knowledge and learning 100
consciousness of God, rather than repre- such as ilm, marifa, fiqh, ikma and shuūr,
senting the traces of a secular society in and the verbs and verbal derivatives of
the process of evolving from tribalism to each, many of which find representation in
individualism. See also family. the Qurān itself, at least in form if not in
meaning.
Talal Asad The problem of defining knowledge and
explaining its relationship to faith (q.v.) on
Bibliography the one hand, and to action and works on
M. Arkoun, Min al-ijtihād ilā naqd al-aql al-islāmī, the other (see good deeds; evil deeds;
Beirut 1993; J.L. Austin, How to do things with
words, Oxford 1962; S. Bashīr, Tawāzun al-naqāi .
ethics and the qurn), became, for ex-
Muā arāt fī l-jāhilīyya wa-adri l-islām, Jerusalem ample, the subject of intense debate and
1978; G.-H. Bousquet and F. Peltier, Les successions eventual elaboration involving precision
agnatiques mitigées. Étude comparée du régime succes- and technical complexity. One example is
soral en droit germanique et en droit musulman, Paris
1935; P. Crone, Meccan trade and the rise of Islam, the great concern of the experts about
Princeton 1987; id., Tribes and states in the establishing that human knowledge is con-
Middle East, in jras Series 3 vol. 3 (1993), tingent and temporally produced whereas
353-76; F.M. Donner, The early Islamic conquests,
that of God is not, although he somehow,
Princeton 1981; id., Narratives of Islamic origin. The
beginnings of Islamic historical writing, Princeton despite the paradox, comprehends and is
1998; R. Needham (ed.), Rethinking kinship and the author of what humans think (see
marriage, London 1971; D.S. Powers, Studies in intellect; freedom and predestina-
Qurān and adīth, Berkeley 1986; P.G. Rivière,
Marriage. A reassessment, in R. Needham, tion). For both philosophy ( falsafa) and
Rethinking kinship and marriage, London 1971, 57-74; theology (kalām) a precise understanding of
F. Rosenthal, Nasab, in ei 2 , vii, 967-8; S.I. āli, the nature of knowledge (ilm) is, in fact,
Alāqāt al-ābā bi-l-abnā fī l-sharīati l-islāmiyya,
for this and many other reasons an essen-
Jeddah 1981, repr. 1984; D.M. Schneider, A
critique of the study of kinship, Ann Arbor 1984; tial first premise to all subsequent reason-
W.R. Smith, Kinship and marriage in early Arabia, ing (see philosophy and the qurn;
Cambridge 1885; W.M. Watt, Muhammad at theology and the qurn). A major cat-
Mecca, Oxford 1953; id., Muhammad at Medina,
Oxford 1956; Watt-Bell, Introduction; F.J. Ziadeh,
egory of Islamic literature took up the
Review of Powers’ Studies in Qurān and adīth theme of the enumeration of the sciences
(1986), in jaos 108 (1988), 487-8. (iā al-ulūm), that is, of laying out sche-
matically all knowledge and explaining its
value, ranks, and the relationship of one
Kitāb see book; people of the book; kind to the others. Religious scholars in
scripture and the qurn Islam are “those who know” (ulamā, sing.
ālim). The search for knowledge (alab al-
Knife see instruments ilm) is a duty for all Muslims, but especially
for those who aspire to attain the status of
a learned authority (q.v.). Seeking knowl-
Knowledge and Learning edge implies both finding and studying
with a teacher and traveling to distant
Cognitive understanding and its acquisi- lands (even to China). ūfī mystics (see
tion. Concepts of knowledge and learning fism and the qurn) sought to sepa-
appear frequently in nearly all types of rate the process of knowing through intui-
Islamic discourse. They are commonly tive perception (dhawq) and presence from
subsumed under a variety of Arabic words discursive learning and rational or intellec-
101 knowledge and learning
tual reasoning — an effort that has led to the original context for the Qurān, claim-
an impressively sophisticated body of writ- ing as it does to represent the very words
ings, both by the ūfīs and by those who of God and not those of humans except
would deny their approach. Even earlier secondarily, the perspective from which it
Muslims debated, as yet another example, speaks is not that of the community of
the extent to which knowledge is confined Muslims. It does not reflect their later
to, or conveyed exclusively within, a natu- need to acquire or preserve knowledge.
ral language and its grammar (see gram- In the world of the Qurān God alone
mar and the qurn; arabic language; knows (see god and his attributes);
language, concept of). For example, is truth (q.v.) is his. In it either humans do not
what can be known in Arabic — the lan- know, even though they may think they
guage of the Islamic revelation — different know, or God causes a select few of them
from Greek science and philosophy in part to possess a limited degree of knowledge
because of its linguistic home? Or does and truth (see ignorance; impeccabil-
there exist a universal logic of thought that ity). They know what he lets them know.
transcends (and is therefore superior to) This starkly different view of knowledge is
particular expressions in use in a given cul- perhaps best approached by observing a
ture? The adīth (see adth and the common theme in later Islamic thought of
qurn), as yet one more category, already how to know God and, almost as import-
include numerous admonitions about the ant, how to express and verbally explain
value of knowledge, its reward and the knowing God. One aspect of the problem
duty to seek it, to gather and preserve it, to is that God is infinite and no finite creature
journey abroad in search of it. In it teach- can know an infinite (see anthropomorph-
ers are accorded high honor; Muammad ism). Knowing a thing implies compre-
was a teacher; the angel Gabriel (q.v.) also hending the thing as it really and truly is.
(see teaching). But that is impossible in relation to the
All these examples merely hint at the infinite, unlimited, inexhaustible God.
enormous importance of knowledge and God cannot be known by humans; they
learning in the Islamic world over time will merely come to “acknowledge” him or
and place from the earliest period of post- “be aware” of him. Some authors make a
qurānic Islam to the present (see teach- distinction here between “knowing” (the
ing and preaching the qurn). Every verb alima) and “recognizing” (the verb
facet of Islamic thought was and continues arafa).
to be affected by it. But it is doubtful that But, even so, is there any correspondence
these concepts of knowledge or of learning at all between the knowledge that God has
and the characteristic value placed on and what knowledge the human possesses,
them in Islam generally, come from the acquires, or comes to know? Obviously,
Qurān itself or find an echo there. It is, of God himself does not learn, but does he
course, always possible, and often done, to teach? An important theme in Islamic writ-
interpret the sacred text to draw on its ings concerns the relative worth of study
amazing flexibility and thus yield almost and effort versus the spontaneous acquisi-
any meaning from its words (see exegesis tion of inspired enlightenment (see reve-
of the qurn: classical and medieval; lation and inspiration; prophets and
exegesis of the qurn: early modern prophethood). Should the seeker of
and contemporary). Nevertheless, given knowledge — here the exact meaning of
knowledge and learning 102
knowledge can vary — read books and the true nature of the universe as God’s
take instruction, or avoid both and prepare creation (q.v.) and of his role in it. In most
for the infusion of knowledge by grace cases, qurānic references to those who
through pious practice and exercise (see know or do not know indicate only
piety)? whether or not the person or persons un-
In the Qurān the fact that God is all- derstands this truth and do not indicate an
knowing (alīm), knows what humans do acquired or accumulated degree of learn-
not, and knows the unseen (ālim al-ghayb, ing. Those who have knowledge (al-ulamā)
allām al-ghayb) is stressed constantly (see are simply those who truly fear (q.v.) God
hidden and the hidden). The term all- (q 35:28). q 3:66 (among others) refers to
knowing (alīm) appears literally again and those who argue about a matter about
again, often in combination with all-wise which they have no knowledge; only God
(akīm, see wisdom; judgment) but also knows what they think they know.
with all-hearing (samī, see hearing and The opposites of knowledge are igno-
deafness; seeing and hearing). One rance ( jahl), which is not having guidance
phrase states clearly that “over and above (hudā, as in q 6:35; see astray; error),
every person who has knowledge is the supposition or conjecture (q 53:28) and the
all-knowing” (q 12:76). In fact, every following of personal whims in the absence
qurānic instance (thirteen in all) of the of knowledge (as in q 6:119 and 30:29), all
term “knower” (ālim [sing.]), which is the of which denote a failure, often willful, to
same word as that used later for the perceive and acknowledge the truth. Even
learned scholar, is followed by “unseen” the expressions for those who possess un-
(ghayb) and therefore refers unambiguously derstanding (ūlū l-albāb), who are firmly
to God. It is true that there are references grounded in knowledge (al-rāsikhūn fī l-ilm)
(five) to “those with knowledge” in the or who come to know that which they for-
plural (ālimūn, ulamā) and several expres- merly knew not (mā lam yalam, mā lam takun
sions for humans “who know, understand, talam), indicate, not learning in the normal
are aware” (ūlū l-albāb, for example, or sense of that word, but having such knowl-
al-rāsikhūn fī l-ilm). Nevertheless, God’s edge, that is, of being wise in matters of
preponderance and omniscience is over- religion (q.v.) and the affairs of God.
whelming, so much so as to bring into Given that knowledge does not depend
question what it means to assert that hu- on study and learning, it is fair to ask if the
mans, even the prophets, know. Qurān contains a concept of instruction
A further issue is how they come to know as in either the teaching by God of hu-
whatever it is that they know. Strictly mans or humans of other humans, leading
within the Qurān, the terms for knowing some to become more learned than others.
and knowledge (ilm, marifa, fiqh, shuūr and There are in fact several verses that, in
the various forms they take) seem to sug- accordance with the Qurān’s fertile elastic-
gest not a degree or quantity, but an abso- ity, can be construed in this manner. Most
lute, in which the known object is simply use the second — that is, transitive — form
the truth — what truly is — in its ultimate of the verb “to know” (alima), thus to
reality and not some fact of ordinary per- “teach” (allama). Important examples in-
ception. Common human knowledge in its clude “he taught Adam the names of all
mundane form lacks value in comparison. things” (q 2:31; see adam and eve); “we
Thus, to have knowledge or to come to have no knowledge except that which you
have knowledge implies becoming aware of taught us” (q 2:32); “the most merciful
103 knowledge and learning
taught the Qurān; he created man and the pen and therefore quite possibly these
taught him the explanation (al-bayān)” verses point to some type of book learning
(q 55:1-4); “Lord… you have taught me (see book; writing and writing mate-
[ Joseph] the interpretation of events” rials). A few isolated verses also mention
(q 12:101; see joseph; dreams and sleep; learning or instruction in a situation in-
foretelling; divination; portents); volving humans imparting (or purportedly
and “we have been taught the language of imparting) knowledge from one to the
the birds” (27:16; see animal life). It is other. Two of these (q 44:14 and 16:103),
easy to see how these cases can be, as they however, cite false imputations that
have been, understood as proof that God Muammad had been taught what he
acts as the teacher of humankind, at least knew by another man (a foreigner; see
of the prophets. In a closely parallel exam- informants; strangers and foreign-
ple, however, God instead “brings” or “be- ers). One more verse (q 2:102) speaks of a
stows” (ātā) knowledge: “we have brought kind of sorcery or magic (q.v.) taught by
to David (q.v.) and Solomon (q.v.) knowl- devils (see devil) for evil purposes, such as
edge” (q 27:15); the sense is rather of God’s a spell to separate a man and his wife (see
causing the recipient to know something, marriage and divorce; jinn).
not by instruction but by instantaneous Yet another verse (q 9:122) contains a
revelation. “God revealed (anzala) to you verb form that usually denotes quite clearly
the book (q.v.), and wisdom and caused “to study” (tafaqqaha) and is there joined
you to know that which you previously with the word “religion” (li-yatafaqqahū fī
knew not” (q 4:113). This latter sense fits l-dīn), in a phrase that would translate
better the tone of the Qurān and of the “that they may study (or become learned
power of God as expressed in it generally in) religion.” The verse as a whole cautions
(see power and impotence). The slow the Muslims not to go to war (q.v.) alto-
accumulation of items of knowledge gether but to leave behind a contingent
applies solely to humans learning from when the rest go out. But according to a
other humans. It involves a temporal and widely accepted interpretation (credited by
sequential process quite different from that the commentary tradition to Ibn Abbās
of God. Accordingly, therefore, the first of [d. 68⁄686-8]), it applies specifically to a
these verses reads: “he caused Adam to time when the Prophet was then actively
have knowledge of the names of all things” receiving revelations and other instructions
and thus it does not imply a process of from God and, if none of the Muslims
learning or that, despite his knowledge, were to stay with him at home, none would
Adam was “learned.” come to know those aspects of the religion
The cryptic words of q 96:4-5, “he it is imparted to him in that interval. Subse-
who taught by the pen; taught humankind quently, they could neither transmit it
(al-insān) what it knew not” suggest, how- accurately to those not present nor insure
ever, the opposite since they indicate, if its later preservation. And yet another view
taken literally, a form of instruction that is that it is the party that goes out to war
by its very nature must be sequentially (not those who remain behind) that gains a
ordered. The commentators note, however, deeper understanding and appreciation of
that the verse may rather be read such that religion — witnessing in this case how, by
God taught the use of the pen, that is, writ- God’s support, a few Muslims can defeat a
ing itself. Nevertheless, the more common much larger force of unbelievers (see
interpretation is that he taught by means of expeditions and battles) — and brings
korah 104
that truth back with them to share with the ing). Finally, when Korah “went forth unto
others (see fighting; jihd). Both inter- his people in his adornment” (q 28:79) and
pretations are related, for example, by his people argued about his fortune, God
Fakhr al-Dīn al-Rāzī (d. 606⁄1210; Tafsīr, decreed his death, making the earth swal-
xvi, 225-7), among others. Thus, despite low him and his house (see punishment
the use of this quite suggestive verb, given stories; chastisement and punishment).
the context of the passage as a whole, the Two other verses mention the name of
“study of religion” which is what some Korah. In the first of these (q 29:39) he,
authorities would later have it imply, is not along with Pharaoh (q.v.) and Hāmān
necessarily what was involved in this par- (q.v.), arrogantly (see arrogance) opposes
ticular situation. the signs (q.v.) brought by Moses, while in
the other he, along with Pharaoh and
Paul E. Walker Hāmān, accuses Moses of being a lying
sorcerer (q 40:24; see soothsayers;
Bibliography magic; lie; insanity).
Primary (in addition to the standard commen- As well as containing some elements that
taries on the verses cited above): al-Ghazālī, Abū
āmid Muammad, The book of knowledge. Being a
are similar to the biblical story of Korah
translation with notes of the Kitāb al-Ilm of al- (cf. Num 16; see scripture and the
Ghazālī’s Iyā ulūm al-dīn, trans. N.A. Fāris, qurn; myths and legends in the
Lahore 1962, 19702 (rev. ed.); Rāzī, Tafsīr, ed. qurn), the Qurān mainly stresses the
M. Muyī l-Dīn.
Secondary: Abd al-Bāqī; R. Arnaldez, Marifa, fact, which had already been highlighted
in ei 2 , vi, 568-71; [Ed.], Ilm, in ei 2 , iii, 1133-4; in rabbinical literature, of his great wealth.
F. Rosenthal, Knowledge triumphant. The concept of A saying of Muammad, which reflects
knowledge in medieval Islam, Leiden 1970; Wen-
qurānic content, mentions his name along
sinck, Concordance (s.v. ilm); id., Handbook (s.v.
knowledge). with those of Hāmān and Pharaoh as
examples of people destined to go to hell
(q.v.; Ibn anbal, Musnad, ii, 169). Exegeti-
Korah cal traditions usually recount that Korah
was Moses’ cousin or, according to Mu-
A figure living at the time of Moses (q.v.) ammad b. Isāq (d. 150⁄767), his uncle
who is mentioned both in the Bible and the (abarī, Tafsīr, xx, 105; see exegesis of
Qurān. He is described in q 28:76-82 and the qurn: classical and medieval).
briefly mentioned in two other verses. He was so handsome or his voice, while
Korah (Ar. Qārūn) is introduced as one of reciting the Torah (q.v.), was so beautiful
the people of Moses, yet one who treated that he was named the Enlightened (al-
them unjustly (q 28:76-82; see justice and munawwar). His appearance among his
injustice; oppression). God accorded people is described with a wealth of detail,
him such enormous treasures that “its very from his luxurious dress to the magnifi-
keys (mafātiahu) were too heavy a burden cence of his escort, consisting of three
for a company of men” (q 28:76) to carry. hundred maids, four thousand riding
When people urged him to use his wealth beasts with purple saddles or with seventy
(q.v.) for God’s purposes and, with the thousand or more soldiers. The keys of his
world to come in mind (see eschatology), treasures were the leather keys of his store-
he would answer that the only reason he houses; they were no larger than a finger
possessed his wealth was because of his and so heavy that only forty men or forty
knowledge (see knowledge and learn- camels or sixty mules could carry them.
