY DATES
3. Why was there a Number of crimes that carried the death penalty: 1688—50, 1765—160, 1810—222. Throughout the 19th century this was reduced. Why? Death penalty seen as inhumane; hanging
1690 Excise duties extended to soap, salt and leather. decline in public not seen as an effective deterrent; more people think criminals should have a chance at reform; alternative punishments e.g. transportation available. Why a decline in public execu-
1690 Mounted customs officers introduced. executions 1700- tions: the crowds that watched were drunk and disorderly; for some, they were a fun day-out rather than a solemn warning—many employers allowed workers a day off to watch;
1900? sometimes the criminals were treated like heroes; the large crowds provided opportunities for further crime e.g. pickpocketing. Public executions stopped in 1868.
1713 Stealing more than 40 shillings became a capital offence.
4. Why was trans- Began in 1610 but after 1783 and the American Wars of Independence, England lost their colonies and convicts were sent to Australia. Why? Seen as serious effective punishment and
Last known execution for witchcraft—Mary and Elizabeth Hicks
1716 portation to Aus- a deterrent but more humane than the death penalty. Advantages: Prisoners would help to populate the colony; Britain’s prisons were not suitable. The Journey: Following trial, pris-
hanged.
tralia introduced oners were kept in hulks (disused ships), conditions were inhumane and prisoners were kept in chains. The journey took three months; many could not afford to return at the end of
The Black Act makes poaching game or damaging the forest illegal and later ended? their sentence. Ended in 1868—why? People believed convicts were responsible for high crime in Australia; free settlers argued that convicts were too much compe tition for jobs;
1723
and a capital crime.
British campaigners argued the conditions on the ships were inhumane; Australia was becoming a desirable place to settle once gold had been discovered; concerns about the costs;
Witchcraft Act—decriminalised witchcraft. People no longer be- new ideas about the purpose of punishment led to more prisons being built in Britain.
1736 lieved in witches and they were now seen as confidence tricksters
trying to take advantage of others. Much less severe punishments. 5. How did the role Common views about prison in the mid 19th century: opportunity for criminals to be rehabilitated; a prison term could deter from a crime; prison sentences could include hard work
1748 Fielding brothers set up the Bow Street Runners.
of prisons change to pack back society; prison made society safer. John Howard and Elizabeth Fry argued for reform and rehabilitation. Not everyone agreed. Some favored punishment and argued:
as a method of prisoners should be kept in harsh conditions; common form of hard labor was walking a treadwheel for ten minutes with a 5 minute break for 8 hours a day; prisoners stood in sepa-
1777 John Howard published The State of Prisons advocating reform. punishment? rate wheels so they could not communicate. The government became increasingly involved in the organization of prisons. Factors influencing prison reform: role of the government,
1778 Transportation to Australia introduced. role of individuals and changing ideas about punishment. Elizabeth Fry: Shocked by the conditions in Newgate in 1813; organized prison education for women and children at New-
gate; taught sewing and bible classes to encourage rehabilitation; improved living conditions providing clothing and furniture; wrote letters and campaigned for prison reform. John
1810 222 crimes were capital offences. Howard: Argued criminals would only change their ways if given a reasonable standard of living; recommended clean water; Christian te aching and private cells; argued for gaol-
1822 Last hanging for shoplifting. ers to receive wages to stop exploitation of prisoners; campaigned in 1774 to release prisoners who had finished their sentences; wrote The State of Prisons in 1777.

Black Act repealed by Robert Peel. Poaching still illegal but no long- 6. In what way was Early 18th century law enforcement continued to use methods similar to the early modern period: parish constables dealt with petty criminals and beggars; watchmen responsible for
1823
er punishable by death. there a shift to- protecting private property and part-time soldiers who dealt with riots. Some towns had salaried constables—more experienced but concerns they were too close to the criminals.
1823 Prisoners held in categories e.g. violent, women, children. wards crime pre- Bow Street Runners (1748): Set up by Henry Fielding appointed thief takers and published wanted persons in the local Covent Garden Journal, they charged a fee. In 1754, John
vention? Fielding took over and 1758 they were paid by the government—first modern detective force. Significance: deterred criminals by increasing their chances of being caught; organized
1829 Metropolitan Police Act regular foot patrols by paid constables (less likely to shirk off); they understood the importance of sharing information on crime. Reasons for opposition to a consolidate police force:
Punishment of Death Act reduced the number of capital crimes to people worried about invasions to their personal privacy; too expensive; doubts it would make a difference. 1829 a turning point—why? Metropolitan Police Act gave London a uni-
1832
60. formed police force; emphasis on deterrence with a public police presence; better organized than Bow Street Runners; 17 districts in London each had its own police division with 144
constables. Robert Peel gave them a distinctive blue uniform to allay fears and distinguish them from the army—concerns they would prevent people from politically protesting
1835 Gaols Act introduced inspections of prisons.
against the government. Outside London: developments slow: concerns about costs; no cooperation between areas; not enforced by central government. 1856 Police Act—all areas
1842 Pentonville Prison built with a separate system. had to have a centrally organized police force—established the principle of deterrence through detection. 1869—first national crime records set up, telegraph communications
meant forces could cooperate. 1842—regular detective branch set up at Scotland Yard investigating in plain clothes—viewed as spies and with suspicion. 1878—CID set up with 200
1850 Import duties cut, large scale smuggling reduced.
detectives. In 1902 they secured the first conviction using fingerprinting and tried to use handwriting recognition in the Ripper investigation.
National Prison Department took overall control of the prison sys-
1850
tem. 7. What were the Pentonville was a prototype of a model prison. The main concern was to keep prisoners as separate as possible. Why? Ensure retribution; solitude to encourage reform through self-
ideas behind the reflection; the government concerned with punishing wrongdoing and deterring others from committing crimes by keeping the conditions deliberately harsh. The aim of the 1865 Pris-
1856 Compulsory for all counties to have a police force.
construction of ons Act was to enforce a strict regime of punishment in all prisons—not to reform prisoners. Features: Cells had a floor area of 4m by 2m; individual cells with the most up-to-date
Prisons Act—all prisons to follow national rules; prisoners must Pentonville Prison? domestic technology so prisoners had everything they needed and didn’t need to leave their cell and communicate; thick walls; work was deliberately boring e.g. oakham picking
1865 work and live in harsh conditions—emphasis on deterrence and which involved unravelling and cleaning old rope; they wore face masks in exercise and sat in individual cubicles at mass. Criticisms: Solitary conditions and lack of human contact led
retribution.
to mental illness, psychosis and depression; high suicide rate; reformers wanted prisoners to be able to change their ways. . Latter half of the 19th century, the regime became harsh-
1868 Capital Punishment Amendment Act ends public execution. er: ‘Hard labour, hard fare and hard board’ - boring and bland diet; wooden board beds and physically demanding work for 12 hours a day.
1869 National Crime Records established. 8. What role did Peel was Home Secretary in 1822 before he was Prime Minister. Metropolitan Police Act (1829). Why? From 1826, an economic downturn led to unemployment and rising crime
1902 Holloway Prison for women opened. Robert Peel play in rates; Peel wanted a centralized police force without the use of force; wanted to ensure consistency across London amongst both rich and poor areas. What? 2000 new recruits;
penal and police standardized training; employed full-time with weekly pay; headquarters at Scotland Yard. Criticisms: Cartoons portrayed them as poorly trained with immoral tendencies; people
1902 Executions moved from Newgate to Pentonville Prison. reforms? worried about French style policing with repressive force; concerns about the cost to taxpayers. Peel attempted to reduce opposition by drawing up clear guidelines: force is the last
1902 First conviction using fingerprint evidence. resort; police are citizens in uniform; police should be model citizens; police must be objective and professional; effective policing is measured by the absence of crime.
Knowledge Organiser— c1900-Present: Crime, Punishment and Law Enforcement in recent times
TOPIC KEY INFORMATION KEY TERMS

1. How have Changing societal attitudes have caused changed in the law. This has resulted in things that were previously legal being redefined as crimes and vice versa. Homophobic Crime: Until A crime motivated by prejudice against the victim’s
Hate Crime
definitions of 1967, homosexuality was illegal in the UK but the Sexual Offences Act decriminalized it for men aged over 21—growing sexual revolution in the 1960s; the Criminal Justice Act gave race, gender, disability or sexual orientation.
crime changed courts new powers to issue more severe sentences for hate crime. Race Crime: In the 1950s, more people from the commonwealth moved to Britain to work—new laws needed to
since 1900? ensure people were treated fairly from minority groups. Domestic Violence: campaign for women’s votes following the two world wars influenced changes in the law—in the past au- Homophobic Prejudiced against people who are gay.
thorities hadn’t been willing to criminalize rape within marriage as women were expect to accept the authority of their husband. Abortion: Until 1967, abortion was illegal except on
medical grounds. Why a change? Some women tried to end pregnancy themselves using alcohol or wire coat hangers which led to deaths; concern about children being born with disa- A court order issued to forbid a particular action or
Injunction
bilities; if the mother was at risk of serious physical or mental harm. Driving Offences: It was illegal to drive a car drunk in 1925. Considered normal to drive home after drinking large behaviour or orders to keep away from someone.
quantities of alcohol as late as the 1970s. Government campaigns and adverts have since highlighted the dangers. Drug Taking: this is a controversial issue but drug taking was made A deliberate act using violence and intimidation espe-
illegal in 1971—some people argue it should be a personal choice; some argue legalization is needed to help tackle crimes associated with it such as sex trafficking and gang violence. Terrorism
cially against civilians to achieve political aims.

2. What new Terrorism: Various groups throughout the 20th century: The IRA in the 70s and 80s used violence to campaign for Irish nationalism from t he UK; Al-Qaeda and ISIS in Europe. Animal Police Community Support Officer working with police
PCSO
opportunities rights activists also seek to end animal testing. Guy Fawkes would have been classed as a terrorist. People Trafficking: People from poorer countries being brought to the UK and officers and have some responsibilities.
have there been forced to work for very low wages or none at all. Women and children forced into prostitution. Criminal gangs control using blackmail, coercion and fear. Not a new crime—19th centu-
for old crimes? ry, poor girls sold into prostitution and white slave trade in the 1830s. Cybercrime: Crime using the internet. Previously carried out using different means. New technology allows for Keeping a careful watch for danger or possible criminal
Vigilance
activity.
this on a greater scale. Internet access allows worldwide scale. Fraud: Impersonating other people to make money illegally e.g. posing as a charity. In the past done by approaching
individuals and tricking them into revealing details. Now it can be done by sending emails and hacking credit card details. Extortion: making someone pay money through blackmail. In
People taking an active role in their community to im-
the past one by letters or on the phone. Now, internet enables criminals to make demands on a wider scale. Copyright Theft: Before the 20th century and the growth of technology this Active Citizenship
prove it.
would have involved photocopying things. Now people can get illegal downloads of music and films.

3. How has polic- Important developments in modern policing include increased use of science and technology, more emphasis on crime prevention and increasing cooperation at a national level. In the Abolished Banned or made illegal.
ing developed 20th century there was increasing specialization in police forces with special divisions set up; increasing emphasis on crime prevention including voluntary neighborhood watch
since 1900? schemes. In 1900, every area in Britain had its own police force. Methods for preventing crime: Breathalyzers and speed cameras; CCTV; Mass video surveillance; biometric screening. The age at which a person is judged to be criminally
Age of Criminal
responsible for their actions and can be prosecuted
Solving crime: improved communications; forensic science; data management; improved computer software. Responsibility
and punished for a crime.
4. Why was the Used less and less from the 19th century, by the 1830s, only murder and treason were punishable by the death penalty. After the Homicide Act of 1957 restricted it to only serious cas- Information presented in a deliberately biased way to
Propaganda
death penalty es of murder e.g. killing a police officer, killing someone by shooting or committing two murders, there was an average of four executions per year. The death penalty was ended for all persuade people to think in a certain way.
abolished in the crimes in 1998. Why was it abolished? Children were shown more tolerance—it was accepted that they did not have the same understanding of their actions as adults and the age of
Diminished Re- Not being fully in control of your actions for example
20th century? criminal responsibility was raised to 10 in 1963; greater leniency shown to women who were suffering with mental illness following the birth of a child—the Infanticide Act meant that sponsibility because of a mental illness.
women could not be executed for murdering their child shortly after birth; more liberal attitudes in Britain; Roy Jenkins (Home Secretary) had strong ideas in the 1960s; controversial
executions also played a role and led to protests e.g. Timothy Evans: hanged for murdering his wife and baby but later proved that they had been killed by a serial killer and Ruth Ellis in An organisation founded in the 1930s that opposed
Peace Pledge Un-
1955 who was hanged for the murder of her violent and abusive boyfriend—he had attacked her whilst pregnant and caused a miscarriage . Ellis was the mother of an orphan killed by war and sought to find peaceful means to resolve
ion
world conflict.
a woman’s execution. A petition to the home secretary signed by 55,000 was ignored.
The right of an artist or company to be recognised and
Copyright
5. How have Use of prisons continued since 1900. The current cost of keeping a prisoner inside is £40,000 a year. Treatment of Young Offenders: affected by changing social attitudes. Borstals: set paid for their work.
prisons changed up in 1902, prison for boys only, designed to separate young offenders away from hardened criminals, emphasized education rather than punishment, the day was very structured and
since 1900? inmates took part in education programs. Estimates put reoffending rates at 30% in the 1930s compared to 60% today. Youth Justice Reforms in the 1940s: Labour government imple- KEY DATES
mented radical welfare reforms: Criminal Justice Act (1948) reduced prison use for juveniles; detention centres used with a more relaxed regime; attendance centres for minor crimes 1908 Children’s Act ends hanging of under 16s.
for weekends and a graduated system of prison depending on the seriousness of the crime. The Children and Young Persons Acts of 1963 and 1969 focused on the importance of car-
ing for young people and favored probation workers rather than prison sentences. Changing attitudes in society mean that more than in the 19th century, many think prisoners should 1946 First specialist Fraud Squad set up in London.
be given a chance to reform and change and simply not be punished. Development of alternative punishments: ASBOs, community service, restorative justice (meeting with the vic- 1947 Police Training College set up to train new recruits.
tim), electronic tagging, drug treatment programs.
Homicide Act led to significant changes in the law regarding mur-
6. What punish- Some men refused to fight during WWI and WWII as they said their conscience would not allow it. After 1916 they were viewed as criminals. The Military Service Act included a section 1957 der. Made allowances for those with diminished responsibility or
who had been abused by the person they had murdered.
ments were called a ‘conscience clause’ which allowed men to refuse conscription on the grounds of conscience. Very few were granted this exception. Prison was the most common punishment
used against for COs who refused war work in WWI. Types of COs: Absolutists—refused to support the war in any way; Pacifists—believed violence in all circumstances are immoral; Alternativists— 1965 Death Penalty abolished for most crimes.
those who re- refused to carry weapons but were prepared to support the war effort in a different way e.g. being a stretcher bearer on the frontline or distributing food which was very dangerous.
1967 Sexual Offences Act
fused to fight? Treatment: Imprisonment, sent to France where the worst of the fighting was and then if they refused they faced a military court, solitary confinement, sentenced to death; the press
presented them as cowardly and unpatriotic, received white feathers or hate mail. Why were they treated so harshly? High casualty rates during WWI; the government needed to re- 1968 Abortion Act & Race Relations Act
cruit lots of men; the government presented fighting as a man’s duty; many people had close family or friends who had been killed. Tribunals: 16,500 men tried to use the conscience
1969 Death Penalty for murder suspension made permanent.
clause and appeared before a tribunal but these were rarely fair. They were held locally so there was no consistency across the country. Members of the panel were too old to fight
themselves but usually had very clear views about other people’s duty to fight. Changes during WWII: COs were offered alternative work on farms, prison used as a last resort. Those 1976 Domestic Violence Act
who actively campaigned against the war could find themselves in court e.g. the Peace Pledge Union. Why a change? People were being asked to unite against a tyrannical Hitler—it First Neighbourhood Watch set up—a local committee of neigh-
would have been hypocritical. However, public opinion could still be hostile when most people were making sacrifices. Some COs were verbally abused in public, attacked or lost their 1982
bours who keep an eye on each others property.
jobs.
1991 Law recognised rape within a marriage as a crime.
7. How did Controversial case made people increasingly critical of capital punishment. Who? Christopher Craig was 16 years old and fired the gun that killed the policeman. Derek Bentley was 18
Home secretary signs 6th protocol of the European Human Rights
Derek Bentley when the murder took place but did not fire a gun—he had the mental age of a 10 year old. Case for Prosecution: Craig fired a gun. Bentley shouted ‘let him have it!’. This made him 1999
Convention formally ending the death penalty.
contribute to the jointly responsible for encouraging Craig. Bentley had a low level of intelligence but not insane and was responsible for his actions. He had a history of criminality and had been in a
debate on the Youth Detention Centre. Case for Defense: ‘Let him have it’ could mean ‘let the policeman have the gun’. There are questions about whether Bentley even said it. Bentley didn’t have a 2000 Terrorism Act
abolition of the weapon and handed himself in to the police. Bentley had a learning disability and mental age of a 10 year old. Jury: Found both men guilty but recommends Bentley for mercy. Judge’s 2005 Criminal Justice Act raises severity of hate crimes.
death penalty? Sentence: Craig can’t be hanged as under 18 but sentenced to long prison term. Bentley guilty of murder and sentenced to death by hanging. Derek’s family used the media to pro-
mote their cause. The family campaigned for 40 years. Eventually pardoned in 1993 and the guilty verdict was quashed in 1998. On the night of the execution, 5000 protesters met 2006 Racial and Religious Act
outside Wandsworth Prison chanting ‘murder!’. Protesters ripped down the death notice pinned to the prison gates. 200 MPs supported Bentley’s reprieve but the sentence was car- National Crime Agency set up to tackle drug trafficking and large
2013
ried out before they could debate it. David Maxwell Fye, the Home Secretary: ‘There is no possibility of an innocent man being hanged in this country’. scale drug production in the UK.

2015 Modern Slavery Act

 Knowledge Organiser— The origins of the Cold War, 1941-58
KEY TERMS KEY DATES TOPIC KEY INFORMATION
Short for the Union of Soviet Socialist Re- Second
publics. The republics were Russia, How did the Stalin ran a strong one party government in the Soviet Union. He was convinced that the West wanted to destroy communism and so he h ad to stand firm to the western
Soviet Un- Sept World War
Ukraine, Belarus, Kazakhstan, Turkmeni- 1939 breaks out in ideologies of superpowers. Churchill was a conservative prime minster and strongly valued the British Empire even though the USA was strongly anti-colonial. He was committed to stop-
ion
stan and several smaller countries. They Europe Stalin, Truman ping the expansion of communism. Roosevelt believed strongly in democracy but made an alliance with the Soviet Union. He felt he needed Soviet help to make future peace
were ruled over from Moscow. and Churchill and to defeat Japan. This might be why he was seen as weak at times. All three membered of the Big 3 were suspicious of each other and this shaped the breakdown of rela-
Tehran
A set of shared beliefs. In 1941, the USA peace confer- differ? tions in later years. The USA and Britain had be very critical of the Soviet Union 1930’s. However Stalin has been a strong opponent of Hitler and so was a useful ally to have
and the Soviet Union had different ideolo- 1943 during the Second World War. However it was clear from an early stage that due to ideological differences the alliance was doomed to fail.
Ideology ence takes
gies concerning how a country should be place.
governed and how society should work. What were the As the Second World War wound down conferences were called to decide what the victors should do after the war. These were attended by the USA (Roosevelt), Britain
The Yalta outcomes of (Churchill) and the Soviet Union (Stalin). There were three main conferences: Tehran, Yalta and Potsdam. Tehran–The USA and Britain agreed to open a second front to take
Capitalists believe that everyone should be Feb Peace con-
free to own property and businesses and 1945 ference takes the Second pressure off the Eastern Front. Stalin would declare war on Japan and supply troops to fight Japan once the fighting in Europe had finished. They discussed how Europe would
Capitalism World war be split after the end of the war. They agreed that Germany should be kept weak after the war. They also agreed that an international organiaation should be set up post war.
make money. The USA’s economic ideolo- place
gy was capitalist. Peace summits? Yalta-They agreed that Germany would be split into four parts, the USA, Britain, France and the Soviet Union, would each take a part. Germany would pay $20 billion in repa-
Potsdam
July rations. The USSR agreed to join the war against Japan 3 months after victory in Europe. There would be free elections in all Eastern European countries. The boarders of Po-
Communists believed that all property conference
1945 land and the Soviet Union would return to those of 1921 which favoured the USSR. Potsdam-Roosevelt had died and had been replaced by Harry S. Truman. Clement Atlee
Com- should belong to the state, to ensure that happens
munism every member of society has a fair share. had replaced Churchill as prime minister. Germany had surrendered by this point. The atomic bomb was being successfully tested as the conference went on. Though Germa-
The Soviet Union was communist. Atomic Bomb ny would be split into 4 its economy would remain as one. Berlin would be split in four even though it was in Soviet land.
Aug dropped on
A political system in which countries lead- 1945 Hiroshima How did the Satellite states– Stalin was reluctant to give up the territory they had gained through the Second World War as he saw them as a buffer against the West. He turned them into
ers are chosen through free elections. Both and Nagasaki
the USA and the Soviet Union said they Satellite states satellite states with communist governments. This was seen as Stalin trying to spread communism worldwide. These countries included: Poland, Hungary, Bulgaria , Romania,
Democra- and technology Yugoslavia, Albania, Caechoslovakia and the Baltic States. Atomic weapons- In August 1945 the USA had dropped two atomic bombs on Japan killing over 120,000. This shifted
were democracies but the Stalin believed
cy End of the
elections had to lead to a communist gov- Sep affect Rela- world politics in favour of the USA who thought that it would allow them to negotiate better with the USSR. However it meant that Stalin was even more determined to create
ernments only the Communist Party repre- Second
1945 tions a buffer aone. It wasn't until 1949 that the Soviet Union created the atom bomb. The idea of a weapon that could kill millions made tensions even worse.
sented the working class. World War

A nation that was once independent but is What was the Long telegram– George Kennan, a US diplomat in the Soviet Union claimed in a telegram that Stalin wanted to destroy capitalism and was worried that the rest of the world
Winston
now under the control of another. In the Churchill impact of the was hostile and looking to destroy communism. It also stated that Stalin would back down if facing strong resistance. It was responsible for the policy of containment.
Satellite 1946
Cold War this term is usually used to de- made his Iron Long & Novikov Novikov telegram– Nikolai Novikov was a Soviet diplomatic who claimed that the USA wanted to use its large military to dominate the world. Further it claims that with Roo-
States
scribe nations under the control of the Sovi- Curtain Telegrams? sevelt dead the USA was less interested in co-operating with the USSR and he believed that the American people supported the idea of a war against the Soviet Union.
et Union.

Colonial- Economic, Political and cultural control of What was the Truman Doctrine– As a response to the fact that most of Europe was bankrupt Truman announced that capitalism was good and communism was evil and he promised to
ism another country. Long Tele- affect of foreign send economic aid and troops to support countries that resisted it. Marshal Plan– Following the Truman doctrine the USA started to give out economic aid to the countries of
gram and the policy on rela- Europe to prevent the spread of communism. By 1952 the US had given $12.7 billion of aid, the USA had become the undisputed leader of the capitalist west. Aid was offered
Payments in money or goods, after a war, 1946
Novikov tele- tions? to the satellite states of Eastern Europe and the USSR but it was rejected as there were too many conditions that Stalin wouldn't agree to.
Repara- from the losing country to the victors. Rep- gram sent.
tions arations are compensation for loss of life
and damage to land. What was the Comiform- (Communist Information Bureau) This organiaation was used to make sure that the satellite states governments were controlled by the USSR. They encouraged
impact of inter- trading between comiform countries and all contact with non-communist countries was discouraged. In its first meeting it rejected the Marshall Plan. Comecon- (Council for
A group of politicians who left Poland after Truman national organi- Mutual Economic Assistance) This was the Soviet answer to the Marshall Plan. This organiaation attempted to support the economic development of its member states. It ar-
London the German invasion in 1939 and formed a Doctrine and sations on US- ranged trade and credit agreements between members as well as encouraging rapid industrial growth through 5-year-plans. This organiaation was created as a response to
Poles government-in-exile first in Paris then in 1947
Marshall plan
London. were Soviet Relations the Marshall plan. NATO-(North Atlantic Treaty Organisation) In response to Stalin’s threat to Berlin NATO was created. This had a collective security agreement that meant
if any country was attacked all other countries would support them. This organiaation resulted in a continued American military presence in Europe. Warsaw Pact-When West
Forbid or refuse. Permanent members of Germany were allowed into NATO the USSR became concerned about a powerful Germany bordering them to the west. Within a week of West Germany joining NATO the
the US security council can stop resolution The Comi-
1947 form was
Soviets created the Warsaw Pact which is a defensive military alliance between its satellite states which was referred to as the ‘Eastern Bloc’.
Veto being passed with a single ‘no’ vote, even if
all the other members think it should be created
passed. Why was there After the war Germany had been spilt into four sections being rules by France, Britain , the USA and the Soviet Union. The three western nations and the Soviet Union had
a Berlin Crisis different ideas for how they would treat Germany. The western countries wanted to build up Germany’s economy, whereas the Soviet Union was mainly focused on taking
Staying apart, not getting involved in the The Berlin and how did it materials from Germany to rebuild the USSR. Talks broke down in March 1948 between the three western countries and the USSR and so the three western countries merged
affairs of others. The USA followed a policy Crisis led to
1948 affect Germa- their aones to create ‘Triaonia’, meaning Germany now was only split into two. In Triaonia a new currency , the Deutschmark, was introduced. This angered the Soviets as it
of isolationism after the First World War. It the division of
Isolation- Germany ny? created a separate economy for the West. In response to this Stalin cut off the land route to Berlin , which was far into Soviet land but was part of Triaonia. He stopped ship-
was forced to abandon this policy in 1941
ism
when Japan bombed Pearl Harbour In ments of food coming in hoping that this would make the three western allies give up West Berlin. Any attempt to supply West Berlin along the road would be seen as the
1945 many Americans hoped they would west being the aggressor and starting a war. To get around this the three western allies airlifted food into Berlin as they knew if the Soviets shot down their planes they would
return to this. Comecon
and NATO been seen as the aggressor. They were able to ship 1,000 tones of food a day and after almost a year of blockade Stalin gave in. This event made it clear there would be no
1949
Limited the spread of something. In US were estab- reunited German and so two nations were formed the German Democratic Republic (GDR) and the Federal Republic of Germany (FRG). The FRG elected its own parliament
foreign policy ‘containment’ meant prevent- lished. and chancellor. Its new capital was in Bonn. The GDR was only recogniaed by the Eastern Bloc and was under the control of the Soviet Union.
Contain-
ing the spread of communism outside of a
ment
small number of Did the arms In 1945 the United States completed the atomic bomb and by 1949 the USSR had also completed the atomic bomb. By 1952 the USA had developed the Hydrogen bomb that
countries The first
Aug successful race affect US- was 1,000 times more powerful. By 1953 the Soviet Union also had it. In 1957 the USA developed inter-continental ballistic missiles (ICBM) and a few months later the USSR
Ordinary or normal. Conventional weapons 1949 Soviet atom Soviet relations also had them. Both sides were spending huge sums of money to try and keep up with the other side. By the 1950’s both sides had enough weapons to destroy the world
Conven- are defined by the International Committee bomb test. numerous times. This made it less likely they were going to engage in war because both sides understood the risks of total destruction associated with going to war.
tional of the Red Cross as any weapon that is not
nuclear, biological or chemical. What was the In 1956 Hungarian people started to protest their lack of political freedoms. There were riots in cities and so Soviet troops were sent in to keep peace. Khrushchev, the new
The Warsaw Hungarian Up- Soviet Leader, replaced Hungary’s prime minister and thought this would end the protests. The new leader, Imre Nagy immediately released political prisoners and encour-
A force that prevents something from hap- 1955 Pact was
pening in the Cold War, many politicians rising? aged the Red Army to leave. Nagy went on to announce Hungary would leave the Warsaw Pact. In response to this Khrushchev, who was worried this would lead to more
formed.
believed in the nuclear deterrent. They countries leaving, invaded Hungary and killed up to 20,000 Hungarians. They asked for help from the west but none came. Nagy was executed. Nagy had expected internal
Deterrent believed a country would be deterred from support as it had been offered financial support as part of the Marshall plan. Though the USA was sympathetic and some western countries took in refugees no military sup-
using nuclear weapons if there was a dan- July- port was offered. Though the USA was willing to support any country fighting communism it was unwilling to involve itself in the satellite states. The USSR became more cer-
ger there enemy would reply with equally The Hungari-
Nov
devastating force. an Crisis. tain that the USA would not risk war and it became clear to the Warsaw pact nations that no support would come from the West.
1956
 Knowledge Organiser— The End of the Cold War 1969-1979
TOPIC KEY INFORMATION
KEY TERMS
What agreements were made In the Early 1970’s relations between the USA and USSR thawed leading to the SALT 1 agreement. The SALT 1 agreement was result of difficult negotiations between both parties and
in the 1970’s focused on the limiting of certain weapons. It limited the number of Anti-Ballistic-Missiles and Inter-Continental-Ballistic-Missiles. The agreement set out steps to avoid nuclear war with
A period of peace between two groups that both sides agreeing to make every effort to avoid the risk of war. It’s success however was limited as both sides had more than enough weapons to destroy each other still and it did not
Détente were previously at war, or hostile to each address new technologies that had been introduced. At Helsinki the nations of the Warsaw Pact and NATO met and agreed three main points; the boarders of the European nations
other.
could not be altered by force, both sides would endeavor through trade and technological co-operation to work for closer relations and they will respect the rights and freedoms of the
people of Europe. This was the high point for the détente. At the SALT 2 both sides agreed to limit missile launchers and strategic bombers, as well as a ban on testing new types of
Interim Temporary, short-term. ICBM. However this was never ratified because of the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan and its affect on US-Soviet relations.

How significant was the Sovi- Afghanistan was an important neighbour for the Soviet Union and after a 1979revoltuion led to the Shah being replaced by an Islamic fundamentalist group the USSR felt it had to inter-
Formal approval. If the Senate had ratified et invasion of Afghanistan? vene to prevent this fundamentalism spreading to protect its own interests. In 1979 it invaded Afghanistan supposedly at the request of its President Amin. Amin was then assassinated
Ratifica-
SALT 2, the terms would have become and the replaced by the pro-Soviet Kamal. The Soviet Union stayed in Afghanistan for ten years. This was seen as an attempt to spread communism. This led to Carter pulling out of the
tion
official US policy.
SALT 2 agreement. It also led to Carter pronouncing the Carter Doctrine in which Carter claimed that the invasion of Afghanistan was the biggest threat to peace since the Second
World War. In his state of the union address in 1980 Carter claimed that the USA would repel by force any threat to US interests in the Persian Gulf. It went on to impose economic
A King or Emperor. Iran was ruled by sanctions on the Soviet Union and begun to fund and arm the rebels in Afghanistan.
Shah
shahs until the 1979 revolution
Why were Olympics In protest against the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan the United States called for a boycott of the 1980 Olympic games held in Moscow, over 60 countries supported this. This had a
boycotted large influence as the Olympics reached a global audience and the boycott demonstrated the global American influence. Some countries, such as Britain, did not ban their athletes from
Economic Measures taken to damage a country’s
Sanctions economy, usually involving a trade ban. participating but encouraged them not to take part. Other countries let their athletes take part as individuals but not representing their nations. But American athletes were told that if
they attempted to travel to Moscow they would have their passports taken. With some of the world’s best athletes not taking part some events in the Moscow games looked second
rate. This angered the Soviet Union as they had seen it as an opportunity to showcase communism, which had been undermined by the USA, this led to a further cooling of relations. In
Abdicate To step down from office or power.
1984 the Soviets attempted to boycott the Olympics in Los Angeles, they were joined by 15 communist countries .

How did Reagan’s election When President Reagan was elected to the Presidency he brought a tough new attitude to the Soviet Union. This led to increased hostility and the period often referred to as the Sec-
Russian for reconstruction. It was used in affect US– Soviet relations? ond Cold War. He had made it clear in a speak in 1983 that he considered the USSR to be an ‘Evil Empire’ and described the USA as being on the side ‘good’. He pushed congress to
Perestroika the Gorbachev era to describe his pro- increase spending on the military and trialled new innovations such as the Trident submarine and the stealth bombers. He understood that the Soviet Union was struggling financially
gramme of reorganising the Soviet State. and so claimed as part of the Reagan doctrine that the USA would fund not just anti-communist nations but anti communist groups within communist nations. Evidence of this can be
seen in Nicaragua and El Salvador where the USA supported anti communist insurgents and started what many considered to be the biggest rollback of communism since the Second
Russian for openness or transparency. In World War. Reagan also started the Strategic defence Initiative (SDI) which was also known as ‘star Wars’ this was a series of satellites with lasers aboard which were theoretically capa-
Glasnost the 1990’s it was used to describe Gorba-
chev’s new more open policies. ble of destroying Soviet Missiles. However it was years away from being ready and was directly opposed to the 1967 Outer Space Treaty. The SDI created panic in the Soviet Union
who had spent a lot of money on their missile systems only to find them seemingly redundant in the face of the new American technology. The Soviet Union knew it would have to
heavily invest to bring its own systems up to the level of the USA’s and it was financially unable to do this. This was an important factor behind Gorbachev’s ‘new thinking’ when he
SALT Strategic Arms Limitation Treaty became premier in 1985.

How did Gorbachev’s ‘new In 1985 Mikhail Gorbachev became the leader of the Soviet Union. At this point the Soviet Union were facing numerous problems, these were: -
KEY DATES thinking’ change Soviet There was little industrial growth of improvement to the Standard of living during the Brezhnev era because all of the money was spent on the arms race with the USA. -
policy? Some satellite states were dealing with unrest over the poor standard of living and the lack of human rights. An example of this would be in Poland where the trade union ‘Solidarity’
1972 SALT 1 Agreement
movement gained support leading to the authorities having to declare martial law in 1981.
1975 Helsinki Agreement -The Soviet Union was having to rely heavily on secret polices to keep peace in the satellite states..
-The Soviet Union had be poorly led for a number of years. This was partially because it had had a series of leaders in poor health who ruled briefly and did not have time to implement
1979 SALT 2 Agreement change.
Gorbachev was determined to reform communism in the USSR and he introduced a series of policies that would have a massive impact on US– Soviet Relations. These policies included:
1979 Soviet Union invades Afghanistan
-He introduced the perestroika policies that reformed the Soviet economy and introduced certain aspects that had made capitalism successful.
1979 Carter Doctrine -He also believed there should be less corruption in government and more openness. He believed that people should not fear their government . This policy known as Glasnost would
allow opposition parties and would hopefully encourage people to have a better understanding of the government.
1980 Moscow Olympics -The Brezhnev doctrine that had dominated Soviet policies and had led to the ’Prague Spring’ would be scrapped and instead the Soviet union would no longer get involved in domestic
affairs of other communist countries.
Ronald Reagan makes ‘Empire of
1983 -The Soviet Union would also withdraw from Afghanistan and reduce spending on arms and defence.
Evil’ speech
This was contrasted by Ronald Reagan’s new tougher thinking . This was seen as a real opportunity by the USA to adapt a more open approach to the Soviet Union from the USA . Gor-
1984 Los Angeles Olympics bachev made significant steps towards limiting nuclear weapons in his first 4 years of leadership.
1985 Geneva summit Did the fall of the Soviet Un- Once it was announced the Soviet Union would abandon the Brezhnev Doctrine the satellite states of Eastern Europe were given freedom as to how their countries would be run. As
Mikhail Gorbachev becomes leader
ion mean the fall of the War- well as this the reforms seen in the Soviet Union added to the clamor in these nations for reforms that would improve their standard of living and increase their individual freedoms.
1986 saw Pact? There were many demonstrations between 1989 and 1990 all over Eastern Europe that led to widespread changes and the effective end of the Warsaw Pact.
of the Soviet Union

1986 Reykjavik summit How significant was the fall of There were scenes of great emotion as families that had been split by the wall for up to 30 years were now reunited and so many people took hammers and chisels top the wall to get
the Berlin wall? souvenirs from the wall. However the event itself was main symbolic. By November 1989, east Germans could already travel to the west through Austria. Also throughout Eastern Eu-
Chernobyl nuclear power plant dis-
1986 rope communist governments were falling and the Soviet Union showed it had no intention of stepping in to stop the wave of protests and demand for reform. The Warsaw Pact, that
aster
has been set up to help the Soviet Union coordinate forces to defend the communist East from the West, as Europe became two armed camps. It also was an effective way of keep the
1987 INF treaty satellite states in order, which can be seen in 1956 in Hungary and 1968 in Czechoslovakia. However as communist governments in Eastern Europe came under pressure in 1989 it be-
came impossible for the Warsaw pact to survive. Military co-operation between the member states ended in 1990 and the Warsaw Pact officially ended in 1991. The breakup of the
1989 Fall of the Berlin Wall
Warsaw pact meant that Europe was no longer split into two different camps and the Cold War was over. The end of the pact also led to many countries becoming independent. Every
1991 Warsaw Pact dissolved
single one of the satellite states eventually abandoned communism. Due to all these changes Gorbachev was blamed for the fall of Eastern Europe, which was made worse when the
Baltic states declared themselves independent in 1990. In 1990 there was a failed coup against Gorbachev which weakened Gorbachev’s leadership and led to 12 soviet republics de-
1991 Gorbachev removed from power claring independence. Gorbachev could not continue to rule in these circumstance and so the he resigned and the Soviet Union almost immediately broke up.
Knowledge Organiser— Whitechapel, c.1870-1900: Crime, policing and the inner city
KEY TERMS TOPIC KEY INFORMATION

Sensation- Deliberately presenting events in a shocking 1. What was Whitechapel was one of the poorest districts in the East End. Housing: Out of a population of 30,000, 1,000 were homeless. There were only 4069 occupied houses. London was heavily polluted, sanitation
alist style to shock and impress. Whitechap- was poor and sometimes it was impossible to see your own hand. There was little healthy drinking water. The majority of housing was overcrowded in slum areas—known as ‘rookeries’. There could be 30
Anti- el like in the people in one apartment. In 1877, one rookery contained 123 rooms with accommodation for 757 people. Lodging houses offered beds on rotation—some had three eight-hour sleeping shifts a day. Rats
Prejudiced against Jews.
Semitic 19th centu- and the heat in summer led to awful living conditions. Approximately 8000 lived here. Work: Many worked in sweatshops with illegal conditions. They made matches, did tailoring and shoe-making. Condi-
ry? tions were small, cramped and dusty. Some worked for 20 hours a day. Workhouses offered work, food and shelter to those too poor to survive elsewhere. Inmates included the sick, disabled, orphans and
Someone who believes individuals should be
Capitalist free to own property and businesses and unmarried mothers. Inmates wore a uniform, were split up from their family and did manual work. Conditions were deliberately worse to make it seem as a last resort. Vagrants, who stayed for one or two
make a profit. nights were kept separately—seen as a bad influence. Prostitution was common as a way for desperate and helpless women make money.
Conditions associated with public health such 2. What Much tension arose as a result of immigration to the area. Committees investigated the Sweatshops where many Jewish immigrants were forced to work. They were illegal but it was impossible for the po-
Sanitation
as running water and sewerage systems. tensions lice to deal with them as immigrants spoke little English. Violence on the streets was common as was anti-Semitism. Irish Immigrants— Irish population expanded rapidly from the 1840s. The first Irish mi-
Poor Relief The system of giving benefits to the poor. were there grants were those who had come to London and planned to go to America but had run out of money. Violence was commonplace between them and they were not well-liked. They mainly settled along the
in White- river working on canals, roads and railways. Fenians— In the mid 19th century, Irish nationalists were demanding freedom from the UK. The Fenians were a Catholic religious terrorist movement. Their or-
A Russian word to describe a government chapel? ganization of bomb attacks led to a rise in anti-Catholic and anti-Irish sentiment. Stories in the press made life difficult for Irish immigrants. Eastern European Jewish Immigrants— Many Jews fled Russia
Pogrom
supported attack on Jewish people.
after the assassination of Alexander II. By 1888, Jews amounted to 95% of the total population of some areas. Whitechapel became segregated—Jewish people chose to live separately. Resentment of Jewish
A political movement that opposes all forms of settlers was based around cultural differences: Jewish people were quick to find employment and business; Jews had their holy day on a Saturday and so profited from Sunday trading; many didn’t learn Eng-
Anarchy
organised government. lish—there was no need when everyone living around them was Jewish and Russian; some established Eastern European migrants preferred new arrivals to locals as they would work for lower wages. This
stirred up resentment. Anarchists— A wave of strikes and demonstrations across Europe stirred up ideas that the answer to social problems was to overthrow the government. Many failed revolutionaries
Someone who believes that poor people
fled to England. Many felt the East End had become a refuge for other nations’ terrorists. Anyone with an Eastern European accent was seen as a potential anarchist. Socialists—Socialists believed that poor
would get a better deal if the government na-
Socialist people would be better off if the government took over important industries and ran them for the good of all. They saw the police as the face of the government that didn’t care for people’s problems and
tionalised (took over) important industries and
services and ran them for the good of all—not exploited the Ripper murders to highlight the incompetence of the police. Newspapers printed stereotypical images of Jews with hooked-noses as the Ripper murderer; popular opinion was that the murders
could not have been committed by an Englishman—people were convinced it was a Jew or Irishman.
Someone who offers sexual activity in return
Prostitute
for payment. 3. How was H Division: The Metropolitan Police force was split into 20 districts each with a different letter assigned. Whitechapel was covered by H Division. There was a superintendent, a chief inspector, 27 inspec-
policing tors, 37 sergeants and 500 ordinary officers. 15 detectives from CID were also assigned. By the mid-19th century, the ‘bobbies’ were seen generally as helpful and reliable. Many accepted the police were
Brothel A place where one or more prostitutes work.
organised? there to help. In Whitechapel the police were seen negatively and attacks by violent gangs were common. When there was a depression in the 1870s and violent protests broke out, the police were seen as
Extravagant, richly decorated gas-lit shop sell- upholders of unpopular government decisions rather than defenders of the people and upholders of the law. Local authorities frequently viewed the constable as social workers, they dealt with litter, chil-
ing gin across the counter. Gin was cheaply dren, fires, accidents, vagrants. Many thought the police were necessary but their priorities and methods were at fault. People resented being told what to do. Prostitutes resented interference.
Gin Palace
available, potent alcohol, popular with the
poor. 4. How was In the early stages of the Ripper investigation, the police used the following methods: following on direct leads, using evidence from post-mortems, following up on journalist theories, following up on clues
A place where the drug opium was sold and investiga- found near the victims, visiting lunatic asylums, following up on coroners reports, interviewing witnesses, setting up soup kitchens. 76 butchers and slaughterhouses were questioned after the coroners re-
smoked. Despite the name, the places could tive policing port on Annie Chapman revealed the killer could have been medically trained. The public were increasingly critical of the police investigation. Thousand turned up to watch the post-mortem of Stride and
Opium Den
vary in appearance from a very dark cellar to used in the Eddowes. A Home Office Report was made to counteract the criticism including: house to house searches, questioning 2000 lodging house residents, distributing 8000 handbills, getting help from Thames
an elegant bar room.
Ripper in- Valley Police to search opium dens and question dock workers. The Press: made the police work harder by releasing unreliable interviews and publishing stories based on guesswork; they frequently present-
In Victorian times, this was a term used to vestigation? ed suspects as ‘foreign’, drawing on negative stereotypes of Jewish immigrants. Bizarre Methods: Some dressed up as prostitutes and attempted to lure the murderer (even though they kept their moustach-
Lunatic describe people with serious psychological es on!); the police also experimented using bloodhounds. Obstacles to Success: 300 hoax letters were sent to the police e.g. ‘From Hell’ and ‘Dear Boss’, DNA evidence was not yet in use, crime scene pho-
disorders. tography was only just being introduced, scientists could not detect differences between human and animal blood. Rivalries existed between police forces. The City of London and Met Police competed for
Post A detailed examination of a person’s body leads e.g. the chalk on the wall after Eddowes murder: ’The Juwes are the men that will not be blamed for nothing’ was washed off. The Vigilance Committee: Frustrated by a lack of progress, a group of
Mortem after death to discover the cause of death. businessmen set up the committee. They organized their own rewards and took to the streets with burning planks of wood making lots of noise in an attempt to catch the killer. It was counter-productive
and damaged the investigation. Many thought they were SDF supporters determined to embarrass the government.
Cutting an animal or human body into parts
Dissecting
usually as a scientific investigation.
5. In what Many crimes committed were linked to high levels of poverty and unemployment. Petty theft was common, as was murder. People with no work turned to crime rather than the workhouse. It was harder for
Lunatic context did women to find work. They turned to prostitution but this made them vulnerable to assault and rape. With no contraception available, police turned a blind-eye to ‘back-street’ dangerous abortions where
The Victorian term for a psychiatric hospital.
Asylum the police many women died. There were approximately 1200 prostitutes in Whitechapel. For many, the only escape was alcohol but with this came violence and disorderly behavior. Alcoholics turned to crime and
Forensic Using scientific methods to investigate crime. work? fund their alcoholism. On one mile of Whitechapel Road there were 45 pubs or gin palaces. Confined spaces, poor lighting and dark alleys meant there were lots of places for criminals to hide. Protection
Rackets: some violence was stirred up by gangs of Eastern European Immigrants in groups like the Bessarabian Tigers. They demanded pro tection money from small business owners. Anyone who re-
A head and shoulders photograph, typically fused to pay had their shop vandalized. Overstretched and understaffed, H Division made no attempt to stop fights and other criminal activities punishable in other areas.
Mug Shot
taken after a person is arrested.

KEY DATES Social Democratic Foundation (SDF) was set up to represent agricultural workers and wom- SOURCES
1881 en. They saw the government an uncaring and used the Ripper murders to highlight the
1829 The Metropolitan Police Act founded the Metropolitan Police. incompetence of the authorities. When assessing a source for utility consider: content—what does the source tell
us; provenance—who wrote the source, when and why, consider any bias the
1842 A detective department was added to the Metropolitan Police in 1842. On ‘Dynamite Saturday’, the Fenians launched attacks on London Bridge, House of Com- source may have; context—what own knowledge do you have to either back up or
1885
mons and Tower of London. challenge the source?
1867 Irish nationalists, called the Fenians, organised a bomb attack on Clerkenwell Prison. Following a series of strikes against government policy, the home secretary appointed Sir
 Official statistics— provide precise numerical information.
1886  Police and court records—explain ideas behind actions.
Charles Warren as Metropolitan Chief Commissioner.
1867 Following the attack, a special branch of the police was set up to deal with Irish terrorism.  Memoirs and reports e.g. from policemen—show personal motives and
Five women were murdered in and around Whitechapel: Mary Ann Nichols, Annie Chap- views, can confirm other sources.
Anarchists and revolutionaries briefly took control in Paris. When they failed, the leaders 1888 man, Elizabeth Stride, Catherine Eddowes (found on the same day) and Mary Jane Kelly.
1871
fled to Britain—seen as a more tolerant country.
 The media—newspapers—inform about common views.
The police believed they had all been killed by the same person.
 Census—accurate population information.
1875 The Artisans Dwelling Act was passed as part of London’s earliest slum clearances. The failure to catch Jack the Ripper led to the introduction of the Bertillon System. Measure-  Photographs—freeze historical moments, detailed.
1894
ments of suspects were taken, their mug shots captured and records stored in a central file.  Letters—may confirm other sources, give personal views.
1878 Howard Vincent set up the Criminal Investigation Department (CID) with 216 officers.  Posters—inform on common views.
The Houses of the Working Class Act opened the way for the new London County Council
1881 The Peabody Estate opened and provided 286 flats—15p a week for a one bed room. 1890
to begin housing development schemes to replace slums with low cost housing.  Coroners Report—give precise, factual information.
 Surveys—help to build a general picture.
1881
Tsar Alexander II of Russia was assassinated and a Jew was blamed. Many Jews fled The Public Health Amendment Act gave more powers to local councils to improve toilets,  Novels—may give personal views of the author.
following waves of violence backed by the government. 1890
paving, rubbish collection and other sanitary services.  Sketches—show tastes and ideas of the time.
Knowledge Organiser— The Weimar Republic 1918-29
TOPIC KEY INFORMATION KEY TERMS

When a leader, like a king or Emperor, gives up their

1. The origins of Germany was in a poor state after WW1: the blockade led to a lack of food and supplies, the navy had mutinied against the Kaiser and a revolution was underway with the streets full Abdication
throne or position.
the Republic, of rioters and strikes. The Kaiser was forced to abdicate in November 1918. The biggest political party was the Social Democrats. Their leader, Friedrich Ebert, took over as Chancellor.
1918-29 On 11 November, Ebert’s government signed the armistice—a formal agreement to end the First World War. Ebert spent the months of November 1918-July 1919 setting up the new Constitution The rules that set out how a country is run.
government. The army and civil servants were reassured that they would not be reformed, and Ebert won the support of trade unions and leaders of industry. Elections for a National
Assembly took place in January 1919. Ebert’s party won 40% of the vote. Their first meeting, in February 1919, took place in the town of Weimar due to the continuation of violence Proportional A system to elect the Reichstag Parliament. Every party
and unrest in Berlin. A new constitution was agreed in July, which contained a number of strengths and weaknesses. Strengths: It was democratic, with women being able to vote for Representation was allocated 1 representative for every 60,000 votes.
the first time and everyone over the age of 21. It used a system of proportional representation, meaning even smaller parties had a fair share of seats in the Reichstag. Checks and bal-
The head of the Weimar Republic who was elected eve-
ances ensured no one person or group held too much power. The President appointed a chancellor and could control the army, but coul d be replaced every 7 years. The Chancellor President ry seven years. He chose the Chancellor but played no
had to rely on the Reichstag to pass laws. Weaknesses: Many small parties won seats, meaning governments could only be formed by joining together as a coalition—making argu- part in day-to-day politics.
ments and indecision frequent. Article 48 said in a crisis the Chancellor could ask the President to pass a law by decree, without the need of the Reichstag. This would bypass demo-
Elected every 4 years. Represented the regions of Ger-
cratic rules. The Weimar Republic was created out of violence and without real public enthusiasm. Reichsrat many who sent a certain number of representatives to
the Reichstag depending on their size.

2. Early challeng- In January 1919, the German communist party (the Spartacists) decided that they wanted to take over Germany from Ebert. They started a revolution attempt on 6 January. It was not The head of the government in the Weimar Republic
es to the Repub- successful – in a week, Ebert with the help of his Freikorps (ex-WWI soldiers paid to help the government keep order) had stopped the rebellion and killed many communists. The Chancellor
who chooses all their government ministers.
lic, 1919-23 Spartacist leaders, Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebnecht, were murdered. It was helpful for Ebert that the Spartacists were no longer a threat. However, he had to rely on the Frei-
korps to keep order – that made him look weak to the public, and it was risky as the Freikorps could turn on him at any point. The Treaty of Versailles: This punished Germany by forc- Critics of the Treaty of Versailles claimed Germans had
Dolchstoss
ing them to accept the war guilt, making them pay £6.6 billion in reparations, reducing their army to 100,000 men, taking away their tanks, submarines and planes, taking 13% of their been stabbed in the back by the politicians who signed it.
land and 10% of their population away, taking all their overseas colonies, demilitarising the Rhineland (border with France) and forbidding them from uniting with Austria. The Ger-
A group of demobilized soldiers who had hung onto their
mans were outraged. They called the Treaty a “diktat” (dictated peace) and accused the Weimar Government of “stabbing them in the back” by agreeing to such harsh terms. People Freikorps weapons and organised by Ebert into units numbering
began to look to other politicians to rule Germany better than the Social Democrats. Many right-wing groups hated the new government for signing the Versailles Treaty (June 1919): 250,000 by 1919.
The Kapp Putsch: in March 1920, a Freikorps brigade rebelled against the Treaty, led by Dr Wolfgang Kapp. It took over Berlin and tried to bring back the Kaiser. It only failed because
the workers went on strike and ground the capital to a halt. Invasion of the Ruhr and Hyperinflation: Germany paid her first reparation payment in 1921 but couldn’t afford the 1922 Extreme socialists that supported the Communists and
Spartacists
payment. France and Belgium decided to invade Germany and take the payment by force. They invaded the Ruhr, Germany’s main industrial area, to take goods. The Germans reacted were led by Rosa Luxemburg.
with passive resistance. They went on strike and refused to make the goods that the French and Belgians wanted. They sabotaged factories and flooded mines. The French and Bel-
gians reacted with violence: shooting some Germans and expelling some others. The Weimar Government supported the strikers by printing more money to pay them so that they Ruhr Germany’s main industrial region
could afford to keep striking. Too many notes in the economy meant that prices went out of control. November 1923 was the worst month: bread cost 200,000 billion marks. People
had to carry their wages home in wheelbarrows. Prices went up so fast that a day’s wages would just buy a cup of coffee the next day. The middle classes and the elderly suffered Payments owed to the allies were fixed at 136,000 mil-
Reparations
badly as their savings and pensions were wiped out. lion marks (£6.6. billion) in 1921.

3. The recovery Gustav Stresemann was Germany’s foreign secretary from 1924 to 1929. He helped Germany get back on her feet by stabilising the economy and regaining respect in world affairs.
KEY DATES
of the Republic, Rentenmark: Stresemann called in all the old, worthless marks and burned them. He replaced them with a new Rentenmark (worth 3,000 millio n old marks). The Dawes Plan: Stre-
1924-29 semann called off the 1923 Ruhr strike and started to pay reparations again – but the American Dawes Plan gave Germany industry a loan of $25 billion between 1924 and 1930. This
was used to build roads, railways and factories. The economy boomed and led to prosperity. The Young Plan: Total reparations were reduced to £2 billion., with an extra 59 years to 9th Nov, 1918 Kaiser Wilhelm abdicates
pay. Hitler referred to the decision as ‘passing on the penalty to the unborn’. The lower payments did however mean that the government could lower taxes on ordinary German peo-
11th Nov, 1918 Armistice is signed, ending WW1
ple. Because of this agreement, the French agreed to leave the Rhineland in 1930. The Locarno Pact: In 1925, Stresemann signed the Locarno Treaty, agreeing to the loss of Alsace-
Lorraine, in return for a French promise of peace. Stresemann was given the Nobel Peace Prize in 1926. Germany was being treated as an equal in world affairs again. In September Jan 1919 Spartacist Uprising
1926, Germany was allowed to join the League of Nations. Germany had become a world power again. Kellogg-Briand Pact: Germany and 61 other nations signed the Kellogg-Briand
Pact, which promised that states would not use war to achieve foreign policy aims. This was another sign that Germany was being accepted as a respected, stable state, although
some disagreed that it did nothing to remove the hated terms of the Treaty of Versailles. Impact on domestic policies: Support for moderate parties rose and support for extremist 28th June, 1919 Treaty of Versailles is signed
parties fell. By 1929, the Weimar Republic was a more secure and stable state. However, on 3 October 1929, Stresemann died. The loss of his moderate policies was a severe blow to
the Weimar Republic, especially as it was soon to be followed by a world economic crisis (The Great Depression). National Assembly agree to a new Constitution under the
31st July, 1919
Weimar Republic
4. Changes in Living standards suffered as a result of the economic problems between 1918 and 1923. However, there were many gradual social improvements after 1924. Unemployment and insur-
March 1920 Kapp Putsch
society, 1924-29 ance: Over 4% of the workforce was unemployed in 1924. This gradually improved over time. The Unemployment Insurance At of 1927 pro vided benefits to workers if they fell out
of work. Work and wages: The length of the working week shortened, but real wages (the value of goods that wages bought) rose by 25% from 1925 to 1928. Housing: Private compa- January 1923 French occupation of the Ruhr
nies built 37,000 new homes from 1925 to 1929. There was still a housing shortage, but it had eased by 1928. Other improvements: Pensions were paid to 750,000 war veterans and
400,000 war widows. Education improved. Changes for women: Women were given the vote in 1918 as a reward for their war efforts. By 1932, 112 women had been elected to the 1923 Hyperinflation begins
Reichstag. The new constitution also gave them equal rights with men. Women at work: By 1925, only 36% of women were in work, similar to pre-war levels. They were paid less than
men, expected to give up work when they married and few entered high-status professions. However, there was plenty of part-time jobs in shops and offices, and the number of fe- President Ebert appoints Gustav Stresemann as his new
August 1923
Chancellor and Foreign Secretary
male doctors and teachers was beginning to rise. Women at leisure: ‘new women’ were young, unmarried women living in cities where there were job opportunities and the possibility
of greater financial independence. They bought more clothes and went out more. They expressed themselves with short hair, make-up, cigarettes and went out unaccompanied. Some
1924 Dawes Plan
Germans believed this threatened the traditional aspects of society, such as motherhood, family and good housekeeping. For example, the birth rate was falling and the divorce rate
rising. Cultural changes: The 1920s saw an upsurge in cultural experimentation due to fewer restrictions than the Kaiser’s regime and economic recovery. Art - Painters liked Otto Dix
December 1925 Locarno Pact
painted expressionist versions of scenes of German life which were very critical of German society. Architecture—The Bauhaus movement influenced design that stressed the beaty in
technology, simple lines and careful craftsmanship. Cinema - Film became popular all over the world, with some German films being very innovative. Germany ’s first sound film was
September 1926 Germany accepted as a member of the League of Nations
made in 1930 and, by 1932, there were 3,800 German cinemas showing films with sound. Opposition—Many of these cultural changes came under attack from left and right. Left wing
KPD critics said the funding was money spent on extravagance instead of on working people who needed basic help. The Nazi Party said the changes undermined traditional German
Germany and 61 other countries sign the Kellogg-Briand
culture. August 1928
Pact

August 1929 Young Plan

October 1929 Wall Street Crash

Knowledge Organiser - Hitler’s rise to power, 1919-33
TOPIC KEY INFORMATION KEY TERMS

The period in October 1929 when shares and oth-

Wall Street
Early devel- The German Workers’ Party (DAP) was formed in Bavaria February 1919 by a man named Anton Drexler. It started out as a small party with only 23 members. Adolf Hitler, a nationalist, er investments in the US fell by very large
Crash
became a member of the party in September 1919 and was influential in changing its name to the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NSDAP). Hitler took control of the party in 5 amounts. It was followed by the depression.
opment of ways: Party policy - He helped draft a 25-point Programme which explained their policies, e.g. opposition to the Weimar government, Jews and democracy. Personal appeal - As an ex- 25 point pro-
the Nazi traordinary public speaker and propagandist, Hitler became the focal point for party members. He rehearsed his speeches carefully, building up the tension towards an impassioned, almost The political manifesto of the Nazi Party.
gramme
frenzied rant. His hand gestures fixed on the audience and drew them in. He had publicity photos and paintings produced that showed him as an orator. Membership of the party grew to
Party, 1920- 3,000 by the end of 1920. Party organisation - Hitler made his personal mark on the party as its leader of propaganda. He appointed a friend from the army to help organize and advertise Private army of the Nazi Party, headed by Ernst
SA
22 Rohm up until 1933.
the party better. He changed the party’s name to ensure the words national, socialist and workers all clarified party policy and would appeal to different people. He also adopted the swasti-
ka logo and the straight-armed party salute. The party could now be distinguished from other small nationalist parties. Finally, Hitler created enough funds to set up a newspaper - the Hitler’s autobiography, written during his time in
Mein Kampf
Volkischer Beobachter (the People’s Observer). Party leadership - In 1921, Hitler forced a leadership contest and defeated Drexler to become party leader. His first steps were to create the prison after the failure of the Munich Putsch
Sturmabteilung (SA) and surround himself with supporters such as Rudolf Hess and Hermann Goering. The SA were formed in August 1921 and were a pa ramilitary force made up of
A German word to describe a violent attempt to
mostly unemployed ex-soldiers. They dressed in brown uniforms and were known as the ‘Brownshirts’. They paraded the streets as a show of force and impressed people with their sense Putsch
overthrow a government.
of power and organization. Hitler used them to control crowds and violently subdue any opposition. Ernst Rohm was put in charge of the SA.

The Munich In November 1923, Hitler launched the Munich (Beer Hall) Putsch. Long term causes: the ‘stab in the back’ theory, reparations and loss of German colonies built up deep resentment of the KPD The German Communist Party
Weimar Republic, which created support for the NSDAP in areas like Bavaria where the NSDAP had 50,000 members by 1923. Medium-term causes: The Nazis were heavily influenced by
Putsch and the right-wing party of Fascists in Italy led by Mussolini. In 1922 Mussolini had marched to Rome and forced the democratic government to accept him as their new leader. Hitler modelled
lean years, his salute and use of flags on the Fascists. Short term causes: The effects of the French occupation of the Ruhr and hyperinflation causing savings to become useless meant German people Hindenburg President of the Weimar Republic, 1925-1934
were bitterly aggrieved. The Weimar Republic seemed weak and unable to solve their problems. Hitler believed the time was ripe to exploit these grievances. Events of the Munich Putsch:
1923-29 On November 8, 1923, Hitler burst into a meeting of Bavarian government officials, supported by 600 members of the SA and declared he was taking over Bavaria, followed by a march on Nickname given to von Schleicher’s government
Cabinet of Bar-
due to it not having a majority in the Reichstag and
Berlin. Ludendorff would become head of the German army. The heads of government, police and army in Bavaria - Gustav von Kahr, von Seisser and von Lossow - were taken at gunpoint ons
attempting to rule by Presidential decrees.
and forced to support Hitler. However, the main army barracks remained in the hands of army officers loyal to the government, and Ludendorff had released the men without Hitler’s
knowledge. Around midday, Hitler, 1000 SA and 2000 ’volunteer’ supporters marched towards the centre of Munich. Local townspeople did not join the march as Hitler was hoped and his A German general who was seen as a hero of
men, with only 2000 rifles, were outgunned by the army. Hitler was dragged to the ground by his bodyguards and dislocated his left arm. 14 Nazis and 4 policemen were killed in the ex- General Lu- World War One amongst the German people.
dendorff Used by Hitler to try and gain popular and military
change. Ludendorff and Rohm were arrested. Hitler was found hiding in a wardrobe of his friend’s house 2 days later. Consequences of the Munich Putsch: Hitler and several other leaders support in the Munich Putsch.
were put on trial. Ludendorff was found not guilty, the NSDAP was banned, and Hitler was found guilty of treason but only sentenced to 5 years in prison. The Putsch was a failure in the
short term as it was a defeat and humiliation. In the long term, it was a success as Hitler was released after 9 months, got publicity from the trial, used his time in prison to realise violence Gaue Local branches of the Nazi Party
wasn't the right strategy to gain power and wrote Mein Kampf (my struggle). The lean years, 1924-28: In Mein Kampf, Hitler made his extreme racist views about Aryans clear. He also
emphasised aspects of nationalism, socialism, totalitarianism and traditional German values. Party reorganisation: The ban on the NSDAP was lifted in 1925. Hitler relaunched the party in
the following ways: headquarters: the party was organised like a mini-state, with leaders in areas such as finance and foreign affairs. A national Nazi party: Germany was divided into 35 Swastika Emblem of the Nazi Party
regions, or Gaus. Each had a leader, a Gauleiter. The SS: Hitler no longer trusted the violent thuggery of the SA, and so created his own protection squad of intensely loyal members. The
Bamberg Conference: By 1926, it was clear that the local power of Gauleiters was creating a split in the party between nationalists in the sout h and socialists in the north. At the confer-
ence, Hitler spoke for 5 hours and stressed the nationalist side of the party. Goebbels was won over to Hitler’s side and appointed as Gauleiter of Berlin. The socialist principles of the party
were weakened which gave Hitler power to adopt any policies he liked. KEY DATES

1919 Hitler joins the German Workers’ Party

Growth in 1929: Stresemann dies of a heart attack on 3 October, closely followed by the Wall Street Crash. When share prices began to fall on the US Stock exchange, investors rushed to sell their
shares. This panic selling sent prices even lower and within a week, investors had lost $4,000 million. This caused a banking crisis in Germany as their banks were huge investors in shares. 1921 Hitler becomes the leader of the Nazi Party
Nazi sup- People were worried and queued to withdraw money outside banks. Some began to run out of cash. This then caused a general economic collapse in German industry as the banks de-
August
port, 1929- manded they return money they had loaned them. The industries therefore had to cut back on production or even close down. This caused severe unemployment, e.g. 6.1 million people The formation of the SA
1921
by January 1933, including 50% of all Germans between 16 and 30 years old. The government became unable to pay out unemployment benefits and tried to raise taxes. People who in-
32 vested savings in shares lost it all. People who could no longer afford rent became homeless. Chancellor Bruning became more unpopular for first raising taxes and then trying to put fixed 1923 The Munich Putsch fails; Hitler is arrested
time limits on unemployment benefits. His policies were rejected by the Reichstag in July 1930, proving how powerless the Reichstag was in making policy. Bruning was forced to use Arti-
cle 48 and rule by decree. This also failed to work and he resigned in May 1932. Rise in support for KPD and NSDAP: People began to shun the moderate parties as social and economic
problems worsened. The KPD gained an extra 1 million voters in 1932, mainly from the working class. Support for the Nazis grew even faster with the middle and upper classes who 1925 Mein Kampf is published
feared communism. This fear led them to vote NSDAP as their best defence against communism. Why did people support the Nazi Party? Appeal of Hitler and the SA: Hitler was seen
1926 Bamberg Conference
as a strong leader and used propaganda effectively. E.g. using aeroplanes to campaign around the country. The SA made the Nazis look organized and disciplined and were used to disrupt
opposition parties. Appeal to big business: they were persuaded that the Nazis would protect them from communism, leading to an increase in Nazi finances. Working-class support: Nazis 1928 Nazis win 12 seats in the Reichstag
supported traditional German values and promised ‘Work and Bread’ on their posters. Middle-class support: Many who had lost their companies, savings, pensions or feared com-
munism switched to the Nazi Party as they saw Hitler as strong enough to help them recover. Farmers: Were told that only private Jewish land would be confiscated. Young people: were 1929 Death of Stresemann and Wall Street Crash
attracted by the excitement of the Nazi Party. Women: increasingly became attracted to what they thought was best for their families. The Nazis had an answer for everyone.
1930 Nazis win 107 seats in the Reichstag
How Hitler March 1932: Hindenburg wins re-election as President, but only 49.6% of votes. April 1932: 2nd re-election as nobody won 50% of the vote. Hindenburg wins 53%, but Hitler campaigned
30 May Bruning resigns and is replaced by von Papen as Chan-
furiously and won 13 million votes. 30 May 1932: Chancellor Bruning resigns after losing support of right-wing after banning the SA and SS and landowners as he announced a plan to buy 1932 cellor
became up land to house the unemployed. High ranking army general, von Schelicher, as head of a right-wing coalition of supporters, chose a wealthy ex-General, von Papen, to figurehead this coa-
Chancellor, lition. Hindenburg was persuaded that, with Nazi support, this coalition could rule without the Reichstag and use presidential decrees. This was undemocratic and this new government was July 1932 Nazis win 230 seats in the Reichstag
nicknamed the ‘Cabinet of Barons’. 30 May 1932: von Papen becomes Chancellor. Von Schleicher believed he could control the Nazis like a puppet on strings. July 1932: Reichstag elec- November Nazis win 196 seats in the Reichstag, von Papen is
1932-33 tions were beset by street violence with over 100 killed. However, the Nazis won 230 seats in the Reichstag and was now the largest party. November 1932: von Papen is sacked after an- 1932 sacked
other election is called. The Nazi seats drop to 196 but they are still the largest party. Hindenburg detested Hitler but von Schleicher tells him that, if von Papen stays, the country will de-
December
scend into civil war. December 1932: Von Schleicher becomes Chancellor after he convinces Hindenburg that the election proved that Nazi support was fading. January 1933: Hitler be- Von Schleicher becomes Chancellor
1932
comes Chancellor. Von Schleicher never had any political support and was unable to govern without a majority in the Reichstag and with Hitler and the Nazis against him. He asked Hinden-
burg to declare a military dictatorship, with him in charge, Hindenburg refused but was worried about a military coup. Von Papen suggests making Hitler Chancellor, with him as Vice Chan- January
Hitler becomes Chancellor
cellor making the main decisions. Hitler would be just a figurehead. The ageing President finally agreed. All three men underestimated Hitler and believed they could bring the Nazis into 1933
power and control them. They were wrong.
Knowledge Organiser - Nazi control and dictatorship, 1933-39
TOPIC KEY INFORMATION KEY TERMS

The crea- Hitler’s power as Chancellor was limited because he was controlled by the Weimar constitution, Hindenburg was President, only 2 members of his Cabinet were NSDAP members and the NSDAP only Marinus
A young Communist blamed for starting the
numbered a third in the Reichstag. He used a number of opportunities to increase his own power. 1. Reichstag Fire On 27 February 1933, a young Dutch communist, Marinus van der Lubbe, was caught van der
tion of a Reichstag Fire
inside the burning Reichstag with matches and firelighters. He confessed, was found guilty and executed. Hitler claimed this was part of a communist conspiracy against the government. 4,000 com- Lubbe
dictator- munists were arrested that night and Hitler persuaded Hindenburg to declare a state of emergency which allowed him to use decrees to govern. E.g. the Decree for the Protection of the People and Enabling Gave Hitler and the Nazis full power for 4 years in
ship, the State which gave him powers to imprison political opponents and ban communist newspapers. Hitler also ensured the police turned a blind eye to the violence of the SA which led to 70 deaths in Act March 1933
1933-34 the campaigning for an election Hitler had arranged for March. The Nazis increased their seats to 288, while Hitler banned the Communist Party from taking up its 81 seats. He now, with the support of
other nationalist parties, had 2/3 majority which was enough to change the constitution. 2. The Enabling Act Hitler proposed this in March 1933 and used the SA to intimidate any opposition. The Act Gleich- Hitler’s attempt to bring German society into line
schaltung with Nazi philosophy
said that the Reich Cabinet and Hitler could pass new laws that would overrule the constitution and the Reichstag for 4 years. It was passed on 24 March, by 444 votes to 94. This marked the end of
democratic rule. 3. Removing other opposition Hitler worried that communists could control trade unions and undermine the government (e.g. through strikes), so in May 1933 Nazis arrested trade un- German
ion officials across Germany and Hitler used his new powers to ban trade unions and make strikes illegal. In July 1933, Hitler issued a decree that made all political parties illegal, except for the Labour Set up to replace trade unions
Front (DAF)
NSDAP. In January 1934, Hitler abolished the Lander parliaments that controlled local government, and replaced them with governors appointed by him. 4. The Night of the Long Knives Hitler was wor-
ried that Rohm, the leader of the SA was a threat to him as a) the SA totaled 3 million members and some claimed Hitler undervalued them. 60% were unemployed and bitter, but were loyal to Rohm b)
Gestapo Secret police headed by Goering
Rohm disagreed with some of Hitler’s policies c) the army were worried about the size of the SA and the threat of it replacing them d) the SS wanted to increase their power by removing the SA. The
SS warned Hitler that Rohm was planning on seizing power. Hitler decided to arrange a meeting with 100 SA leaders on 30 June. When they arrived, they were arrested and shot. This is what is known as
Night of the
the Night of the Long Knives. Von Papen also found himself under armed guard. Goering announced that the actions were taken in the interests of Germany. 5. The death of Hindenburg, 2 August 1934, 30 June 1934, Hitler removed internal and external
Long
aged 87. Hitler responded by declaring himself as Fuhrer, and would add all Presidential powers to those he held as Chancellor. He forced the army to swear an oath of loyalty to him personally. opposition, including key members of the SA
Knives

The po- The Nazi’s used the police to control what people said and did. Hitler set up his own police and security forces that were not run by the government. Their role was to protect and support the Nazi Party. In July 1933 the Pope agreed to stay out of politi-
The SS (Protection Squad): Run by Himmler from 1929. Given black uniforms in 1932 to distinguish them from the SA ‘brownshirts’. Their main aim was to be the Nazi’s own private police force. They Concordat cal matters if the Nazis did not interfere with Cath-
lice state olic affairs
were totally loyal to Hitler and Himmler. They expanded to 240,000 men in the 1930s and put in charge of all other police and security services. Himmler believed they were not obliged to act within the
law. SS recruits were examples of perfect German manhood, were expected to marry ‘racially pure’ wives and to create ‘racially pure’ Germans for the future. The SD (Security Force): Formed in 1931 Edelweiss
by Himmler as a security force for the Nazi Party to monitor its opponents. Reinhard Heydrich was made leader. The SD kept a card index with details on everyone it suspected of opposing the Nazis. Pirates and
Youth groups who opposed the Hitler Youth
These were kept at Brown House, the Nazi headquarters in Munich. The Gestapo (State Secret Police): Hitler’s non-uniformed secret police force. Set up in 1933 by Hermann Goering but placed under Swing
Youth
control of the SS in 1934, with Heydrich becoming leader in 1936. This meant that the police and security force was united, with the SS, SD and the Gestapo working in parallel to it. The aim of the Ge-
stapo was to identify anyone who criticised or opposed the Nazi government. They spied on people, tapped their phones and used informants to identify suspects. In 1939, 160,000 people were arrest- Followed traditional German Protestantism and
Confession-
ed for political offences. The Gestapo were allowed to use torture when questioning suspects. Their main weapon was fear as people couldn't tell them apart from the public. Many were sent to concen- refused to allow the Nazification of religion. Led by
al Church
tration camps and rumours quickly spread about inhumane treatment and poor conditions, which increased the fear even more. Concentration camps: By 1939, 150,000 people were ‘under protective Pastor Martin Niemoller.
arrest’ in prisons. They were locked up for doing things the Nazis disapproved of, such as voicing opposing views. They were run by the SA and SS to cope with the increasing numbers. They were built in Sicher-
isolated areas, away from the publics gaze. Inmates were often ‘undesirables’ such as homosexuals, minority groups or political prisoners. Controlling the legal system: Hitler set up the National Socialist heitsdienst The intelligence body of the Nazi Party
League for the Maintenance of the Law and insisted all judges must be members. This ensured all judges would support Nazi ideas and always favour the interests of the Party ahead of the law. Hit- (SD)
ler also abolished trial by jury, so that judges decided innocence, guilt and punishments. A People’s Court was used to hear all cases of treason. These judges were hand-picked and trials held in secret.
534 people were sentenced to death for political offences between 1934 and 1939. Controlling religious views: The Nazis glorified strength and violence, whereas Christianity preached tolerance and Dachau The first concentration camp
peace and respect for all people. One third of Germans were Catholic and so owed their first allegiance to the Pope ahead of Hitler. Hitler reached a Concordat (agreement) with the Pope in 1933 for
him not to interfere with Catholic schools and worship, in return for the Pope to not interfere in German politics. Hitler did not keep his promise and Catholic priests were harassed and arrested and the KEY DATES
Catholic Youth League was banned. By 1937, Pope Pius XI strongly criticised the Nazi regime in a statement known as ‘With Burning Anxiety.’ The Protestant Church: They combined in 1936 to form
Jan 1933 Hitler becomes Chancellor
the Reich Church, led by Ludwig Muller. Just like the police and courts, churches became ‘Nazified’. Germany was gradually becoming a totalitarian state.

Control- Goebbels and propaganda: Goebbels controlled Nazi policy in media, sport, culture and the Arts, so that attitudes against the Nazis were censored. H e believed that Nazi attitudes should be so Feb 1933 Reichstag Fire
ling and deeply buried in his propaganda that people didn't even realise their attitudes were being changed. Use of the media: Journalists were censored as they were told what they could not publish and given
regular briefings containing propaganda the Nazis wanted to release. Any newspapers that opposed Nazi views were closed down. Radio stations were also put under Nazi control. Cheap radios were March
influenc- Enabling Act passed
sold to the public and placed in cafes, factories and schools. Speakers were placed in the street. All radios had to be short-range so that they couldn't pick up foreign stations. Use of rallies: A mass rally 1933
ing atti- was held every year in Nuremberg, to create a sense of German unity and advertise the strength of Nazi Germany. The 1934 rally included a giant eagle, thousands of swastika banners, 130 anti-aircraft July
tudes searchlights and a crowd of 200,000 supporters. Use of sport: Stadiums were covered in Nazi symbols, all teams had to give the Nazi salute during the German national anthem and victories were seen Nazis become the only legal party in Germany
1933
as victories for Nazi ideals, such as striving to be the best. At the Berlin Olympics in 1936, the Nazis built a stadium that could hold 100,000 people, events were well organized, Germany won 33 med-
als—more than any other country, and were filmed by a leading film director to be used as propaganda. Control of culture and the Arts: The Nazis favoured romantic ideas about Germany’s past and July
Hitler signs the Concordat with the Pope
ideals like loyalty, self-sacrifice and discipline. A Reich Chamber of Culture was set up in September 1933 to make sure art, architecture, literature, music, theatre and film were consistent with Nazi 1933
ideals. This was known as Gleichschaltung, Art: A Reich Chamber of Visual Arts meant all artists had to apply to be members. Over 12,000 paintings and sculptures were remove d in 1936. Architec- Joseph Goebbels is made Minister of People’s En-
1933
ture: Buildings were designed to make Germany seem powerful. Albert Speer built the new Chancellery in 1938 as well as huge build ings decorated with pillars, arches and flags to demonstrate lightenment and Propaganda
power. Music: Jazz music was banned, but music that emphasized German culture was promoted, such as Wagner, Beethoven and Bach. Literature: Books that were against Nazi views were censored.
June
Millions were burnt on public bonfires, e.g. 20,000 burnt in Berlin in May 1933. Film: Films in cinemas were preceded with a 45 minute official newsreel that emphasized German achievements. All plots Night of the Long Knives
1934
had to be approved by Goebbels. Nazi films had underlying political messages.
August
Opposi- There was a high level of conformity (acceptance) for the Nazis due to censorship and propaganda, as well as Nazi successes. However, some areas of opposition remained, e.g. secret trade union efforts President Hindenburg dies. Hitler becomes Fuhrer
1934
tion, re- led by the KPD, army opposition from Ludwig Beck who plotted to kill Hitler, and political opposition from the SPD, who published their own newspaper. Opposition (actively working against the Nazis in
order to remove them) was banned and, if caught, would be reported to the Gestapo and faced with punishment. Opposition from churches: The Pastors’ Emergency League (PEL): Set up in 1933 and
sistance included Martin Niemoller. They opposed the Reich Church and attempts to stop Jews becoming Christians. In 1934 they set up the Confessing Church which opposed Nazi interference and gained 6000
1936 Heydrich becomes leader of the Gestapo
and con- members. About 800 were sent to concentration camps. Catholic opposition was limited to resistance such as attending church services, but many weren't prepared to risk anything else. Martin Nie- Protestant churches combine to form the Reich
formity moller , despite initially supporting Hitler as the strong leader Germany needed, did speak out and was repeatedly arrested. In 1938, he was sent to Sachenhausen concentration camp. He still wanted to 1936
Church
fight for Germany when WW2 broke out, but was transferred to Dachau where he remained until the end of the war. Opposition from the young: Some young people opposed Nazi youth groups and
their social policies. E,g, The Edelweiss Pirates - local groups like the ‘Travelling Dudes’ in Essen and ‘Navajos’ in Cologne used the symbol of the white edelweiss flower. They resented military discipline 1936 Berlin Olympics
of the Hitler youth and the lack of freedom. Boys wore their hair longer and copied American fashion. They would taunt and sometimes attack Hitler youth members and spent time mocking them in the
The Pope writes ‘With Burning Anxiety’, a stinging
countryside. The Swing Youth - mainly teenagers from middle class families in big towns. They admired American culture and played American records. They gathered together, drinking alcohol, smok- 1937
criticism of the Nazi regime
ing and dancing like the ‘jitterbug’. Some enjoyed jazz music which was made popular by black singers. However, the actions of both these groups were limited as they did little to actually oppose the
Nazis. Their motives were also limited as their opposition was mainly cultural rather than political. Their numbers were also limited - only about 2000 in the Edelweiss Pirates compared to 8 million Hit- Martin Niemoller is imprisoned in Sachsenhausen
1938
concentration camp
ler Youth members.
Knowledge Organiser - Life in Nazi Germany, 1933-39
TOPIC KEY INFORMATION KEY TERMS
Nazi Nazi views on women and family: Women should adopt the traditional role of mother and housewife. Appearance should be ‘natural’, with simple plaited or tied-back hair and long skirts. Any woman in work was taking a man’s Theory of selective breed-
policies job and should resign. Birth rates should increase to make Germany stronger and bigger. Women should therefore marry and have as many children as possible. Policies: Gertrud Scholtz-Klink was appointed Reich Women’s ing used by the Nazis to
Eugenics
to- Leader in 1934. She was to oversee all policies relating to women. She merged all women’s organisations into a Nazi one. The German Women’s Enterprise (DFW). Any organization that refused was banned. This group would encourage Aryans to
wards eventually have 6 million members. Marriage and the family: Fewer children meant fewer workers and soldiers later on, so the Nazis wanted to reverse the fall in birth rate. A change was the Law for the Encouragement of Mar- breed with fellow Aryans
women riage, 1933. Young couples were provided with loans worth up to 1,000 marks, about 8 months wages, to marry. They were only available if the woman also stopped work. It encourag ed childbirth as, for every child born, a Anti-
Anti-Jewish views
quarter of the loan was paid off. So a family that had 4 children would have fully paid off their loan. The 1938 Divorce Laws also encouraged childbirth as a husband would be allowed to divorce his wife if she could not, or did semitism
not want children. The Mother’s Cross encouraged childbirth by offering an award for numbers of children women had. Bronze = 4-5 children, Silver = 6 and Gold = 8. Mothers of 10 children were expected to name Hitler as the
Ancient tribes of people
godfather of the tenth child, and to name him Adolf if it was a boy. Lebensborn (Fountain of Life): Started in 1935 by Himmler, this initially offered nurseries and financial aid for women who had a child with SS men. It later encour- Slavs who migrated to Europe
aged single women to breed with SS men to create ’genetically pure’ children for worthy German families. Women and employment: Propaganda was used to persuade women to give up their jobs. They were told to concen- from the east.
trate on the three K’s—Kinder, Kuche, Kirche—children, kitchen and the church. Many women were persuaded. Policies to reduce the number of women at work included: 1933 - women were banned from professional posts
Roma people that live an
as teachers, doctors and civil servants. 1936 - no woman could become a judge or lawyer. Schoolgirls were trained for motherhood, such as learning how to iron, 1937 - grammar schools for girls were banned. Appearance of
‘Gypsies’ itinerant lifestyle, travelling
women: Propaganda encouraged women to wear modest clothes and not wear any make up. Effectiveness: mixed success. Some women were persuaded and accepted these policies - fewer women went to university, the from place to place
birth rate increased and unemployment of German men fell. However, many women did not follow these policies as they believed it harmed the family and degraded women. The impact was temporary as German industry
developed so fast that women were needed to return to work, especially once Hitler committed Germany to rearmament. By 1939, there were 7 million women in work compared to 5 million in 1933. Order to kill babies with
T4 Pro-
severe mental or physical
gramme
disabilities
Nazi Aims: Hitler wanted to create a ‘Thousand Year Reich’. Policy for the young was aimed at strengthening Germany for now and in the future. The Nazis believed boys and girls were equal, but had different strengths and so different
policies policies. Hitler knew that if he could get young people on his side then that would secure the future, and so used propaganda that portrayed him as a father-like figure. The Nazi youth movement: Nazi youth groups were small in
to- 1933 when compared to church youth groups. In 1933, Hitler banned almost all youth groups and put pressure on youngsters to join Nazi ones instead. From 1936, all sports facilities for young people were taken over by the Hitler Actions taken against
wards Youth and only members could use them. In March 1939, it was made compulsory for all young Germans to join from the age of 10. Only ‘unwanted’ minority groups were omitted. Nazi youth groups for boys: 6-10 year old were in Jews in Germany between
the the Pimpfe (Little Fellows). 10-14 year olds were in the Deutsche Jungvolk (German Young People). 14-18 year olds were in the Hitler Jugend (Hitler Youth). Hitler Youth: all boys swore an oath of loyalty to Hitler. They attended 1933 and 1939. Actions
Persecu- gradually got worse as
young residential courses about Nazi ideas. Lessons included ‘German heroes’ and ‘The evil of the Jews’. They were told to report anyone who was disloyal to the Nazis. It was used to make German boys as fit and healthy as possible. tion of Nazi propaganda began to
There were regular hiking and camping expeditions. It also ran regional and national sports competitions. Military training was also provided so boys would become useful to the state, e.g. skills such as map-reading and signalling Jews impact on German people
were practised. 1.2m boys were trained in small-arms shooting by 1938. Separate divisions were created for specialist training, such as naval training. Character training focused on the need for comradeship, loyalty, competition and so they became more
and ruthlessness. Members were drilled by SA instructors and could be plunged into ice-cold water to toughen them up. They were taught to obey orders even in hardship. The League of German Maidens: 10-14 year old girls be- accepting or ignorant of
what was happening
longed to the Jungmadel (Young Maidens). 14-21 year olds were in the Bund Deutscher Madel, or BDM (League of German Maidens). Some activities were similar to the boys, such as political activities including rallies and oaths of
allegiance. Physical and character building activities were also similar. However, girls in the BDM were trained to cook, iron, make beds, sew and prepare to be a housewife. They were taught the importance of ‘racial hygiene’ -
the idea that they should keep the German race ‘pure’ by only marrying Aryan men. Effectiveness: Some young people were enthusiastic and committed. Some did not enjoy forced activities and many parents thought they were
being undermined. Control through education: In 1934, a leading Nazi, Bernhard Rust, was made Education Minister. He saw schools as a way to control views and to create Nazis. Control of teachers: April 1933 - Nazis given pow-
er to sack teachers they didn't approve of. All teachers had to swear an oath of loyalty to Hitler and join the Nazi Teachers’ League which ran political education courses for them. They were then expected to teach students how
to do the Nazi salute, start and end lessons with the children saying ‘Heil Hitler’ and decorate classrooms with Nazi posters and flags. Control of the curriculum: new subjects were added such as Race Studies. Children were taught Key dates of Jewish persecution
how to classify racial groups, with Aryans as superior. Traditional subjects like maths were changed to make them more useful to the kind of society Nazis wanted. PE time was doubled. Boys and girls studied different curriculums,
e.g. girls did needlework. From 1935, all textbooks had to be approved. New history books would contain information that said the Treaty of Versailles was a ‘stab in the back’. Mein Kampf was a compulsory text. Official boycott of Jewish shops
1
and businesses. SA paint Jewish
April
Em- Reducing unemployment was a priority as a) if Hitler didn't support the unemployed they would turn to the Communist Party, and b) unemployed worker s were a burden and waste of resources. By 1939, unemployment had 1933 stars or ‘Jude’ outside Jewish
businesses.
ployme fallen to half a million people. Labour Service (RAD): Provided paid work for the unemployed. E.g. public works such as repairing roads and planting trees. It was made compulsory for all young men to serve for 6 months in RAD
nt and from 1935. It was not popular as it was organized like an army, with uniforms, camps and military drill. Autobahns: By 1935, the first stretch of motorway was opened and 125,000 men were employed in building them. 3.500km Jews banned from government
April
living were finished by 1938.Other huge public works included bridges, coastal walls and sports facilities. Many jobs were created in the construction industry, whilst better roads and bridges meant quicker transport for industry and 1933
jobs and Jewish civil servants
and teachers sacked.
stand- agriculture. This boosted sales at home and abroad. Creating even more jobs in the rest of the economy. Rearmament: Hitler defied the limits of the Treaty of Versaillles in 1935 and announced military conscription. By 1939,
ards 1.36m men were in the armed forces. These men needed arms and equipment, so arms spending rose from 3.5 billion marks to 26 billion marks. Invisible unemployment: Some historians say the real number of unemployed was Sept
Jews banned from inheriting land
larger by almost one and a half million people as the Nazis found ways to reduce the number of people recorded as unemployed. E.g. Women and Jews were forced to give up work, part-time workers counted as fully employed 1933
and many of the public works jobs were not permanent. Overall verdict: Reducing unemployment by 4 million was remarkable, but it was falling across the world as countries recovered from the Depression, and many of the jobs Jews banned from parks and
created needed huge government spending that couldn't be maintained long term. Changes in the standard of living: It is difficult to measure whether people’s lives are getting better or worse as it can go up for some and down 1934 swimming pools. Given separate
for others, and money does not always equate to happiness. Employment - more employment meant a regular income for many, but minorities found it difficult to find jobs. Wages - rose quickly between 1936-39, albeit in some yellow benches to sit on.
industries (armaments) more than others. This was also cancelled out by a rise in food prices. High earners could cope with this but low, unskilled earners had to use their extra wages to cover the higher costs for essentials. The May
1935
Jews banned from the army
working week increased from 43 hours in 1933 to 49 hours in 1939. Nazi organisations: The Labour Front (DAF): protected the rights of workers instead of trade unions. E.g. their rights, working hours and minimum pay, but
this meant these issues could not be negotiated. Strength through Joy (KDF): aimed to make work enjoyable by providing leisure activities for workers. E.g. sports events, films and foreign travel. The Volkswagen was designed for Nuremberg Laws passed. Reich
the average German to afford, and the KDF encouraged workers to save 5 marks a week until they had enough to buy one. However, the factories switched to war production in 1938 and no workers ever received their Law on Citizenship stated only
Volkswagen. Beauty of Labour (SDA): campaigned to get employers to provide better facilities for workers such as toilets, changing rooms and canteens. However, the workers themselves were expected to do the decorating and those of German blood could be
building themselves and in their own time. Overall judgement: Difficult to judge as standards of living may have risen for some workers and not others, depending on their circumstances. German citizens. Jews became
15 ‘subjects’. They were required to
The Nazi racial beliefs and policies: the German population needed to be strong, which affected their policies towards minorities. Eugenics: the science of selective breeding. Reproduction by the ‘best’ Germans was encouraged Sept wear a yellow star on their
1935 clothes. Reich Law for the Pro-
perse- and those ‘unsuitable’ were sterilized—meaning they couldn't have children. Racial hygiene: Nazis believed the Aryan race was superior to all others. They taught children racial hygiene - the idea that Aryan Germans (from a spe- tection of German Blood and
cution cific part of Europe) should only reproduce with other Aryans to make their offspring ‘pure’. Hitler’s views: other races, such as Slavs of eastern Europe, were Untermenschen (sub-humans). Gypsies and Jews were the worst of Honour forbade Jews from mar-
of mi- the Untermenschen. They were deemed ‘Lebensunwertes’ (unworthy of life). Anti-Semitism: Anti-Jewish views had been common in Europe due to their religion, customs and looks standing out as ‘different’, Christians blamed rying or having sex with Ger-
norities them for the execution of Christ, and many were jealous of some Jewish successes in finance. In Germany, Jews were disliked after the country united in 1871 and nationalism grew. Nationalists then scapegoated Jews for the fail- mans
ures of WW1 , Versailles and Hyperinflation. Treatment of minorities: Slavs - found in areas across eastern Europe, many people of Slavic origin lived in Germany. Nazis taught children to treat them as sub-humans and threatened Mar Jews required to register pos-
to invade Slav countries for Lebensraum (living space) for Germans. ‘Gypsies’ - Name given for Roma people. Around 26,000 of them travelled around Germany in the early 1930s. Nazis believed they didn't work enough. Many 1938 sessions
were arrested and sent to concentration camps. From 1936, they were forced to live in special camps, with poor conditions. They were banned from travelling in groups in 1938 and prepared for deportation in 1939. Homosexuals: July
Nazis believed they lowered the moral standard and spoiled the purity of the German race. Many were imprisoned in concentration camps—5,000 homosexuals died there. People with disabilities - Seen as a burden on society. 1938
Jews have to carry ID cards
1933 - Law for the Prevention of Hereditary Diseased Offspring made it compulsory to be sterilized if mentally ill, alcoholic, deformed, epileptic, deaf or blind. 400,000 people were steri lized. 1939 - Nazis ordered all babies who
9-10
had severe mental or physical disabilities to be killed by starvation or drug overdose. This was known as the T4 programme. The persecution of Jews: Jews only made up 1% of the German population. But propaganda from 1933 Nov Kristallnacht (see section 4)
referred to them as ‘vermin’ and ‘filth’. See timeline opposite of how persecution increased between 1933 and 1939. Kristallnacht: A Polish Jew randomly shot a German at the embassy in Paris on 7 November 1938. Goebbels 1938
used it as an excuse to stir up trouble for Jews in Germany. Local synagogues were attacked and things escalated. Hitler ordered a nationwide attack, and told police to not prevent any violence against Jews. Between 9-10 Novem-
ber, official figures say that 814 shops, 171 homes and 191 synagogues were destroyed by non-uniformed gangs. About 100 Jews were killed. It was known as the Night of Broken Glass. Jan Reich Office for Jewish Emigra-
1939 tion set up to deport Jews.