[Link]

org/ancient-earth#0 – Ancient Earth

[Link] - Layers of the Earth

based on chemical composition and physical properties

[Link]
[Link] - dynamicearth

[Link]
and-atmosphere - earth layers and atmospheric layers

[Link] -
quiz

[Link] – need to check.

Convectional Currents
[Link] - How Do We Know
Pangea Existed?

Continental Drift theory by Alfred Wegener

The Continental Drift Theory by Alfred Wegener is a

specific scientific theory proposed by German meteorologist and
geophysicist Alfred Wegener in the early 20th century. This theory
suggests that Earth’s continents were once part of a single supercontinent
called Pangaea(pan·jee·Uh), which later broke apart and drifted to their
current positions. Wegener supported his theory with evidence from
geological features, fossil distributions, and paleoclimatic data.

Basic Premise of Continental Drift Theory

1. Jigsaw Fit of the Continents:

The coastlines of continents, particularly those of South America and

Africa, appeared to fit together like pieces of a jigsaw puzzle.

2. Fossil Evidence:

Similar fossils of plants and animals were found on continents that are
now separated by vast oceans.
For instance, identical fossilized plants and animals were discovered in
South America and Africa.

3. Rock and Mountain Correlations:

rock formations and mountain ranges on continents that are now

separated by oceans often exhibited striking similarities. For example, the
Appalachian Mountains in North America seemed to correspond with the
Caledonian Mountains in Europe.

4. Paleoclimatic Evidence:

glacial deposits and coal beds, and noted that the distribution of these
deposits didn’t make sense based on the current positions of continents.
For example, glacial deposits were found in regions that are now near the
equator, which suggested that these areas were once closer to the poles.

Main Criticisms of Wegener’s Continental Drift Theory

1. No Clear Mechanism: Wegener’s theory lacked an explanation for how

continents could move. He did not identify the forces responsible for shifting
massive landmasses.
2. Weak Geological Evidence: Many believed that similarities in fossils, rocks, and
coastlines could be due to coincidence or other natural processes, not
continental movement.
3. Rigid Continents: At the time, scientists thought continents were too solid to
move long distances or break through the Earth’s crust.
4. Weak Centrifugal Force: Wegener suggested Earth’s rotation might help move
continents, but this force was too weak to be a valid explanation.
 5. Movement Speed Issues: Critics argued that the continents could not have
moved as quickly as Wegener suggested, given the slow pace of geological
processes.
6. Lack of Scientific Support: Most geologists rejected Wegener’s theory, making it
difficult for his ideas to gain acceptance.
7. Fixed Continents Belief: The common view was that continents did not move, so
any new theory needed strong evidence to challenge this belief.

Q1. What is the theory of continental drift?

Ans. The theory of continental drift suggests that Earth's continents were
once a single landmass and have drifted apart over time.

Q2. Who gave the continental drift theory?

Ans. The continental drift theory was proposed by Alfred Wegener in

1912.

Q3. What are the 4 evidences of continental drift theory?

Ans. The four pieces of evidence of continental drift include the fit of
continents, fossil correlations, rock formations, and paleoclimatic
evidence.

Q4. Why was continental drift rejected?

Ans. Continental drift was rejected initially due to a lack of a plausible

mechanism for the movement of continents.

Q5. What was the first supercontinent?

Ans. The first supercontinent was called Pangaea, existing around 335
million years ago.

The shrinking Earth theory was a scientific theory that the Earth
started as a molten ball and shrank as it cooled. The theory was widely
accepted until new information challenged it.

How the theory worked

 The Earth began as a molten ball that orbited the sun.

 As the Earth cooled, a solid crust formed on the outside.

 The crust wrinkled and crumpled, forming mountain ranges.

 The theory also predicted that volcanoes and earthquakes would

occur randomly on Earth.
Evidence against the theory

 New information challenged the theory when it didn't fit with what
was observed.

 For example, the planetesimal theory of Chamberlin and Moulton is

now considered the most acceptable geological explanation for the
formation of the Earth.

Related information

 Earth's atmosphere is shrinking due to gaseous loss to space, but

the shrinking is not significant.

 The Earth is constantly exchanging materials with the surrounding

solar system.

[Link] -
investigation

[Link] - About Earth's Shrinking

Bulge

[Link] - Plate tectonics

Sources of Information About Earth’s Interior
Meteoroids: Before the small bit of comet or asteroid enter Earth’s
atmosphere, it floats through interplanetary space and is called a
meteoroid.

Meteors: Meteoroids which enter the atmosphere and burn up

completely.

Meteorites: Those meteoroids which reach the earth’s surface.

Mined rocks provide direct samples from beneath the Earth's surface,
but mining is limited, with the deepest drill reaching 12 km.

Volcanic eruptions offer another source of direct observation, as magma

reaching the surface can be analyzed. However, determining its depth of
origin is difficult, suggesting a molten or semi-molten layer within the
Earth.

Changes in temperature, pressure, and density help infer Earth's

structure. The outer crust has a density of 3.0-3.5, while Earth's average
density (from Newton’s law) is around 5.5, indicating increasing density
with depth (SiAl > SiMa > NiFe).

Temperature rises by about 25°C per km, implying an unrealistic 72,500°C

at 2,900 km depth. This suggests that while temperature increases with
depth, the rate of increase slows.
Meteors provide insights into Earth's interior as their composition and
structure resemble that of our planet, though they originate from space.

Gravitational force varies with latitude, being stronger at the poles and
weaker at the equator due to Earth's shape and uneven mass distribution.
Deviations from expected values, called gravity anomalies, help analyze
the Earth's crust.

Seismic waves change speed and direction in different materials, and

their shadow zones vary. These properties help determine Earth's internal
composition.
Surface waves:

[Link]
seismic_wave_motions4_waves_animated - 4 waves

Q1: What are surface waves?

Answer: Surface waves are seismic waves that travel along the Earth's
surface, typically causing most of the damage during earthquakes due to
their high amplitude and slow speed.

Q2: What are the two main types of surface waves?

Answer: The two primary types of surface waves are Love waves and
Rayleigh waves. Love waves cause horizontal shifting, while Rayleigh
waves result in a rolling motion, both impacting structures significantly.

Q3: How do surface waves differ from body waves?

Answer: Unlike body waves, which travel through the Earth’s interior,
surface waves propagate along the Earth's crust, leading to more
noticeable and destructive shaking on the surface.

Q4: Why are surface waves more destructive than other seismic
waves?
Answer: Surface waves are more destructive because they have higher
amplitudes and cause complex ground motion, including horizontal and
vertical movements, impacting buildings and infrastructure heavily.

Q5: How are surface waves detected and measured?

MCQs

1. What type of motion is caused by Rayleigh waves?

A) Horizontal shifting

B) Vertical shifting only

C) Rolling motion

D) None of the above

Answer: (C) See the Explanation

Rayleigh waves create a rolling motion, causing both horizontal and

vertical movements that contribute to structural damage during
earthquakes.

2. Which surface wave is known for causing horizontal

displacement?

A) Rayleigh wave

B) Love wave

C) Primary wave

D) Secondary wave

Answer: (B) See the Explanation

Love waves cause horizontal shifting of the ground, which can damage the
foundations of buildings.

3. Why are surface waves slower than body waves?

A) They travel through denser materials

B) They encounter greater resistance on the surface

C) They carry more energy

D) They move in circular patterns

Answer: (B) See the Explanation

Surface waves move more slowly because they encounter resistance from
irregularities and materials on the Earth's surface.
 4. Which instrument is used to detect surface waves?

A) Barometer

B) Seismometer

C) Thermometer

D) Anemometer

Answer: (B) See the Explanation

A seismometer records ground motion during earthquakes, helping detect

surface waves.

5. What makes surface waves particularly destructive?

A) Their high velocity

B) Their long wavelengths

C) Their complex ground motion

D) Their ability to penetrate deep layers

Answer: (C) See the Explanation

Surface waves are destructive due to the complex rolling and horizontal
movements they induce, severely affecting structures on the surface.

Seismic Wave Speed

Seismic waves travel fast, on the order of kilometers per second (km/s).
The precise speed that a seismic wave travels depends on several factors,
most important is the composition of the rock. We are fortunate that the
speed depends on the rock type because it allows us to use observations
recorded on seismograms to infer the composition or range of
compositions of the planet. But the process isn't always simple, because
sometimes different rock types have the same seismic-wave velocity, and
other factors also affect the speed, particularly temperature and pressure.
Temperature tends to lower the speed of seismic waves and pressure
tends to increase the speed. Pressure increases with depth in Earth
because the weight of the rocks above gets larger with increasing depth.
Usually, the effect of pressure is the larger and in regions of uniform
composition, the velocity generally increases with depth, despite the fact
that the increase of temperature with depth works to lower the wave
velocity.
[Link] - What is a Volcanic
Hotspot?

[Link] - How tsunamis work

[Link] – Sea Floor Spreading

[Link]
spreading/ - sea floor spreading

Sonar was the primary tool used to survey the ocean floor during
World War II. Sonar is an acronym for Sound Navigation And
Ranging.

How sonar works

 Sonar systems emit sound pulses into the water.

 The sound bounces off the seafloor, creating an echo.

 The time difference between the sound and its echo is used to
calculate the depth of the seafloor.

Sonar use during World War II

 Sonar was used to locate submarines and mines.

 Research was conducted on high frequency acoustics and low-

frequency, long-range sound propagation.

 Measurements were taken of background noise levels in the sea.

Sonar use after World War II

 Sonar-equipped ships were used to create three-dimensional relief

maps of the ocean floor.
  These maps revealed the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, an underwater
mountain range that is over 10,000 miles long.

 Side scan sonar instruments are towed behind ships to map the
ocean floor.

why does oceanic lithosphere subduct whole continental

lithosphere does not

Oceanic lithosphere subducts while continental lithosphere does not

because oceanic lithosphere is significantly denser due to its composition,
making it heavier and more prone to sinking beneath the lighter
continental lithosphere when they collide at a plate boundary, a process
called subduction; essentially, the denser oceanic plate is forced under
the less dense continental plate.

Key points about this phenomenon:

 Density difference:

Oceanic crust is primarily composed of basalt, a dense rock rich in iron

and magnesium, while continental crust is mostly granite, which is less
dense due to its higher silica content.

 Cooling and thickening:

As oceanic lithosphere moves away from mid-ocean ridges, it cools and

becomes denser, further facilitating its subduction.

 Continental buoyancy:

The lower density of continental lithosphere allows it to "float" higher on

the mantle, resisting subduction.

[Link] - Why Continents Are

High
 [Link] - Volcanic
eruption explained - Steven Anderson

A volcanic eruption is the expulsion of gases, rock fragments,

and/or molten lava from within the Earth through a vent onto the
Earth’s surface or into the atmosphere.

Illustration of the basic process of magma formation, movement

to the surface, and eruption through a volcanic vent.

Volcanoes

Some mountains are made of solid rock, like the Rocky Mountains or the
Swiss Alps. But, some mountains are actually volcanoes.

The Ring of Fire is a large circle of explosive volcanoes around

the Pacific Ocean. The circle is formed by the subduction of the
Pacific Plate and some smaller plates under surrounding plates.
Volcanoes are vents, or openings in Earth's crust, that release ash, gases
and steam, and hot liquid rock called lava. When the lava cools and
hardens, it forms into the cone-shaped mountain we think of as a volcano.
Most of the world's volcanoes are found around the edges of tectonic
plates, both on land and in the oceans.

On land, volcanoes form when one tectonic plate moves under another.
Usually a thin, heavy oceanic plate subducts, or moves under, a thicker
continental plate. When this happens, the ocean plate sinks into the
mantle.

The Mount Rainier volcano in Washington is considered "active."

Volcanoes are classified as active (erupted recently), dormant
(expected to erupt in the future), or extinct (not expected to
erupt again).

Water trapped in the rocks in this plate gets squeezed out. This causes
some of the rocks to melt. The melted rock, or magma, is lighter than the
surrounding rock and rises up. This magma collects in magma chambers,
but it is still miles below the surface.

When enough magma builds up in the magma chamber, it forces its way
up to the surface and erupts, often causing volcanic eruptions.
In the ocean, volcanoes erupt along cracks that are opened in the ocean
floor by the spreading of two plates called a mid-ocean ridge . Magma
from Earth's upper mantle rises up to fill these cracks. As the lava cools, it
forms new crust on the edges of the cracks. These mid-ocean ridges are
actually long chains of underwater volcanoes that circle the planet like the
seams on a baseball.

About 80 to 90 percent of all volcanic eruptions occur where the plates

spread apart.

When magma erupts at the surface as lava, it can form different

types of volcano depending on:

 the viscosity, or stickiness, of the magma

 the amount of gas in the magma

 the composition of the magma

 the way in which the magma reached the surface

Volcanoes will erupt for two reasons

1. The magma deep under the crust is less dense than the surrounding rock causing it to
rise.

2. As the magma approaches the surface of the Earth the gas that is in the magma will
come bubbling out because the pressure surrounding the magma will decrease nearer the
surface.

Volcanoes are classified by the eruption type and by the volcanic cone
shape.

There are three basic cone shapes and six eruption types.

The three cone shapes are cinder cones, shield cones, and
composite cones or stratovolcanoes.
 The six eruption types are in order from least explosive to the most
explosive; Icelandic, Hawaiian, Strombolian, Vulcanian, Pelean,
and Plinian.

Icelandic, flood, or fissure eruptions are all terms for volcanic eruptions
that flood the surface of the Earth with massive amounts of very hot, very
thin, runny lava.

Hawaiian eruptions are similar to Icelandic eruptions because both

eruption types have many fissures bringing the lava to the surface.

The main difference lies in the fact that most Hawaiian eruptions have the
greatest quantity of lava pouring out of the main vent at the volcano's
summit, not along side fissures. These summit eruptions build the cone
steeper and higher. The volcano above was formed from Hawaiian
eruptions.

Stratovolcanoes or composite cones are formed from a combination

of eruptions. First the volcano will have an explosive eruption that ejects
huge amounts of steam, gas and ash. This will be followed by the ejection
of lava. A large stratovolcano will be built with many layers of ash and
lava.

Shield cones form from hot, runny lava that is erupted from the the
volcano through its summit and the many side vents and fissures
throughout the volcano's flanks (Sides). Shield cones are low, very broad,
and gently sloping volcanoes.

Strombolian and Vulcanian eruptions are more explosive than Icelandic

and Hawaiian eruptions.

Strombolian eruptions are short lived explosive eruptions that shoot very
thick and pasty lava into the air along with bursts of steam and gas.

Strombolian eruptions usually produce little or no lava. Because of this the

cones that are produced by this type of eruption is a very steep sided
cone called a cinder cone.
Cinder cones get their name from the material that forms them, cinders.
Cinder cones are the simplest volcanic formation. They form from
explosions of red, hot magma cinders and ash.

Cinder cones very rarely rise to more than 1,000 feet above the
surrounding landscape. Cinder cones are known for their very violent,
explosive, exciting eruptions. Paricutin in Mexico and Mt. Vesuvius in Italy
are famous cinder cones.

Vulcanian eruptions are more violent and explosive than strombolian

eruptions. Vulcanian eruptions are named after the island of Vulcano off
the coast of Italy. This is the same island that gave us the name "Volcano".
Vulcanian eruptions contain high dark clouds of steam, ash, and gas.

Stratovolcanoes or composite cones are formed from a combination of

eruptions. First the volcano will have an explosive eruption that ejects
huge amounts of steam, gas and ash. This will be followed by the ejection
of lava. A large stratovolcano will be built with many layers of ash and
lava.
[Link]
earthquake-waves-P-surface/-218347 - The types of seismic waves
explained

[Link]
255047 – earth wave cause seismic wave.

[Link]
earthquake-waves-P-surface/-218347 - The types of seismic waves
explained

Seismic waves

 Seismic: relating to earthquakes or other vibrations of the earth and

its crust.

 Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth’s
layers and are a result of earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, magma
movement, large landslides and large human-made explosions.

 The refraction or reflection of seismic waves is used for research

into the structure of the Earth’s interior.

 The terms seismic waves and earthquake waves are often used
interchangeably.

Types of Seismic waves or earthquake waves

 The seismic waves or earthquake waves are basically of two types

— body waves and surface waves.

Body waves
 Body waves are generated due to the release of energy at the focus
and move in all directions travelling through the interior of the
earth. Hence, the name body waves.

 There are two types of body waves:

 the P-waves or primary waves (longitudinal in nature ― wave

propagation is similar to sound waves), and

 the S-waves or secondary waves (transverse in nature ― wave

propagation is similar to ripples on the surface of the water).

Primary Waves (P-waves)

 Primary waves are called so because they are the fastest among
the seismic waves and hence are recorded first on the
seismograph.

 P-waves are also called as the

 longitudinal waves because the displacement of the medium is in

the same direction as, or the opposite direction to, (parallel to) the
direction of propagation of the wave; or

 compressional waves because they produce compression

and rarefaction when travelling through a medium; or

 pressure waves because they produce increases and decreases in

pressure in the medium.

 P-waves creates density differences in the material leading to

stretching (rarefaction) and squeezing (compression) of the
material.

The vibration of particles in Longitudinal wave and Transverse wave

(Source)
 These waves are of relatively high frequency and are the least
destructive among the earthquake waves.

 The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is

in the up-down direction (vertical).

 They can travel in all mediums, and their velocity depends

on shear strength (elasticity) of the medium.

 Hence, the velocity of the P-waves in Solids > Liquids > Gases.

 These waves take the form of sound waves when they enter the
atmosphere.

 P-wave velocity in earthquakes is in the range 5 to 8 km/s.

 The precise speed varies according to the region of the Earth’s

interior, from less than 6 km/s in the Earth’s crust to 13.5 km/s in
the lower mantle, and 11 km/s through the inner core.

We usually say that the speed of sound waves depends on density.

But there are few exceptions ― mercury is denser than iron, but
it is less elastic; hence the speed of sound in iron is greater
than that in mercury

Why do P-waves travel faster than S-waves?

 P-waves are about 1.7 times faster than the S-waves.

 P-waves are compression waves that apply a force in the direction of

propagation and hence transmit their energy quite easily through
the medium and thus travel quickly.

 On the other hand, S-waves are transverse waves or shear

waves (motion of the medium is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation of the wave) and are hence less easily transmitted
through the medium.

P-waves as an earthquake warning

 Advance earthquake warning is possible by detecting the non-

destructive primary waves that travel more quickly through the
Earth’s crust than do the destructive secondary and surface waves.

 Depending on the depth of focus of the earthquake, the delay

between the arrival of the P-wave and other destructive waves could
be up to about 60 to 90 seconds (depends of the depth of the
focus).

Secondary Waves (S-waves)

 Secondary waves (secondary they are recorded second on the
seismograph) or S-waves are also called as transverse waves or
shear waves or distortional waves.

 They are analogous to water ripples or light waves.

 Transverse waves or shear waves mean that the direction of

vibrations of the particles in the medium is perpendicular to the
direction of propagation of the wave. Hence, they
create troughs and crests in the material through which they pass
(they distort the medium).

 S-waves arrive at the surface after the P-waves.

 These waves are of high frequency and possess slightly higher

destructive power compared to P-waves.

 The trembling on the earth’s surface caused due to these waves is

from side to side (horizontal).

 S-waves cannot pass through fluids (liquids and gases) as

fluids do not support shear stresses.

 They travel at varying velocities (proportional to shear strength)

through the solid part of the Earth.

Surface waves (L-Waves)

 The body waves interact with the surface rocks and generate
new set of waves called surface waves (long or L-
waves). These waves move only along the surface.

 Surface Waves are also called long period waves because of

their long wavelength.

 They are low–frequency transverse waves (shear waves).

 They develop in the immediate neighbourhood of the

epicentre and affect only the surface of the earth and die out at
smaller depth.

 They lose energy more slowly with distance than the body
waves because they travel only across the surface unlike the body
waves which travel in all directions.

 Particle motion of surface waves (amplitude) is larger than

that of body waves, so surface waves are the most
destructive among the earthquake waves.

 They are slowest among the earthquake waves and are recorded
last on the seismograph.
 Love waves

 It’s the fastest surface wave and moves the ground from side-to-
side.

Rayleigh waves

 A Rayleigh wave rolls along the ground just like a wave rolls across a
lake or an ocean.

 Because it rolls, it moves the ground up and down and side-to-

side in the same direction that the wave is moving.

 Most of the shaking and damage from an earthquake is due to

the Rayleigh wave.

Types of earthquake waves

How do seismic waves help in understanding the earth’s

interior?

 Seismic waves get recorded in seismographs located at far off

locations.

 Differences in arrival times, waves taking different paths than

expected (due to refraction) and absence of the seismic waves in
certain regions called as shadow zones, allow mapping of the
Earth’s interior.

 Discontinuities in velocity as a function of depth are indicative of

changes in composition and density.
 That’s is, by observing the changes in velocity, the density and
composition of the earth’s interior can be estimated (change in
densities greatly varies the wave velocity).

 Discontinuities in wave motion as a function of depth are indicative

of changes in phase.

 That is, by observing the changes in the direction of the waves, the
emergence of shadow zones, different layers can be identified.

The emergence of Shadow Zone of P-waves and S-waves

 S-waves do not travel through liquids (they are attenuated).

 The entire zone beyond 103° does not receive S-waves, and hence
this zone is identified as the shadow zone of S-waves. This
observation led to the discovery of the liquid outer core.

 The shadow zone of P-waves appears as a band around the earth

between 103° and 142° away from the epicentre.

 This is because P-waves are refracted when they pass through the
transition between the semisolid mantle and the liquid outer core.

 However, the seismographs located beyond 142° from the

epicentre, record the arrival of P-waves, but not that of S-waves.
This gives clues about the solid inner core.

 Thus, a zone between 103° and 142° from epicentre was identified
as the shadow zone for both the types of waves.

Shadow Zone of P-waves and S-waves

 The seismographs located at any distance within 103° from the

epicentre, recorded the arrival of both P and S-waves.
 Why do sound waves travel faster in a denser
medium whereas light travels slower?

o The sound is a mechanical wave and travels by

compression and rarefaction of the medium.

o A higher density leads to more elasticity in the

medium and hence the ease by which compression
and rarefaction can take place. This way the velocity
of sound increases with an increase in density.

o Light, on the other hand, is a transverse

electromagnetic wave.

o An increase in the density increases effective path

length, and hence it leads to higher refractive index
and lower velocity.

 The span of the shadow zone of the P-Waves = 78° [2 x (142° –

103°)]

 The span of the shadow zone of the S-Waves = 154° [360° – (103° +
103°)]

 The span of the shadow zone common for both the waves = 78°

What is an earthquake?

An earthquake is a sudden and often forceful shaking or trembling of

the Earth's surface. This phenomenon results from the release of energy
caused by the movement of tectonic plates along geological faults or from
volcanic activity. As a consequence, seismic waves are generated and
travel through the Earth, leading to ground vibrations.

The majority of earthquakes are closely linked to the interactions of

Earth's tectonic plates, which compose the Earth's outer shell. These
interactions mainly occur at plate boundaries, where several types of
plate movements are observed:

 Divergent boundaries: Plates move away from each other,

creating tensional forces that can lead to earthquakes.

 Convergent boundaries: Plates collide or move toward each

other, generating compressional forces and often resulting in
 powerful earthquakes.

 Transform boundaries: Plates slide past each other horizontally,

causing shear forces that can lead to earthquakes.

Apart from tectonic plate movements, earthquakes can be triggered

by various other factors:

 Subduction zones: these zones arise when one tectonic plate is

forced beneath another into the Earth's mantle, generating intense
pressure and friction that can lead to significant earthquakes.

 Volcanic activity: volcanic eruptions can induce earthquakes as

molten rock (magma) rises and interacts with surrounding rocks.
The movement and pressure associated with volcanic activity can
trigger seismic events.

 Faults: faults represent fractures or zones of weakness in the

Earth's crust where rocks have shifted relative to each other.
Sudden movement along a fault, known as a fault slip, can release
stored energy, causing an earthquake.

 Isostatic rebound: after the melting of large glaciers, the Earth's

crust may slowly rebound or rise back to its natural state. This
process can result in earthquakes, although they tend to be of lower
magnitude.

An earthquake is what happens when two blocks of the earth suddenly

slip past one another. The surface where they slip is called
the fault or fault plane. The location below the earth’s surface where
the earthquake starts is called the hypocenter, and the location directly
above it on the surface of the earth is called the epicenter.

Sometimes an earthquake has foreshocks. These are smaller

earthquakes that happen in the same place as the larger earthquake that
follows. Scientists can’t tell that an earthquake is a foreshock until the
larger earthquake happens. The largest, main earthquake is called
the mainshock. Mainshocks always have aftershocks that follow. These
are smaller earthquakes that occur afterwards in the same place as the
mainshock. Depending on the size of the mainshock, aftershocks can
continue for weeks, months, and even years after the mainshock!
A normal (dip-slip) fault is an inclined fracture where the rock mass above
an inclined fault moves down (Public domain.)
what causes earth quake

Earthquakes occur when the Earth's tectonic plates move, releasing

stored-up energy in the form of seismic waves. These waves cause the
ground to shake.

Causes of earthquakes

 Tectonic plate movement

The movement of tectonic plates is driven by convective currents in the

Earth's mantle.

 Faults

When stresses in the Earth's crust exceed the strength of the rock, it
breaks along a fault line.

 Plate boundaries

Earthquakes occur at plate boundaries where plates move apart or come

together.

 Human activities

Human activities like mining, drilling, and injecting fluids into the ground
can also cause earthquakes.

Effects of earthquakes

Earthquakes can cause buildings, trees, and other tall structures to break
and fall. Great earthquakes that occur when rocks fracture in subduction
zones can produce tsunamis.

The earth has four major layers: the inner core, outer core,
mantle and crust. The crust and the top of the mantle make up a thin
skin on the surface of our planet.

But this skin is not all in one piece – it is made up of many pieces like a
puzzle covering the surface of the earth. Not only that, but these puzzle
pieces keep slowly moving around, sliding past one another and bumping
into each other. We call these puzzle pieces tectonic plates, and the
edges of the plates are called the plate boundaries. The plate
boundaries are made up of many faults, and most of the earthquakes
around the world occur on these faults. Since the edges of the plates are
rough, they get stuck while the rest of the plate keeps moving. Finally,
when the plate has moved far enough, the edges unstick on one of the
faults and there is an earthquake.
Differences between earthquakes and tremors

The terms "tremor" and "earthquake" are not synonymous but are
sometimes used interchangeably in casual conversation. Let us take a
closer look at some of their most important differences:

Magnitude

 Earthquakes: are more significant seismic events characterized by

a higher magnitude on the Richter or moment magnitude scale.
They can range from minor to catastrophic in terms of intensity.

 Tremors: are relatively mild and have a lower magnitude compared

to earthquakes. They are typically not as intense and are considered
minor seismic events.

Duration

 Earthquakes: can last for an extended period, often ranging from

seconds to minutes, depending on their magnitude.

 Tremors: are relatively short-lived events, typically lasting for a few

seconds to a minute or so.

Causes

 Earthquakes: are primarily caused by the sudden release of energy

along geological faults, volcanic activity, or other tectonic
processes.

 Tremors: can have various causes, including natural factors like

volcanic activity, groundwater movement, or minor fault
movements, as well as human-induced activities like construction or
mining.

Effects

 Earthquakes: can result in significant structural damage, loss of

life, and widespread destruction. They can trigger secondary events
like tsunamis and landslides.

 Tremors: are generally not strong enough to cause significant

structural damage or pose a substantial threat to human safety.
 They may lead to minor concerns such as rattling windows and
swaying objects.

Warning signs

 Earthquakes: can occur suddenly and without warning, making

them challenging to predict. Foreshocks (smaller earthquakes before
a larger one) are not always reliable indicators of a major
earthquake.

 Tremors: can also happen without warning, but they are less likely
to be associated with foreshocks.

Perception

 Earthquakes: are often felt over a broader geographical area and

are more likely to be widely reported.

 Tremors: are typically felt within a localized region and may not be
widely noticed or reported.

Scientific measurement

 Earthquakes: are precisely measured using seismometers, and

their magnitude is recorded on the Richter or moment magnitude
scale.

 Tremors: are also measured with seismometers but are associated

with lower magnitudes.
 How are earthquakes recorded?

Earthquakes are recorded by instruments called seismographs.
The recording they make is called a seismogram. The seismograph
has a base that sets firmly in the ground, and a heavy weight that
hangs free. When an earthquake causes the ground to shake, the
base of the seismograph shakes too, but the hanging weight does
not. Instead the spring or string that it is hanging from absorbs all
the movement. The difference in position between the shaking part
of the seismograph and the motionless part is what is recorded.
Seismogram - The picture above depicts a seismogram which is a written
record produced by a seismograph.

1. Background noise - This is the type of record that the seismograph will
produce when there is no action.

2. P waves arrive first - P waves travel twice as fast as the S waves.

3. S waves arrived second - S waves are called S for 2 reasons: they are
the second wave to arrive (after the Primary wave), and they travel
through solid materials (like most of the earth's interior) with a shearing
motion.

4. Surface waves arrive last - Because of their larger amplitude surface

waves always arrive last after the P and S waves.

5. SP time interval - This is the most important piece of information that

can be collected from a seismogram. This interval will tell us how far away
the earthquake is. For example in the graph above the SP interval is 1
minute and 45 seconds.

How do scientists measure the size of earthquakes?

The size of an earthquake depends on the size of the fault and the amount
of slip on the fault, but that’s not something scientists can simply measure
with a measuring tape since faults are many kilometers deep beneath the
earth’s surface. So how do they measure an earthquake?

They use the seismogram recordings made on the seismographs at the

surface of the earth to determine how large the earthquake was. A short
wiggly line that doesn’t wiggle very much means a small earthquake, and
a long wiggly line that wiggles a lot means a large earthquake. The length
of the wiggle depends on the size of the fault, and the size of the wiggle
depends on the amount of slip.

The size of the earthquake is called its magnitude. There is one

magnitude for each earthquake. Scientists also talk about the intensity of
shaking from an earthquake, and this varies depending on where you are
during the earthquake.

How can scientists tell where the earthquake happened?

Seismograms come in handy for locating earthquakes too, and being able
to see the P wave and the S wave is important. You learned how P & S
waves each shake the ground in different ways as they travel through it. P
waves are also faster than S waves, and this fact is what allows us to tell
where an earthquake was. To understand how this works, let’s compare P
and S waves to lightning and thunder. Light travels faster than sound, so
during a thunderstorm you will first see the lightning and then you will
hear the thunder. If you are close to the lightning, the thunder will boom
right after the lightning, but if you are far away from the lightning, you can
count several seconds before you hear the thunder. The further you are
from the storm, the longer it will take between the lightning and the
thunder.

P waves are like the lightning, and S waves are like the thunder. The P
waves travel faster and shake the ground where you are first. Then the S
waves follow and shake the ground also. If you are close to the
earthquake, the P and S wave will come one right after the other, but if
you are far away, there will be more time between the two.

By looking at the amount of time between the P and S wave on a

seismogram recorded on a seismograph, scientists can tell how far away
the earthquake was from that location. However, they can’t tell in what
direction from the seismograph the earthquake was, only how far away it
was. If they draw a circle on a map around the station where the radius of
the circle is the determined distance to the earthquake, they know the
earthquake lies somewhere on the circle. But where?

Scientists then use a method called triangulation to determine exactly

where the earthquake was (see image below). It is called triangulation
because a triangle has three sides, and it takes three seismographs to
locate an earthquake. If you draw a circle on a map around three different
seismographs where the radius of each is the distance from that station
to the earthquake, the intersection of those three circles is the epicenter!

Can scientists predict earthquakes?

No, and it is unlikely they will ever be able to predict them. Scientists have
tried many different ways of predicting earthquakes, but none have been
successful. On any particular fault, scientists know there will be another
earthquake sometime in the future, but they have no way of telling when
it will happen.

Once we have the SP time interval we can plot it in a graph and translate
that time into the distance between the station that recorded the
seismogram and the epicenter of the earthquake.

Triangulation uses the three seismometers as centers of three different

circles. Each circle has a radius that matches the distance measurement
from the seismometer to the epicenter. By drawing three circles, each
around a station, the point where the circles intersect is the epicenter of
the earthquake.
To locate an earthquake, you need at least three seismographs to use a
method called triangulation, which requires data from three different
locations to pinpoint the epicenter of the earthquake.

Triangulation can be used to locate an earthquake. The seismometers are

shown as green dots. The calculated distance from each seismometer to
the earthquake is shown as a circle. The location where all the circles
intersect is the location of the earthquake epicenter. (Public domain.)

Besides showing you the arrival of the different waves, a seismogram will
also show you the amplitude of the waves so that the intensity of the
earthquake could be also calculated. For this purpose we are only
interested on the highest amplitude of the S (the second wave to arrive to
the seismograph). For the seismogram to the right the amplitude of the S
wave is about 270, and the SP interval is about 48 seconds, that is the
difference in time from the arrival of the first P wave until the arrival of the
first S wave.
A nomogram will help you to determine the magnitude (intensity) of an
earthquake. The nomogram on the right gives the magnitude based in the
Ritcher scale. Simply by creating lines between the distance from the
earthquake to the amplitude of the S wave we could determine the
magnitude of the earthquake. The magnitude is indicated where the three
lines meet.

[Link] - earth quake simulator

[Link] - Seismic explorer

[Link]
%5B27.9881,86.925,%22Mt.%20Everest,%20Himalayas%22%5D,%5B-
32.6532,-70.0109,%22Mt.%20Aconcagua,%20Andes%22%5D,
%5B35.6225,-117.6709,%22Ridgecrest,%20California%22%5D,
%5B36.2892,137.6481,%22Mt.%20Hotaka,%20Japan%22%5D,
%5B35.7650,-82.2652,%22Mt.%20Mitchell,%20NorthCarolina%22%5D,
%5B65.0350,60.1153,%22Mt.%20Narodnaya,%20Russia%22%5D,%5B-
43.5950,170.1418,%22Mt.%20Aoraki,%20NewZealand%22%5D
%5D&minLat=-90&minLng=-
180&maxLat=90&maxLng=180&mapStyle=relief&plateBoundariesAvailab
le=false&plateNamesAvailable=false&volcanoesAvailable=false&eruption
sAvailable=false&plateMovementAvailable=false - Seismic explorer.

[Link] - visualization of earth

quakes travelling earth interior and outward on the surface.

Hot Spots

Some volcanoes pop up in random places, often far from the edge of a
tectonic plate. These volcanoes are found over "hot spots."

A hot spot is an intensely hot area in the mantle below Earth's crust. The
heat that fuels the hot spot comes from very deep in the planet. This heat
causes the mantle in that region to melt. The molten magma rises up and
breaks through the crust to form a volcano.

While the hot spot stays in one place, rooted to its deep source of heat,
the tectonic plate is slowly moving above it. As the plate moves, so does
the volcano, and another one forms in its place. The volcano that moved
is no longer active. This is why a chain of extinct volcanoes is often found
extending from a hot spot.

The Hawaiian Islands are still forming above a hot spot.

Old Faithful geyser in Yellowstone National Park

Hot spots are found around the globe, on land and in the ocean. The
Hawaiian Islands are the youngest volcanic mountains in a long chain of
volcanoes that formed over a hotspot. They are still forming today.
Another hot spot is under Yellowstone National Park, where the heat
causes boiling mud pools and geysers like Old Faithful.
What are active, dormant and extinct volcanoes?

Volcanoes are found in three states – extinct, dormant and active.

However, there is some disagreement between scientists about the

definition of what an extinct, dormant and active volcano is.

For most, an active volcano has experienced some activity within the
last 10,000 years. The problem with this definition is that a volcano may
have erupted some 3000 years ago but is unlikely to erupt again in the
future.

Others suggest that active volcanoes must be currently displaying some

sort of activity and not limited to eruption. This activity could be the
release of gases or frequent seismic (earthquake) activity.

The most active volcano in the world is Kilauea volcano on Hawaii. This is
followed by Etna in Italy and Piton de la Fournaise on La Réunion island.

A dormant volcano is said to not have erupted in the last 10 000 years
but may erupt again in the future. Some believe that a volcano is
dormant, rather than extinct, if there is some record of its past activity.

In comparison, dormant volcanoes have not erupted since the last ice
age and are unlikely to erupt again in the future.

However, it is very difficult to suggest a volcano will never erupt again in

the future.

One example of this is Four-Peaked Mountain in Alaska. This volcano was

considered extinct until 2006 when it began exhibiting signs of activity
and is now classed as dormant.

Extinct → Extinct volcanoes are those which have not erupted in human
history.

The image below shows the Kerid Crater, a dormant volcano in Iceland.
Mount Gambier in Australia is a monogenetic volcanic center, which is
a type of volcano that erupts once. It's considered one of the youngest
volcanoes in Australia.

Features

 The Mount Gambier Volcanic Complex (MGVC) is located in the

Newer Volcanics Province in southeastern Australia.

 The MGVC has multiple eruption vents that created a series of tuff
rings, tuff cones, scoria cones, spatter ramparts, and maars.

 The MGVC is considered volcanically active, but it's unlikely to erupt

again.

Research

 Researchers are studying the volcanic rock around Mount Gambier

to determine how much warning time there might be before an
eruption.

 They are looking at crystals, minerals, temperature, pressure, the

composition of the magma, and how fast the magma moved.

Other features

 Mount Gambier also has sinkholes, including the three-story

Umpherston Sinkhole.

The Newer Volcanic Province has about 400 volcanoes

stretching from Melbourne to Mount Gambier, and it is the
main volcanic region in Australia considered to be still
active. Mount Gambier's Blue Lake and the nearby Mount
Schank are Australia's most recently active volcanoes,
having erupted about 5,000 years ago.

It is believed to be dormant rather than extinct. Mount

Gambier is thought to have formed by a mantle plume
centre called the East Australia hotspot which may currently
lie offshore.
The Earth’s lithosphere, which includes the crust and upper mantle, is
made up of a series of pieces, or tectonic plates, that move slowly over
time.

A divergent boundary occurs when two tectonic plates move away from
each other. Along these boundaries, earthquakes are common and magma
(molten rock) rises from the Earth’s mantle to the surface, solidifying to
create new oceanic crust. The Mid-Atlantic Ridge is an example of
divergent plate boundaries.

When two plates come together, it is known as a convergent boundary.

The impact of the colliding plates can cause the edges of one or both
plates to buckle up into mountain ranges or one of the plates may bend
down into a deep seafloor trench. At convergent plate boundaries where
an oceanic plate meets a continental plate, oceanic crust is forced down
into the Earth’s mantle and begins to melt. The melted rock rises into and
through the overlying plate as magma, often forming a chain of volcanoes
parallel to the plate boundary. Powerful earthquakes are common along
these boundaries. The Pacific Ring of Fire is an example of a convergent
plate boundary.

Two plates sliding past each other forms a transform plate boundary.
One of the most famous transform plate boundaries occurs at the San
Andreas fault zone, which extends underwater. Natural or human-made
structures that cross a transform boundary are offset — split into pieces
and carried in opposite directions. Rocks that line the boundary are
pulverized as the plates grind along, creating a linear fault valley or
undersea canyon. Earthquakes are common along these faults. In contrast
to convergent and divergent boundaries, crust is cracked and broken at
transform margins, but is not created or destroyed.

[Link] -
tectonics plates

Mo·ho ˈmō-ˌhō : the boundary layer between the earth's crust and mantle
whose depth varies from about 3 miles (5 kilometers) beneath the ocean
floor to about 25 miles (40 kilometers) beneath the continents.

Drilling to the Moho

The mantle has never been directly explored. In 2005, scientists drilled
1,416 meters (4,644 feet) below the North Atlantic seafloor and claimed to
have come within just 305 meters (1,000 feet) of the Moho.

The Ring of Fire: A Tectonic Hotspot

The Ring of Fire is a 40,000 km (25,000-mile) horseshoe-shaped zone of

intense seismic activity around the Pacific Ocean. It contains 75% of the
world's active volcanoes and experiences 90% of global
earthquakes.

Plate Tectonics & Boundaries

The Ring of Fire is shaped by tectonic plate interactions, including:

 Convergent Boundaries: Plates collide, forming subduction

zones and volcanic arcs (e.g., Aleutian Islands, Andes
Mountains).

 Divergent Boundaries: Plates pull apart, creating seafloor

spreading (e.g., East Pacific Rise).

 Transform Boundaries: Plates slide past each other, causing

earthquakes (e.g., San Andreas Fault).

Hot Spots & Active Volcanoes

  Hot spots, like Mount Erebus (Antarctica), are not directly linked
to plate movement.

 Active volcanoes: Mount Ruapehu (New Zealand), Krakatoa

(Indonesia), Mount Fuji (Japan), Mount St. Helens (USA), and
Popocatépetl (Mexico).

Significance & Future

 Japan is one of the most tectonically active regions, with 10% of

global volcanic activity.

 The Pacific Plate is cooling, especially in the northern and

western Ring of Fire, influencing future seismic activity.
 Aleutian Islands
 Tectonic plates in the Ring of Fire interact in different ways. At convergent
boundaries, the plates crash into each other, creating deep trenches. The
Aleutians are a chain of more than 300 small volcanic islands forming an arc
in the Northern Pacific Ocean from the Alaskan Peninsula to far eastern
Russia. The Aleutian Islands, created by the Pacific Plate subducting beneath
the North American Plate, are in the northern part of the Pacific Ring of Fire.

East Pacific Rise

At divergent boundaries, tectonic plates rip themselves apart from each

other. Divergent boundaries are the sites of seafloor spreading and rift
valleys. The East Pacific Rise, stretching from the coasts of Central to
South America, is a divergent boundary home to submarine volcanoes,
islands, trenches, and hydrothermal vents like these "black smokers" near
the Galapagos Islands.
San Andreas Fault

Where crustal plates collide: The San Andreas Fault (infrared photograph)
runs through much of the U.S. state of California. As the western plate, on
the right, grinds north, earthquakes rock the land.

Mount Erebus

The Ring of Fire is also home to hot spots, areas deep within Earth’s
mantle from which heat rises and creates sites of volcanic activity. Mount
Erebus, for example, sits over the Erebus hot spot on Ross Island,
Antarctica, and is the most southern active volcano on Earth. Hot spots
are not generally associated with the interaction or movement of Earth’s
tectonic plates, and many geologists do not consider Mount Erebus or
other hot spot volcanoes part of the Ring of Fire.
Mount Ruapehu

Mount Ruapehu in New Zealand is one of the more active volcanoes in the
Ring of Fire, with yearly minor eruptions, and major eruptions occurring
about every 50 years. Beneath Mount Ruapehu, the dense Pacific Plate is
subducting beneath the Australian Plate.

Anak Krakatau

A dense ash plume escapes from Anak Krakatau, a volcano in the Sunda
Strait of Indonesia. Anak Krakatau is part of the Ring of Fire. The Ring of
Fire is a string of volcanoes and sites of seismic activity, or earthquakes,
around the edges of the Pacific Ocean.

[Link] - folding
mountains

Mountains

Fold mountains are created through a process called orogeny. Watch this
video to learn more about how orogenic events create fold mountains.

Cape Fold Mountains

Fold mountains are created where two or more of Earth’s tectonic plates
are pushed together, often at regions known as convergent plate
boundaries and continental collision zones. The Cape Fold Mountains of
South Africa, above, were created as the ancient Falklands Plateau
crashed into the African plate.
Himalayas

The towering Himalayas are a chain of fold mountains created as the

Indian plate crashes northward into the Eurasian plate.

South American Topography

The Andes are the longest mountain range in the world. These fold
mountains are created as the thick, less-dense continental crust of the
South American plate is uplifted as a result of its collision with the oceanic
crust of the Nazca and Antarctic plates (which are being subducted).
Comparison: Continental Drift – See Floor Spreading – Plate
Tectonics

Continental See Floor

Plate Tectonics
Drift Spreading

Arthur
Holmes explained
Convectional
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Explains the Lithospheric
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only
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nt crustal plates crustal plates
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theory

Major tectonic plates

1. Antarctica and the surrounding oceanic plate

2. North American plate

3. South American plate

4. Pacific plate

5. India-Australia-New Zealand plate

6. Africa with the eastern Atlantic floor plate

7. Eurasia and the adjacent oceanic plate

Minor tectonic plates

 1. Cocos plate: Between Central America and Pacific plate

2. Nazca plate: Between South America and Pacific plate

3. Arabian plate: Mostly the Saudi Arabian landmass

4. Philippine plate: Between the Asiatic and Pacific plate

5. Caroline plate: Between the Philippine and Indian plate (North of

New Guinea)

6. Fuji plate: North-east of Australia

7. Turkish plate

8. Aegean plate (Mediterranean region)

9. Caribbean plate

10. Juan de Fuca plate (between Pacific and North American

plates)

11. Iranian plate.

 There are many more minor plates other than the ones mentioned
above.

 Most of these minor plates were formed due to stress created by

converging major plates.

 Example: the Mediterranean Sea is divided into numerous minor

plates due to the compressive force exerted by Eurasian and African
plates.

Australia experiences little seismic activity because it sits in the

middle of the Indo-Australian tectonic plate, far away from major plate
boundaries where most earthquakes occur; this means the continent is
relatively stable and not subject to the same level of tectonic stress as
regions located on plate edges like Japan or New Zealand.
Key points about Australia's seismic activity:

 Plate location:

Australia is situated entirely within the Indo-Australian plate, not near any
plate boundaries where tectonic forces collide.

 Intraplate earthquakes:

Any earthquakes occurring in Australia are classified as "intraplate"

earthquakes, which are generally smaller in magnitude than those
happening at plate boundaries.

 Stable continental interior:

The majority of Australia's landmass is composed of old, stable continental

crust, making it less prone to significant seismic activity.

Do earthquakes ever happen in Australia?

 While Australia experiences significantly less seismic activity

compared to many other countries, earthquakes can still occur,
particularly in regions with existing faults.

 Notable examples include the 1989 Newcastle earthquake, which

caused significant damage.

 [Link] -Types of faults

video
 [Link] - Types of Faults
in Geology

[Link] - The 4 Tectonic

Plate Boundaries and the Hazards they Create.

[Link] - how does

continental rifting occur,Basics of plate tectonics and Geology
[Link] - How
Mountains Are Formed