The BOOK of ALIENS and

Space

Dr Uday Dokras

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Hard evidence: the pyramids at Giza

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 I
Did Aliens Built the PYRAMIDS
Aliens built the pyramids obv,” Musk tweeted on Friday. In another tweet, he also tried to
substantiate his claim by quoting Wikipedia.
He also shared a BBC article, which he said “provides a sensible summary for how it was
done.”
After his claim went viral, it caught the attention of Rania A. Al Mashat, Egypt’s minister of
international cooperation, who invited Musk to visit the pyramids so that he could study them
better.
The minister claimed that the tombs of pyramid builders discovered in the 1990s prove that
the structures were put in place by ancient Egyptians.
“I follow your work with a lot of admiration. I invite you & Space X to explore the writings
about how the pyramids were built and also to check out the tombs of the pyramid builders.
“Mr. Musk, we are waiting for you.” she tweeted.
Pyramids of Egypt
Von Däniken states that ancient Egypt, with its great structures of the Giza pyramid
complex such as the Great Pyramid of Giza and the Great Sphinx of Giza, became a
"fantastic, ready-made civilization" suddenly and without transitions and development.
Ancient astronaut proponents suggest that sites like the pyramids of Giza were instead
constructed by extraterrestrials. However, archaeological evidence demonstrates not only the
long cultural trajectory of prehistoric Egypt but also the developmental processes the ancient
Egyptians underwent. Egyptian tombs began with important leaders of villages being buried
in the bedrock and covered with mounds of earth. Eventually, the first pharaohs had tombs
covered with single-story, mud-brick, square structures called mastabas. The stepped
pyramid developed out of multiple mastabas being stacked on each one in one structure. This
led to the construction of pharaoh Djoser's Step Pyramid at Saqqara, which is known from
records to have been built by the ancient Egyptian architect and advisor Imhotep. It was
pharaoh Sneferu who had his pyramid transitioned from a stepped to a true pyramid like the
well-known pyramids of Giza A papyrus document like a logbook kept by an official
called inspector Merer has also been discovered with records of the construction of the
Great Pyramid
Why Erich von Däniken still believes that God was an astronaut and that he built the
Pyramids of Egypt. The author of the 60s cult classic – and 43 other books – on his 'God is an
astronaut' theory, inspiring Marvel and evidence for UFOs.

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 Erich von Daniken's Chariots of the Gods is a
work of monumental importance--the first book
to introduce the shocking theory that ancient
Earth had been visited by aliens. This world-
famous bestseller has withstood the test of time,
inspiring countless books and films, including
the author's own popular sequel, The Eyes of
the Sphinx. But here is where it all began--von
Daniken's startling theories of our earliest
encounters with alien worlds, based upon his
lifelong studies of ancient ruins, lost cities,
potential spaceports, and a myriad of hard
scientific facts that point to extraterrestrial
intervention in human history. Most incredible
of all, however, is von Daniken's theory that we
ourselves are the descendants of these galactic
pioneers--and the archeological discoveries that
prove it... * An alien astronaut preserved in a
pyramid
* Thousand-year-old spaceflight navigation
charts
* Computer astronomy from Incan and
Egyptian ruins
* A map of the land beneath the ice cap of
Antarctica
* A giant spaceport discovered in the Andes
Includes remarkable photos that document
mankind's first contact with aliens at the dawn
of civilization.

In another book the author reveals startling new evidence that could prove his theory that
ancient Earth had contact with aliens. Von Däniken claims that an alien race helped to create
the pyramids of Egypt, a claim he based upon the ruins themselves. And it is these ruins that
now provide researchers with a never-ending source of clues, compelling discoveries,
revelations, and evidence that Earth was indeed colonized by an alien race:

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  Research showing that the location and design of the pyramids were uniquely fit for
preservation---something the Egyptians couldn't possibly have known.
 Remains of the ships built by the Pharaohs and buried with them for travel in the
afterlife---imitations of the ships they saw used by men from the sky.
 The most recent discoveries---hidden chambers and passageways, one of which ends
at an ancient door. And behind the door is...the unknown.
 Prehistoric bones that prove the existence of a worldwide cult that deformed
children's skulls in imitation of the "gods" they had seen.
 New interpretations of ancient writings---and new speculations on ancient mysteries.

Were the pyramids built by aliens? The real history that debunks the conspiracy

Are the pyramids too awesome to have been the work of the mere mortals of ancient Egypt?
The conspiracy theory that aliens built the pyramids is the subject of an episode of our new
podcast series Conspiracy, in which Rob Attar speaks to Professor Joyce Tyldesley about the
origins of the belief and the evidence that reveals how the monuments were really constructed.

More than 50 pyramids still stand in Egypt: colossal feats of architecture and engineering and
lasting monuments to the ancient civilisation of the pharaohs. From the oldest – the step
pyramid of Djoser, erected during the Third Dynasty in the 27th century BC – the period of
pyramid building lasted around a millennium, and the structures took many forms. They could
be made of mud brick or limestone, stepped or with smooth white casing.

Pyramids served as royal tombs and aids for pharaohs to reach the afterlife; heavy with
symbolism, the shape almost represented a stairway to heaven or the Sun’s rays coming down
to Earth. They had a worldly purpose too as a status symbol for kings – who else could
command Egypt, both its people and resources, to build something so wondrous?

That is the reasons why they have been wonders to humans all this time. The pyramids are as
old as 15000 years, and NOT only 4000 years old. Their real masons have always hidden
their existence among the human race in order to play their numerous scenarios of deception
[e.g. gods and goddesses (Anunnaki), fallen angels (Nephilim), spirits of dead people in
haunted places (ghosts/poltergeist), and today aliens (ETs)]. They have indeed managed to
perplex archaeologists by the murals of the local ancient Egyptians on their very ancient
remains. The pharaos used actually to deal with them through the kabbalah black magic.
Those entities are an ancient terrsestrial race with a different cellular structure containing
super-accelerated body electron, which grants them spirit like capabilities/powers:
invisibility, fluidity, shape-shifting, speed and exceptional genius. They have built the
pyramids so as to teleport to other planets within our solar system and diffuse communication
and energy vibrationally everywhere around.

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So, do you think the pyramids were built manually? Butter-cutting lazer was used, high-
precision and fine sacred geometry designs were sought, and levitating beams were utilized to
carry super-heavy blocks of granite and limestone for that purpose.

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None there was NEVER any there! Why would a Pharoah be buried inside a
multifunctional geophysical computer/resonant voice activated free energy
power plant?
In the 2011 we found the diary of one of Khufu’s bureaucrats — a construction inspector
named Merer, who worked on both the Great Pyramid and the port at Wadi-Al-Jarf. The
diary talks about the delivery of supplies for the Pyramid and the transport network which
brought materials and tools to Giza — particularly copper from the Sinai peninsula needed to
tools. Not only does this give us a great look at the inner workings of the pyramid-industrial
complex, it also a contemporary source which quite clearly puts the name of
Pharaoh Khufu on the efforts.

A spreadsheet (!) from Wadi-Al-Jarf including the accounts of inspector Merer. Photo:
Pierre Tallet

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Records of the pyramid builders: discovering eye-witness accounts of a legendary
construction project

How did Egypt build the pyramids? It is a question that has excited the imagination of
scholars and visitors for millennia. We haven’t discovered the worker’s camp for the builders
of the Great Pyramid — but we have found the settlement which housed the people who built
the Pyramid of Menkaure,. the smallest of the three big Giza pyramids. It’s easily datable to
the fourth dynasty using a bunch of methods. The excavators think that this site may sit on
top of the earlier camps for the building of the two previous pyramids.

Queen Elizabeth has gotten built 11 pyramids on her Balmoral estate in Scotland.

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What are the biggest mysteries of the Egyptian pyramids?

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 Its written that the God Thoth built Giza. We have the answers yet still chose
not to believe it. The pyramids were covered in white limestone and had

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golden tops. They would have gleamed in the sun. The Pyramids also had a
temple complex. It must've been quite a sight.

Were the pyramids built by aliens? The real history that debunks the conspiracy

Are the pyramids too awesome to have been the work of the mere mortals of ancient Egypt?
The conspiracy theory that aliens built the pyramids is the subject of an episode of our new
podcast series Conspiracy, in which Rob Attar speaks to Professor Joyce Tyldesley about the
origins of the belief and the evidence that reveals how the monuments were really constructed

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More than 50 pyramids still stand in Egypt: colossal feats of architecture and engineering and
lasting monuments to the ancient civilisation of the pharaohs. From the oldest – the step
pyramid of Djoser, erected during the Third Dynasty in the 27th century BC – the period of
pyramid building lasted around a millennium, and the structures took many forms. They could
be made of mud brick or limestone, stepped or with smooth white casing.

Pyramids served as royal tombs and aids for pharaohs to reach the afterlife; heavy with
symbolism, the shape almost represented a stairway to heaven or the Sun’s rays coming down
to Earth. They had a worldly purpose too as a status symbol for kings – who else could
command Egypt, both its people and resources, to build something so wondrous? Authors
Jonny Wilkes Freelance writer

Pyramids can be found in the Middle East, Latin America, Asia, Europe and The
North American Continent. How were they constructed, and what was their purpose?
If man built the pyramids on his own, then we would expect there would be an
enormous effort to record such an achievement. However, no culture that had
pyramids has any clue how they were built. Apparently, they did not have the means,
knowledge, or technology to do so. The theory that aliens from another world may
have assisted in building the great pyramid of Giza in Egypt, and other pyramids,
could explain how some of the most amazing and mysterious engineering feats in
human history were accomplished. Evidence of highly advanced engineering exists
within the Great Pyramid and around the Giza Plateau. Precision cut stone with
angles and symmetry that can only be accomplished with machines; strange glyphs of
futuristic vehicles; bizarre flywheels and batteries; signs of machining with laser

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perfection; and more are there for anyone to see - yet we do not hear of these facts. If
mankind did not have the tools or knowledge to create such structures, then the only
logical conclusion is that we had help most likely from an extraterrestrial source.
"Secrets of mankind's ancient past revealed" - OH Krill.\

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 II
Was Angkor built by Aliens
THE PSYCHOLOGY OF EXTRAORDINARY BELIEFS
Ancient Alien Architects-February 26, 2019

The ancient alien architect theory is one that has held a lot of the publics’ attention through the years.
The general idea is that years ago, aliens visited our planet and assisted our ancestors in building the
great monuments of their time. The Egyptian pyramids, Mayan Temples, Angkor Wat, and Easter
Island are a few examples that this theory ties in to. This theory is popular among many people, and
not exclusive to those who are ill-informed or uneducated. Rather, it is widely held by “average”
individuals seeking explanation or understanding of an uncertain and curious past (Killgrove, 2015).

The popularity of the ancient alien architect theory has grown to great prevalence. This popularity
must be mostly attributed to the televised phenomena of shows such as History Channel’s “Ancient
Aliens”. Other sources of information on the topic are found on websites such as
“theancientalien.com”, and pseudo-archaeology books like Graham Hancock’s Fingerprints of the
Gods’, and Andrew Collins’ Gobekli Tepe; Genesis of the Gods (Killgrove, 2015). No matter the
popularity of the theory, it is indeed extraordinary. The belief in the ancient alien architect theory
defies all bounds of modern scientific knowledge; rejecting the traditionally accepted requirements for
a legitimate scientific theory. There is no physical or historical proof that provides definitive evidence
to support the theory, and yet it holds. No matter your personal opinion on the theory, it is undeniably
rampant, controversial, and extraordinary.

For those who hold stock in the ancient alien architect theory, explanations abound. For example, at
the time at which so many of the ancient monuments in question were built, our perception of the
“necessary” technology was not yet invented. This begs the question, as to how our ancestors
managed such a feat. Additionally, many of the monuments (Egyptian Pyramids, Easter Island Heads,
etc.), have curiously precise alignment with the stars and patterns of the sun. Without telescopes or
geometric equipment, this type of precision seems highly unlikely for humans to muster on their own
(Jones, 2016). Interpretations of cave etchings and hieroglyphics seem to reveal images of helicopter-
type vehicles and structures reminiscent of a flying saucer. Had our ancestors not been visited by

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ancient alien architects, how and why would these images appear (Jones, 2016)? Lastly, there is
undeniable similarity between structures that were built hundred and thousands of years and miles
apart (Mayan Temples and Egyptian pyramids) (Jones, 2016). Without ever having seen these other
locations, how did our ancestors duplicate them? To those who accept the ancient alien architect
theory, it seems that the only logical explanation to these mysteries was the visitation of higher-
intelligence race of aliens.

On the other hand, there are many who reject the idea of the ancient alien architect theory. From a
technological standpoint, it is true that scientists are still working on figuring out how exactly our
ancestors managed such large architectural feats. However, modern discoveries and research has
uncovered explanations and theories based in legitimate scientific processes. For example, a recent
study based out of Egypt lead to the discovery that water can be utilized to make the transportation of
heavy blocks easier (Jarus, 2016). This sheds light of the question as to how our ancestors managed to
move such heavy objects without modern day technology. Circumpolar stars, such as Polaris, and
lines of rope could have been utilized as a method of aligning the buildings so precisely with star
patterns (Jarus, 2016). While scientists and archaeologists acknowledge that these actions would have
been difficult, they would not have been impossible. Documents and building plans have been found
in places such as Egypt as well, describing the large work forces utilized in these projects (Jarus,
2016). For those who reject the theory, they see no actual evidence of its claims. They seek proof in
traditional and logical scientific process.

Those who believe the ancient alien architect theory are not alone. Believers come from every walk of
life, every age, and every socioeconomic status. There is a social fascination with the topic, and it is
widely popular across many platforms. Social media, television shows, blogs, and even support
groups devoted to the theory allow believers to hold strong. The prevalence of the show “Ancient
Aliens” undoubtedly attracts many to this theory. Movies like “The Day after Tomorrow” and
“Independence Day”, while not focused primarily on alien architects, promote fascination with alien
conceptualization. All of these platforms make it hard to ignore the topic, and allow believers more
and more outlets to solidify their convictions.

When considering the psychological explanations that may account for belief in such a theory, a few
come to mind. Ad Ignorantum refers to the idea that something must be true, if it is not proven false.
This is key in the mind of a believer. Instead of saying “let me show you proof”, they instead say
“show me proof this isn’t true”. Hasty generalization is key as well. Jumping to a conclusion based of
insufficient evidence is found is nearly every claim within the ancient alien architect theory. This ties
in with the slippery-slope idea as well. A small idea is conjured, and instead of analyzing or trying to
disprove it, the idea snowballs into an entire theory. For example, when considering the issue of how
the pyramids were built, some argue that hieroglyphics found on site resemble helicopters (Jones,
2016). A believer assumes this to mean that a helicopter-type vehicle was present, and since humans
did not have that kind of technology, they then assume that an extraterrestrial visitor must have
brought it. And so, if they were present, they must have been helping with the construction of the
seemingly impossible pyramid construction. Instead of accepting alternate explanations, a generalized
theory is created, and seemingly explains the mystery.

These psychological explanations account for why so many fall into this belief pattern. It seems
nearly impossible to reject an idea when everything seemingly “fits”. The characteristics of
pseudoscience are tricky, and can make almost any issue believable. Humans seek explanation, and
the comfort of understanding. When tackling an issue such as these ancient marvels, it is natural to
search for any explanation, because it defies what we see as possible. This is where the ancient alien
architect theory gains so much attention, and how it continues to spread.

1. Killgrove, Kristina. “What Archaeologists Really Think About Ancient Aliens, Lost
Colonies, And Fingerprints Of The Gods.” Forbes, Forbes Magazine, 22 Nov. 2015,
www.forbes.com/sites/kristinakillgrove/2015/09/03/what-archaeologists-really-think-about-
ancient-aliens-lost-colonies-and-fingerprints-of-the-gods/.

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 2. Jones, Kim. “Top 10 Evidences To Prove The Aliens Built The Pyramids” Proof of Aliens
Life, 25 Feb. 2016, https://proofofalien.com/top-10-evidences-to-prove-the-aliens-built-the-
pyramids/.
3. Jarus, Owen. “How Were the Egyptian Pyramids Built?” LiveScience, LiveScience Online,
14 Jun, 2016. https://www.livescience.com/32616-how-were-the-egyptian-pyramids-
built-.html .

I think it is interesting how this belief just dismisses the idea that perhaps our ancestors were indeed
intelligent. Rather than finding plausible explanations for how we did it, we conclude that we couldn’t
have instead.If you were forced to pick one architectural wonder that is mostly likely to have been
built by aliens, which one would you choose? (Note: I ask this for fun, not because I think aliens
actually built any of them haha).My favorite has to be Angkor Wat, situated in Siem Reap, Cambodia.
It is the largest temple in the whole world. According to how much I know about it, it was built for the
worship of lord Vishnu (the main god in Hindu mythology) but gradually transformed into a Buddhist
temple. It’s beauty mesmerizes people. The flora in the surrounding and the water comes perfectly
together and pleases people visually.
It totally discredits all the amazing architectural feats our ancestors completed! Just because we still
aren’t quite certain how they managed to build these structures doesn’t mean they were incapable of
doing so.
I have only one problem with this theory. After all the hard work our ancestors put in to make this
world a beautiful place, I just can’t stand that people are doubtful about their skills. By supporting this
theory we are disrespecting those who actually made these beautiful structures. It’s sad that there
efforts are being dismissed and doubted.
The belief that ancient aliens built these incredible structures and not humans is very problematic for
me. It reminds me of how white settlers in America once believed that the large ancient mound
structures that are scattered across America must have been built by a mysterious race of humans and
not the indigenous peoples who populated the land before them. This stems from a racist perspective,
but it makes me concerned that people can’t believe that humans in our past were capable of
incredible things! Do you know if any well renowned archaeologists believe in this theory?

This theory centers around the idea that our human ancestors were too stupid to be capable of such
great structures. The premise is that this work is too precise and difficult, therefore the obvious
conclusion is that extraterrestrial beings must have helped complete them. If only our ancestors had
written down the step-by step instructions as proof that they created them.

How did the ancient people build a large monument like The Egyptian pyramids is always a mystery.
I think the ancient ancestors get help from the Alien should be the most persuasive explanation. The
work is too much for the current people with advanced technology, and it’s almost impossible to made
by ancient technology. But it is also possible that ancient people can use their unique skill to finish
this work without advanced technology.

We do not understand the exact reasons, people have come to believe wild reasons for the
occurrences. I think giving the credit to aliens for all the wonderful things man has created defeats the
purpose of the beauty of many different architectural pieces. I think until proven wrong, our ancestors
must have been creative and figured amazing ways to create!!
Our ancestors were indeed not dumb just because they weren’t advanced. Of course, with
advancement came convenience as well as knowledge but there they still knew basic things that we
know like how fire can hurt someone or things float in water. I wonder if people with this belief just
decided to rule out religion. Could it be the helicopter figure on the hieroglyphics was a metaphor or a
form of religious beliefs or gods?

I think people who believe aliens were the source of ancient architecture is kind of offensive to human
kind. I mean just look at how advanced society is. Also when people think it is unlikely that humans
all over the world could have thought of similar building methods, I think this is a little ignorant.
People often have the same ideas, I mean thats what patents are for right? It is not uncommon that a

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civilization would have found a successful way to build something from trial and error and another
civilization would have discovered a similar method to build something also through trial and
error.There are indeed architectural wonders in this world, which scientist to this day have trouble
explaining. Often when that happens, when there is not an explanation yet, people tend to belief that
something extraordinary must have caused it. I am as well amazed when looking at those wonders and
I hope one day we can discover how they got created.

It is, however, curious as to how our ancestors were able to create such imaginative archeology. The
“Seven Man-made Wonders of the World” have always fascinated me and I am curious as to how it
was all possible, I just don’t think it was aliens.
The Alien Frequency
The use of mantras and chanting to connect with a higher plane has existed in cultures all over the
world dating back thousands of years, but why would people who had no contact with each other all
subscribe to this practice? Could there be certain frequencies that connect us with greater--perhaps
extraterrestrial--forces? Researchers have found that dozens of megalithic sites stretching across the
globe--like the prehistoric Newgrange monument in Ireland, the chiseled labyrinths underneath the
island of Malta, and the giant temple complex of Angkor Wat in Cambodia--were all designed to
emanate the exact same frequency. The planets in our solar system each give off a distinct sound, and
certain places on Earth, like Taos, New Mexico, have been found to produce a hum from an unknown
source. Might the best evidence of alien intervention on Earth be found not with our eyes... but with
our ears?
https://www.history.com/shows/ancient-aliens/season-12/episode-8

Angkor Wat: History of Ancient Temple

Aerial view of Angkor Wat, showing the moat and causeway and the central tower surrounded by four
smaller towers

Built between roughly A.D. 1113 and 1150, and encompassing an area of about 500 acres (200
hectares), Angkor Wat is one of the largest religious monuments ever constructed. Its name means
"temple city."

Originally built as a Hindu temple dedicated to the god Vishnu, it was converted into a Buddhist
temple in the 14th century, and statues of Buddha were added to its already rich artwork. Sometime
later it was turned into a military fortification. Today it is a UNESCO World Heritage Site that
scientists are struggling to preserve.
Its 213-foot-tall (65 meters) central tower is surrounded by four smaller towers and a series of
enclosure walls, a layout that recreates the image of Mount Meru, a legendary place in Hindu
mythology that is said to lie beyond the Himalayas and be the home of the gods.

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Within the largest city in the world
The city where the temple was built, Angkor, is located in modern-day Cambodia and was once the
capital of the Khmer Empire. This city contains hundreds of temples. The population may have been
over 1 million people. It was easily the largest city in the world until the Industrial Revolution.

Angkor had an urban core that could easily have held 500,000 people and a vast hinterland that had
many more inhabitants airborne laser scanning (lidar) research has shown. Researchers have also
identified a "lost" city called Mahendraparvata, which is located about 25 miles (40 kilometers) north
of Angkor Wat.
A moat, towers, spiral structure and hidden paintings
Angkor Wat itself is surrounded by a 650-foot-wide (200 m) moat that encompasses a perimeter of
more than 3 miles (5 km). This moat is 13 feet deep (4 m) and would have helped stabilize the
temple's foundation, preventing groundwater from rising too high or falling too low.

Angkor Wat's main entrance was to the west (a direction associated with Vishnu) across a stone
causeway, with guardian lions marking the way. Recently, archaeologists found the remains of eight
towers made of sandstone and laterite by the western gateway. These towers may be the remains of
shrines that were in use before Angkor Wat was fully constructed. To the east of the temple was a
second, more modest, entrance.
The heart of the temple was the central tower, entered by way of a steep staircase, a statue of Vishnu
at top. This tower "was at once the symbolic center of the nation and the actual center where secular
and sacred power joined forces," writes researcher Eleanor Mannikka in the book "Angkor: Celestial
Temples of the Khmer Empire" (Abbeville Press, 2002). "From that unparalleled space, Vishnu and
the king ruled over the Khmer people."
Hidden paintings have been discovered in the central tower. One chamber in the tower has a scene
showing a traditional Khmer ensemble of musical instruments known as the pinpeat, which is made
up of different gongs, xylophones, wind instruments and other percussion instruments. In the same
chamber, there's also an intricate scene featuring people riding horses between two structures, which
might be temples. These two paintings are among 200 that have been discovered in Angkor Wat since
2010.
A mile long sand structure containing a variety of spiral designs was recently discovered beside
Angkor Wat by archaeologists using lidar. It would have existed for a brief period during the mid-to-
late 12th century. Archaeologists are not certain what it was used for, and it's possible that the
structure was never completed.
The remains of homes and ponds used by workers who lived near Angkor Wat, and serviced the
temple, were also found recently during lidar research.

Bas relief carving showing Hindu devas, or gods, pulling on the snake Vasuki in the Churning of the
Sea of Milk creation story. (Image credit: BasPhoto Shutterstock.com)
Vishnu and the king
The builder of Angkor Wat was a king named Suryavarman II. A usurper, he came to power in his
teenage years by killing his great uncle, Dharanindravarman I, while he was riding an elephant. An
inscription says that Suryavarman killed the man "as Garuda [a mythical bird] on a mountain ledge
would kill a serpent."

Suryavarman's bloodlust would continue into his rule; he launched attacks into Vietnam in an effort to
gain control over the territory. He also made peaceful diplomatic advances, re-opening relations with
China.

He venerated the god Vishnu, a deity often depicted as a protector, and installed a statue of the god in
Angkor Wat's central tower. This devotion can also be seen in one of the most remarkable reliefs at

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Angkor Wat, located in the southeast of the temple. The relief shows a chapter in the Hindu story of
creation known as the "churning of the sea of milk."

As archaeologist Michael Coe writes, the relief "describes how the devas (gods) and
the asuras (demons) churned the ocean under the aegis of Vishnu, to produce the divine elixir of
immortality," ("Angkor and the Khmer Civilization," Thames & Hudson, 2003). Scholars consider
this relief to be one of the finest art pieces at Angkor Wat.
Suryavarman's devotion to Vishnu is also shown in the posthumous name he was given,
"Paramavishnuloka" which, according to researcher Hélène Legendre-De Koninck, means "he who is
in the supreme abode of Vishnu." ("Angkor Wat: A Royal Temple," VDG, 2001).
Construction techniques
Building Angkor Wat was an enormous undertaking that involved quarrying, careful artistic work and
lots of digging. To create the moat around the temple, 1.5 million cubic meters (53 million cubic feet)
of sand and silt were moved, a task that would have required thousands of people working at one
time.The buildings at Angkor Wat posed their own challenges. To support them a tough material
called laterite was used, which in turn was encased with softer sandstone that was used for carving the
reliefs. These sandstone blocks were quarried at the Kulen Hills, about 18 miles (30 km) to the north.
A series of canals were used to transport the blocks to Angkor Wat, research shows. Beneath the
central tower was a shaft that leads to a chamber where, in 1934, archaeologists found "two pieces of
crystal and two gold leaves far beneath where the Vishnu statue must have been," Coe writes, adding
that deposits like these "spiritually 'energized' a temple, much as a battery will provide power to a
portable electronic device."

A Ficus strangulosa tree grows over a doorway at Angkor Wat

Purpose:
Although Angkor Wat is dedicated to Vishnu, the full purpose of the temple is still debated. One
question is whether the ashes of Suryavarman II were interred in the monument, perhaps in the same
chamber where the deposits were found. If that were the case it would give the temple a funerary
meaning.

Eleanor Mannikka has noted that Angkor Wat is located at 13.41 degrees north in latitude and that the
north-south axis of the central tower's chamber is 13.43 cubits long. This, Mannikka believes, is not
an accident. "In the central sanctuary, Vishnu is not only placed at the latitude of Angkor Wat, he is

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also placed along the axis of the earth," she writes, pointing out that the Khmer knew the Earth was
round.

In addition, in her writing, Mannikka notes a dozen lunar alignments with Angkor Wat's towers,
suggesting that it served an important astronomical role. "During the long and clear Cambodian
nights, when the stars filled every inch of the black sky, the astronomer-priests stood on the long
western causeway ... and recorded the movements of the moon against the towers in the top two
galleries of the temple."

Cambodia – Ancient Aliens?

Imagine walking through the thick jungle in a foreign country and uncovering
something the likes of which have never been seen before, an ancient structure
on such a large scale that parts wouldn’t be discovered until over a hundred
years later. This is exactly what happened to French missionary Henry Mohout in
the mid 19th century when he rediscovered the ancient ruins of Angkor Wat.
Located just outside the city of Siem Reap, the ancient temple of Angkor Wat and
its surrounding complexes have since been a marvel. Since its rediscovery in
1860, researchers have speculated on the temple’s age, its construction process
and even its purpose. It wasn’t until later years and proper excavation that the
truth slowly came to light.
Angkor Wat alone spans over 160,000 square metres and is an absolute feast for
the eyes. The complex sits surrounded by a moat and thick stone walls. Even
walking towards the temple from hundreds of metres away, you can already see
the sheer grandeur of the central pagodas that thrust out the middle of the
complex in perfect symmetry.
Many have wondered still to this day how the the Ankorians perfected the fine
measurements down to such a small measure, did they have some serious math
skills, or were they lent some kind of ruler...from space!?
The initial design and construction of the temple is believed to have begun in the
first half of the 12th century during the reign of King Suryavarman II, still to this
day seen as one of the most important rulers in the history of Cambodia. Not
only did he build these incredible structures, but he is thought to have reunited
the country during times of turbulence, built a powerful government and had an
extremely successful reign as king. His picture can still be seen today at Phnom
Penh airport to welcome all visitors to Cambodia.

29
 Though famous researchers claim they have proven the temples were built by
mere men, many do believe that there had to have been some sort of divine
architect that lent a helping hand to the construction, leading many to other
theories of how they were built, our resident TruTravels archaeological and
supernatural expert Mr. Harry Bradbury has his own facts on hand that he also
wanted to share with us.
King Suryavarman originally dedicated the temple to the Hindu god Vishnu. This
alone makes the temple quite unique, as most temples around that time were
orientated towards the east, whereas Angkor Wat faces west. This is believed to
coincide with its relevance to Vishnu.
At the end of the 12th century, Angkor Wat was converted to a Buddhist temple
by monks and has remained that way since. The various different carvings of
women, celestial creatures and faces seen throughout the temples are not only
religious figures, but also depict life within the Angkorian era.
Angkor Wat’s architecture itself is seen as the pinnacle of the high Khmer style
and still today is wondered over, so much so that it’s even been recognised by
UNESCO as a world heritage site and can even be found on the list of Man-Made
Wonders of the World!
Angkor Wat lies at the intersection of Cambodia’s history and future. Translated
from Khmer as ‘Capital Temple’, Angkor Wat can even be found on Cambodia’s
flag, and with 2.1 million people visiting last year alone, you can see how Angkor
Wat is a big part of Cambodia’s economic future.
A large amount of the profits from admittance do go back into the site’s
restorations, but sadly over time the sites have been weathered or and partly
reclaimed by the encroaching jungle. During the reign of the Khmer Rouge
during the 70’s, large amounts of Angkor Wat were defaced and even destroyed,
and in some places you can still see where bullets struck the walls of the temple.
If you’re visiting S.E Asia and are making your way through Cambodia, don’t
hesitate to get yourself to this incredible place. Having been to hundreds of
temples across Asia and admittedly slightly tired of ‘temple-ing’ nowadays, I still
relish every opportunity I get to visit Angkor Wat and its surrounding temples.
They truly are something very special and simply out of this world ...which brings
me to my next point.
As mentioned earlier, and no doubt the suspense has been killing you, but after
what seemed like endless research, deliberation and looking at rocks, TruTravels
can confirm without a shadow of a doubt that Angkor Wat was ACTUALLY built
by...aliens!
 They built with some heavy rocks! No mere mortal creature could lift such
things!
 The carvings are better than some Marvel comics! Alien artistry, no doubt!
 They had crazy knowledge of irrigation! Aliens be havin’ water fights back then!

Mystery of Angkor Wat Temple's Huge Stones Solved

30
Aerial view of Angkor Wat, showing the moat and causeway and the central
tower surrounded by four smaller towers
(Image: © Alexey Stiop | Shutterstock.com)
The massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple of
Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a network of hundreds of canals,
according to new research.

The findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks, some
weighing up to 3,300 pounds (1,500 kilograms), made it to the temple from
quarries at the base of a nearby mountain.

"We found many quarries of sandstone blocks used for the Angkor temples and
also the transportation route of the sandstone blocks," wrote study co-author
Estuo Uchida of Japan's Waseda University, in an email.
In the 12th century, King Suryavarman II of the Khmer Empire began work on a
500-acre (200 hectare) temple in the capital city of Angkor, in what is now
Cambodia. The complex was built to honor the Hindu god Vishnu, but 14th-
century leaders converted the site into a Buddhist temple.
LAY SOUND
Archaeologist knew that the rock came from quarries at the base of a mountain
nearby, but wondered how the sandstone bricks used to build Angkor
Wat reached the site. Previously people thought the stones were ferried to Tonle
Sap Lake via canal, and then rowed against the current through another river to
the temples, Uchida told LiveScience.
To see whether this was the case, Uchida's team surveyed the area and found 50
quarries along an embankment at the base of Mt. Kulen. They also
scoured satellite images of the area and found a network of hundreds of
canalsand roads linking the quarries to the temple site. The distance between
the quarries and the site along the route Uchida's team found was only 22 miles
(37 kilometers), compared with the 54 miles (90 km) the river route would have
taken.
The grid of canals suggests the ancient builders took a shortcut when
constructing the temple, which may explain how the imposing complex was built
in just a few decades.
https://www.livescience.com/24440-angkor-wat-canals.html

31
 Revealed: Cambodia's vast medieval cities hidden beneath the jungle
Laser technology reveals cities concealed under the earth which would
have made up the world’s largest empire in 12th century-Lara
Dunston in Siem Reap

Archaeologists in Cambodia have found multiple, previously undocumented

medieval cities not far from the ancient temple city of Angkor Wat, the Guardian
can reveal, in groundbreaking discoveries that promise to upend key
assumptions about south-east Asia’s history.

The Australian archaeologist Dr Damian Evans, whose findings will be published

in the Journal of Archaeological Science on Monday, will announce that cutting-
edge airborne laser scanning technology has revealed multiple cities between
900 and 1,400 years old beneath the tropical forest floor, some of which rival
the size of Cambodia’s capital, Phnom Penh.

Some experts believe that the recently analysed data – captured in 2015 during
the most extensive airborne study ever undertaken by an archaeological project,
covering 734 sq miles (1,901 sq km) – shows that the colossal, densely
populated cities would have constituted the largest empire on earth at the time
of its peak in the 12th century.

Evans said: “We have entire cities discovered beneath the forest that no one
knew were there – at Preah Khan of Kompong Svay and, it turns out, we
uncovered only a part of Mahendraparvata on Phnom Kulen [in the 2012 survey]
… this time we got the whole deal and it’s big, the size of Phnom Penh big.”

Laser technology reveals lost city around Angkor Wat

A research fellow at Siem Reap’s École Française d’Extrême-Orient (EFEO) and

the architect of the Cambodian Archaeological Lidar Initiative (Cali), Evans will
speak at the Royal Geographic Society in London about the findings on Monday.

Evans obtained European Research Council (ERC) funding for the project,
based on the success of his first lidar (light detection and ranging) survey in

32
Cambodia in 2012. That uncovered a complex urban landscape connecting
medieval temple-cities, such as Beng Mealea and Koh Ker, to Angkor, and
confirmed what archaeologists had long suspected, that there was a city
beneath Mount Kulen. It was not until the results of the significantly larger
2015 survey were analysed that the size of the city was apparent.That survey
uncovered an array of discoveries, including elaborate water systems that were
built hundreds of years before historians believed the technology existed. The
findings are expected to challenge theories on how the Khmer empire
developed, dominated the region, and declined around the 15th century, and
the role of climate change and water management in that process.“Our
coverage of the post-Angkorian capitals also provides some fascinating new
insights on the ‘collapse’ of Angkor,” Evans said. “There’s an idea that somehow
the Thais invaded and everyone fled down south – that didn’t happen, there are
no cities [revealed by the aerial survey] that they fled to. It calls into question
the whole notion of an Angkorian collapse.”

The Angkor temple ruins, which sprawl across the Unesco-protected Angkor
archaeological park, are the country’s top tourist destination, with the main
temple-city, Angkor Wat, appearing on the Cambodian national flag. Considered
the most extensive urban settlement of pre-industrial times, and boasting a
highly sophisticated water management system, Angkor’s supposed decline has
long occupied archaeologists.

Archaeologists discover massive Petra monument that could be 2,150

years old

The new cities were found by firing lasers to the ground from a helicopter to
produce extremely detailed imagery of the Earth’s surface. Evans said the

33
airborne laser scanners had also identified large numbers of mysterious
geometric patterns formed from earthen embankments, which could have been
gardens.Experts in the archaeological world agree these are the most
significant archaeological discoveries in recent years.Michael Coe, emeritus
professor of anthropology at Yale University and one of the world’s pre-eminent
archaeologists, specialises in Angkor and the Khmer civilisation.“I think that
these airborne laser discoveries mark the greatest advance in the past 50 or
even 100 years of our knowledge of Angkorian civilisation,” he said from Long
Island in the US.

There is an undiscovered city beneath Mount Kulen/ Why the new

fossils shed light on evolution of Flores ‘hobbits’

“I saw Angkor for the first time in 1954, when I wondered at the magnificent
temples, but there was nothing to tell us who had lived in the city, where they
had lived, and how such an amazing culture was supported. To a visitor, Angkor
was nothing but temples and rice paddies.”Charles Higham, research professor
at the University of Otago in Dunedin, New Zealand, and the leading
archaeologist of mainland south-east Asia, said it was the most exciting paper
he could recall reading.“I have been to all the sites described and at a stroke,
they spring into life … it is as if a bright light has been switched on to illuminate
the previous dark veil that covered these great sites,” Higham said. “Personally,
it is wonderful to be alive as these new discoveries are being made.
Emotionally, I am stunned. Intellectually, I am stimulated.”

34
David Chandler, emeritus professor at Monash University in Melbourne,
Australia, the foremost expert on Cambodian history and the author of several
books and articles on the subject, said the work was thrilling and credited
Evans and his colleagues with “rewriting history”.

Chandler said he believed it would open up a series of perspectives that would

help people know more about Angkorian civilisation, and how it flourished and
eventually collapsed.

“It will take time for their game-changing findings to drift into guide books, tour
guides, and published histories,” Chandler said. “But their success at putting
hundreds of nameless, ordinary, Khmer-speaking people back into Cambodia’s
past is a giant step for anyone trying to deal with Cambodian history.”David
Kyle, an archaeologist and ecological anthropologist has conducted projects at
Phnom Kulen, the location of the biggest findings, the massive city of
Mahendraparvata, the size of Phnom Penh, beneath the forest floor.

He said the “survey results have revolutionised our understanding and

approaches. It’s impossible not to be excited. It facilitates a paradigm shift in
our comprehension of the complexity, size and the questions we can
address.”While the 2012 survey identified a sprawling, highly urbanised
landscape at Greater Angkor, including rather “spectacularly” in the
“downtown” area of the temple-city of Angkor Wat, the 2015 project has
revealed a similar pattern of equally intense urbanism at remote archaeological
ruins, including pre- and post-Angkorian sites.Dr Peter Sharrock, who is on the
south-east Asian board at London University’s School of Oriental and African
Studies and has a decades-long connection to Cambodia, said the findings
showed “clear data for the first time of dense populations settled in and around
all ancient Khmer temples”.“This urban and rural landscape, linked by road and
canal networks, now seems to have constituted the largest empire on earth in
the 12th century,” Sharrock said.

Evans, whose domain is an air-conditioned room full of computers at the French

archaeological centre in Siem Reap, rather than dirt trenches at far-flung digs,
is modest about his achievements and quick to credit his colleagues on the Cali
project.

35
A fight scene depicted in detail in the bas-reliefs at the Banteay Chhmar temple
complex. Photograph: Terence Carter

He said he believed the discoveries would completely upend many assumptions

about the Khmer empire. He also hoped it would bring the study of people back
into the picture.

Coe, who has been to many of the places covered by the survey and has seen
the imagery, said that while the 2012 survey of Phnom Kulen demonstrated
what the technology could do – “it could look through the dense jungle covering
these hills and reveal an unexpected city which predated Angkor itself” – the
2015 survey took this into new dimensions.This view was shared by Dr Mitch
Hendrickson, the director of the industries of Angkor project and assistant
professor in the department of anthropology at the University of Illinois. He said
the initial survey had been “an incredible leap forward” in archaeologists’
ability to see everything for the first time and had been “a major game-changer”
in understanding how the Angkorian Khmer people built, modified and lived in
their cities. But he was “stunned” by the second survey.

“The results for Preah Khan of Kompong Svay are truly remarkable and are
arguably the jewel in the crown of this mission. The lidar shows us that there
was much, much more,” Hendrickson said, referencing a full-blown community
layout that was previously unknown. “It’s both humbling and exciting. There are
so many fantastic new discoveries.”“We knew that Preah Khan of Kompong
Svay was significant before the lidar – it’s the largest complex ever built during
the Angkorian period at 22 sq km, it is connected to Angkor directly by a major
road fitted with infrastructure, and likely played a role in facilitating iron supply
to the capital. “The new results suggest that it may have been more important
than many temples built in Angkor and that it had a decent-sized population
supporting it.”Dr Martin Polkinghorne, a research fellow in the department of
archaeology at Adelaide’s Flinders University who is conducting a joint research
project on Longvek and Oudong, the post-Angkorian capitals, said his team
would use the data during excavations scheduled until 2019 to understand the
cities.“The decline of Angkor is among the most significant events in the history
of south-east Asia, but we do not have a precise date for the event,”
Polkinghorne said. “By using lidar to guide excavations on the capitals of
Cambodia that followed we can determine when the kings of Angkor moved
south and clarify the end of Angkor.

36
Drowned worlds: Egypt's lost cities

“Cambodia after Angkor is customarily understood in terms of loss, retreat and

absence; a dark age,” he said. “Yet, Cambodia was alive with activity after
Angkor. South-east Asia was the hub of international trade between east and
west. Using the lidar at Longvek and Oudong in combination with conventional
archaeology we will reveal the dark age as equally rich, complex and diverse.”

What is a lidar survey?

An airborne laser scanner (ALS) is mounted to a helicopter skid pad. Flying with
pre-determined guidelines, including altitude, flight path and airspeed, the ALS
pulses the terrain with more than 16 laser beams per square metre during
flights. The time the laser pulse takes to return to the sensor determines the
elevation of each individual data point.

The data downloaded from the ALS is calibrated and creates a 3D model of the
information captured during the flights. In order to negate tree foliage and
manmade obstacles from the data, any sudden and radical changes in ground
height are mapped out, with technicians who have models of the terrain fine-
tuning the thresholds in processing these data points. Once completed, the final
3D model is handed over to the archaeologists for analysis, which can take
months to process into maps.

As 2021 begins ...

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and challenging times, millions rely on the Guardian for independent journalism
that stands for truth and integrity. Readers chose to support us financially more
than 1.5 million times in 2020, joining existing supporters in 180 countries.
For 2021, we commit to another year of high-impact reporting that can counter
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and provide truth-seeking journalism that’s free from commercial and political
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without fear or favour. Unlike many others, we have maintained our choice: to

37
keep Guardian journalism open for all readers, regardless of where they live or
what they can afford to pay. We do this because we believe in information
equality, where everyone deserves to read accurate news and thoughtful
analysis. Greater numbers of people are staying well-informed on world events,
and being inspired to take meaningful action.In the last year alone, we offered
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achieve net zero emissions by 2030.

III
Angkor & Nortre Dame Cathedral- Hetrotopic
designs in art and literature

Dr.UdayDokras
__________________________________________
The fixed location of a building on a site at first leads us to believe that it
continues to represent the same thing and therefore holds the same
meaning. But the meaning of the building is not fixed and shifts with time.
Monument, Memory and Meaning- Heterotopia at Borobudur, Indonesia,
Swati Chemburkar, 2012,
https://www.academia.edu/4783122/Monument_Memory_and_Meaning_Heteroto
pia_at_Borobudur_Indonesia

38
 The cathedral burnt down in April 15, 2019 MIDDLE PIC victor hugo Dramatization of the fire in 15 th
Century novel HUNCHBACK of NORTRE DAME

Miguel Chevalier worked with astrophysicist Fabio Acero presenting at

Cathédrale Notre-Dame the large-scale art installation the exhibition
titled Digital Supernova, on view from August 8-18 , 2019. The installation
combined not only Chevalier’s recognizable generative realities and light
networks but also brought viewers into this virtual world through the
music of Jacopo Baboni Schilingi, Adam Bernadac, and for the opening —
Frédéric Deschamps.1
-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
1. at https://frenchmoments.eu/notre-dame-de-paris/ .
2. The Parisian department store as a paradigmatic place for interactions
between tourism and shopping: the production of a heterotopia(Le
grand magasin parisien, lieu paradigmatique des interactions entre
tourisme et shopping : la production d'une hétérotopie-
Vincent Coëffé et Jean-René Morice)
https://doi.org/10.4000/belgeo.43367

Whereas Michel Foucault had not evoked the the Angkor Wat or the Nortre
Dame into his theory of heterotopia, this article not only allows to enrich
the concept by including these but above all, it provides a renewal of this
trans- geographical approach comparing with the literature of Victor Hugo
and ofcourse, the architecture of the Nortre-Dame Csthedral The spatial
dynamic of the Parisian Cathedral enlightens the fact that it remains a
heterotopia whereas some characteristics of the place have changed.

39
While this heterotopia from the second half of the 19th century was based
on the monumentality of space and a sense of exoticism linked to
orientalist imagination, heterotopia as a place imagined as something
“other”, still works through the aim of creating spectacle.The exploitation
of the past through heritagization and the enhancement of the creations
for visitors in search of that tourist experience.Holliness be damned!

The cathedral is in the centre of Paris, just as the Angkor Wat must have
been in its hayday. Additionally, the Church was the focus point for the
community. Often the priest was employed by the local landowner, and
there are many references in popular culture to the priest being very
influential within the community.Same with the Hindus of Cambodia of
those days. In Angkor Wat: A Transcultural History of Heritage, Michael
Falser’s studies the trans-cultural history of the heritage of Angkor Wat for
over 150 years (from 1860) in considerable detail, from a specific
theoretical angle, and with a relentless focus upon a particular line of
argument that the adoption of the Angkor wat into the culture of France in
order to enhance the colonial perspective of the nation is heterotopia:
“Angkor Wat […] transformed from a living Buddhist site into a dead re-
Hinduicised ruin and commodity inside an archaeological park” and a
legacy of shifting heritage (ownership) from Khmer (and Siamese) to
French, followed by a limited return to Cambodian jurisdiction before
ultimately becoming a site of global heritage through the involvement of
UNESCO and other state heritage conservation actors.

Gothic architecture began to develop during the middle mediaeval period

from the middle of the twelfth century. It sought to move drastically on
from a permanent idea of apocalypse and darkness to a concept of light
during the Dark Ages, and embodied the principle that ‘God is light’ and
tied architectural developments to theological statements. One of the
iconic and instantly recognisable features of this genere is the use of
ever growing stone vaults and highly buttressed walls, the overall desire
to make the inside of the church feel spacious and filled with light. The
sense of height and scale (particularly from inside) is always stressed,
through the creation of tall spaces, thinning of internal columns, and the
ratio of levels within the building, working together to draw the viewer’s
eyes upward to contemplate God.

Additionally, the church provides a sanctuary. It is Quasimodo’s home as

the resident bellringer, but also where he is able to hide from society and
its apparent wickedness and sin. John Guy (Author), Steve
McCurry (Photographer) in their photo essay also call Angkor a safe
haven.Sanctuary: The Temples of Angkor Paperback – September 1, 2005
but or whom? The Royals or the commoners? Because apart from being a
magical world of carved gods, weathered masonry, tangled vegetation
and orange-robed monks, Angkor was the capital of the Khmer rulers from
the end of the ninth century until the mid-fifteenth. Each built a state
temple at the capital, surrounded by walls, moats and embankments laid

40
out in accordance with cosmological precepts. Designated a World
Heritage site by UNESCO, the temples attract tourists, archaeologists and
art historians, and are also a pilgrimage destination for Buddhist monks.
Heterotopia is a concept elaborated by philosopher Michel Foucault to
describe certain cultural, institutional and discursive spaces that are
somehow ‘other’: disturbing, intense, incompatible, contradictory or
transforming. Foucault uses the term "heterotopia" (French: hétérotopie)
to describe spaces that have more layers of meaning or relationships to
other places than immediately meet the eye. Heterotopias are worlds
within worlds, mirroring and yet upsetting what is outside. Foucault
provides examples: ships, cemeteries, bars, brothels, prisons, gardens of
antiquity, fairs, Muslim baths and many more. Foucault outlines the notion
of heterotopia on three occasions between 1966-67.

Heterotopia follows the template established by the notions

of utopia and dystopia. The prefix hetero- is from Ancient Greek ἕτερος
(héteros, "other, another, different") and is combined with the Greek
morpheme τόπος ("place") and means "other place". A utopia is an idea or
an image that is not real but represents a perfected version of society,
such as Thomas More's book or Le Corbusier's drawings. As Walter Russell
Mead has written, "Utopia is a place where everything is good; dystopia is
a place where everything is bad; heterotopia is where things are different
— that is, a collection whose members have few or no intelligible
connections with one another."

This then is a concept to describe certain cultural, institutional and

discursive spaces that are somehow ‘other’: disturbing, intense,
incompatible, contradictory or transforming. Heterotopias are worlds
within worlds, mirroring and yet upsetting what is outside. Foucault
provides examples: ships, cemeteries, bars, brothels, prisons, gardens of
antiquity, fairs, Muslim baths and many more. Foucault outlines the notion
of heterotopia on three occasions between 1966-67.

In the Hunchback of Notre Dame, another Frenchman-Victior Hugo- used

the Main character a grotesque creature as a hetrotopic agent.
Surrounded by a beautiful Cathedral- he came of age and was nourished
by the environment.But alas a BEAST( according to Hugo).He finally saves
his beloved- the woman as well as the Cathedral from the fire.

41
 Quasimodo

is flogged, engraving by Von perrichon,

illustration for book "Notre-Dame de Paris" by Victor Hugo, 1877 PIC at RIGHT
Claude Frollo teaching reading to young Quasimodo, engraving by Dujardin,
illustration for book "Notre-Dame de Paris" by … | Old art, Character design,
Illustration

Heterotopia follows the template established by the notions of a ‘crisis is a

separate space like a boarding school or a motel room where activities
like coming of age or a honeymoon take place out of sight. Foucault
describes the crisis heterotopia as "reserved for individuals who are, in
relation to society and to the human environment in which they live, in a
state of crisis." He also points that crisis heterotopias are constantly

42
disappearing from society and being replaced by the following heterotopia
of deviation.

 ‘Heterotopias of deviation’ are institutions where we place individuals

whose behavior is outside the norm (hospitals, asylums, prisons, rest
homes, cemetery).
 Heterotopia can be a single real place that juxtaposes several spaces.
A garden can be a heterotopia, if it is a real space meant to be a
microcosm of different environments, with plants from around the
world.
 'Heterotopias of time' such as museums enclose in one place objects
from all times and styles. They exist in time but also exist outside of
time because they are built and preserved to be physically
insusceptible to time’s ravages.
 'Heterotopias of ritual or purification' are spaces that are isolated and
penetrable yet not freely accessible like a public place. Either entry to
the heterotopia is compulsory like in entering a prison, or entry
requires special rituals or gestures, like in a sauna or a hammam.
 Heterotopia has a function in relation to all of the remaining spaces.
The two functions are: heterotopia of illusion creates a space of illusion
that exposes every real space, and the heterotopia of compensation is
to create a real space—a space that is other.

Foucault's elaborations on heterotopias were published in an article

entitled Des espaces autres (Of Other Spaces). The philosopher calls for a
society with many heterotopias, not only as a space with several places
of/for the affirmation of difference, but also as a means of escape from
authoritarianism and repression, stating metaphorically that if we take the
ship as the utmost heterotopia, a society without ships is inherently a
repressive one, in a clear reference to Stalinism.1
If we consider the fact that each community formation creates its own
cultural interpretation of the living environment not only at the levels of
building and street, but also at that of collective urban fabric, one could
argue that the current urban design frameworks fall short to respond to
the intrinsic complexity of localities in the city.

Following the recent tragedy of the burning of the Notre-Dame

Cathedral, it only seems right for me to give an extended look at its
history leading up to the very day. A look of it’s construction, uses and
general history will be covered in this blog to broaden your understanding
of the importance of this recent event and compare them to those of
Angkor Wat.
The construction of the Notre-Dame Cathedral began in 1163 during the
reign of King Louis VII on the eastern end of Île de la Cité, being built atop,
and replacing, the older Roman cathedral of Saint-Étienne. Maurice de
Sully, the bishop of Paris at the time, set forth this plan on building a place
of worship larger than any at the time, employing a new architectural
style being the Gothic style. This choice of style would allow for tall,

43
cavernous spaces and stained glass windows to allow heaps of light
inward. Ribbed vaults as well as the famed flying buttresses would also
top onto this Gothic style. Furthermore, this choice of architectural style
would strike the lead of more Gothic style building, and will be
remembered as the leader in doing so.

___________________________________________________________________________
_
1. Designing the heterotopia: from social ideology to spatial morphology,
Olgu Çalışkan, Duygu Cihanger Ribeiro & Onur Tümtürk, URBAN DESIGN
International volume 25, pages30–52 (2020)

Pope Alexander III laying the first

stone of the Notre Dame Cathedral, 1163

The basic floor plan followed the Gothic tradition, having been modeled
after the Roman basilicas, shaping the form of a Latin cross. The base of
the cross is the main entrance, which by tradition faces west. Past this, is
the lower part of the cross, the nave, which houses the congregation,
which can hold around 1000 people. The central bar of the cross is called
the transept. The intersection of the transept, referred to as the crossing
of the transept, supports the weight of the spire. The upper part of the
cross houses the choir as well as the altar. At the end of the cross is a
semi-circular area known as the apse, which has a special chapel
dedicated to Notre-Dame, our lady, the Virgin Mary. Furthermore, an area

44
to the south of the transept was added, called the sacristie, to house the
1
treasures of the cathedral.
-_____________________________________________________________________-
1. https://www.stuff.co.nz/world/europe/112072890/notre-dame-fire-victor-hugos-
novel-about-a-hunchback-saved-cathedral#:~:text=Notre%20Dame%20fire%3A
%20Victor%20Hugo's%20novel%20about%20a%20hunchback%20saved
%20cathedral,-illian%20Brockell12&text=The%20Notre%20Dame%20Cathedral
%20as,ransacking%20and%20pollution%2Dinduced%20decay.
replaced due to centuries of wind damage. At the end of the 18th century,
Notre-Dame loss it’s religious status in the outbreak of the French
revolution, becoming a warehouse used for the storage of food and non-
secular items. During this period, it was also robbed of it’s treasures,
many being destroyed, along with statues thought to be of French kings.

Alas, the cathedral would be saved by Napoleon Bonaparte. In 1801,

Napoleon signed an agreement, restoring the Notre-Dame to the church,
using it as the setting for his coronation as Emperor. The degradation of
the cathedral would lead Victor Hugo to write The Hunchback of Notre-
Dame, speaking of the tragic things done to Notre-Dame under the will of
man. This would later lead to King Louis Philippe to order for the church to
be restored on a large scale in the late 19th century. The architects set
out to restore Notre-Dame restored the damaged sculptures, fixed the
central portal, reinstated new glass glazing, the addition of murals to the
side chapel, the reconstruction of the great organ, as well as a rebuilding
of the central spire and the sacristie.

45
 Notre
Dame Cathedral floor plan

Ourlady, the Virgin-Maryhttps://thecrossguard.wordpress.com/2019/04/21/the-history-of-

the-notre-dame-cathedral/The Hunchback of Notre-Dame, by: Victor Hugo

All through the 20th century, more and more restoration programs would
arise in removal of any grime acquired through the years. Unfortunately, it

46
seems as though these restorations inadvertently caused a fire to break
out on April 15th, 2019, the spire being completely burned, along with
most of the roof as well as support beams. Though, what does stand is the
statue of the Virgin Mary, alas leaving hope for the restoration of Notre-
Dame, our lady, to her former.glory.

THE Heterotopic Angkor

Never if one looks at it for an hour or for a day or repeatedly for weeks on
end,does Angkor Wat seem real.Angkor Wat, the largest monument of the
Angkor group, is located six kilometers north of the town of Siem Reap
and slightly south of the city of Angkor Thom. It is an architectural
masterpiece.

The composition, proportions, and reliefs make it one of the finest

monuments in the world. Built by King Suryavarman II in the first half of
the twelfth century (1113-50), Angkor Wat was a Hindu temple dedicated
to the god Visnu. It is generally accepted that it was built during the
lifetime of the king to serve as his tomb after death. Because of its
funerary function, the main entrance of Angkor Wat is at the west to
conform with the symbolism between the setting sun and death. Another
theory on the western orientation of Angkor Wat is that it was intended to
be situated on an important road in a north to south direction and
because of problems of space or existing nearby temples, it was built
facing west. Estimates on how long it took to build Angkor Wat vary widely

47
but the methods of construction, quantity of the materials, and the
evolution of the decoration suggest that it took thirty to fifty years to build
the temple. The plan of Angkor Wat is difficult to grasp when walking
through the monument because of its vastness and the way it is laid out.
From a distance Angkor Wat appears to be a massive stone structure on
one level with a long causeway leading to the center, but close-up it is a
series of elevated towers, covered galleries, chambers, porches, and
courtyards on different levels with stairways giving access to the various
parts.

The height of Angkor Wat from the ground to the top of the central tower
is surprisingly high-213 meters (699 feet). The height was achieved with
three rectangular or square levels. Each one becomes progressively
smaller and higher starting from the outer limits of the temple. Covered
galleries with columns define the boundaries of the first and second
levels. The third and uppermost level supports five towers-one in each of
the corners and one in the middle-which are the most prominent
architectural feature of Angkor Wat.
Graduated tiers, one rising above the other, give the towers a conical
shape and, near the top, rows of lotus flowers taper to a point. The overall
profile of each tower is reminiscent of a lotus bud.

Several lines stand out in the architectural plan of Angkor Wat. The eye is
drawn left and right to the horizontal aspect of the levels and upward to
the soaring height of the towers. The ingenious plan of Angkor Wat only
allows a view of all five towers from certain angles. They are not visible,
for example, from the main entrance. Many of the structures and
courtyards are in the shape of a cross. A curved sloping roof on galleries,
chambers, and aisles is a hallmark of Angkor Wat. From a distance the
roof looks like a series of long narrow ridges but close-up one sees
gracefully arched rectangular stones placed end to end. Each row of tiles
is capped with an end tile at right angles along the ridge of the roof. The
scheme culminates in decorated tympanums
with elaborate frames.

Several elements repeated throughout the monument give an

architectural rhythm to the whole- a hetrotopic feel of circles within
circles. Galleries with columns, towers, curved roofs, tympanums in sects
of graduated sizes, structures such as libraries and entry towers in a
cross-shaped plan, and steps and steps and steps occur again and again.
By combining two or more of these features and superimposing them,
height was achieved and one part of the monument was linked to another.
Roofs were frequently layered to add height, length, or dimension. A
smaller replica of the central towers was repeated at the outer limits of
two prominent areas-the galleries and the entry towers.

Angkor Wat occupies a rectangular area of about 500 acres defined by a

laterite wall. The first evidence of the site from the west is a moat with a
long sandstone causeway stretching for 200 meters across it and serving

48
as the main access to the monument. At the end of the causeway there is
a massive entry tower consisting of three sections.

The upper portions have collapsed and thus do not reveal the full impact
of the original form. A long covered gallery with square columns and a
curved roofs extends along the moat to the left and right of the entry
tower. This majestic facade of Angkor Wat is a model of balance and
proportion and is a fine example of classical Khmer architecture. Visitors
can easily miss the beauty of Angkor Wat at this point as they rush on to
see the more renowned sight of the five towers-visible only beyond the
first entry tower. As one passes through this tower, there is an even
longer causeway of 350 meters bordered on each side by a low balustrade
resembling the body of a serpent. Straight ahead is the celebrated view of
Angkor Wat-the symbol of unity that appears on the new Cambodian flag.
Standing at this point one feels compelled to 'get to the wondrous group
of the five domes, companions of the sky, sisters of the clouds,
and determine whether or not one lives in a world of reality or in a
fantastic dream'.

The visitor is gradually introduced to the style that culminates on the third
level. Two buildings, so-called libraries, stand in the courtyard on the left
and right of the causeway. These rectangular buildings usually occur in
pairs outside the sacred enclosure. Their function is unknown but they
may have served as a store rooms for offerings and sacred objects. The
designation 'library' originated with French archaeologists who discovered
scenes from a Hindu legend of the 'Nine Planets of the Earth' carved on
the libraries. Because of the association with astronomy they interpreted
this to mean that the building served a scholarly function and named it a
library.

The five towers of Angkor Wat are fully visible from under a tree just
outside the libraries described above. In certain light situations a mirror
image of the towers is reflected in the water basin. Leave seeing the bas-
reliefs for later and continue towards the summit passing through the
'Cross-Shaped Galleries' which provide a link between the first and second
levels.

This unique architectural design consists of two covered galleries in the

shape of a cross supported by square columns and a courtyard-like area
divided into four equal parts with paved basins and steps.
1. The 'gallery of 1,000 Buddhas,' on the right, is a
misleading name. Since the temple is Hindu one might wonder
why it has a Buddhist gallery. The name derived from the
many Buddhist images the gallery once contained that were
acquired after the temple became a place of Buddhist
worship, perhaps in the late fifteenth or sixteenth century.

49
 2. The gallery on the left is the 'Hall of Echoes,' so-named
because of its unusualmacoustics where the voices resonante
in this hall.
3. The third level consists of the Central Sanctuaries on a
high base and surrounded by an airy, spacious courtyard with
two small libraries. The walls of the gallery around the
courtyard of the third level are decorated with over 1,500
celestial dancers, known as Apsaras. The presence of these
female divinities who entertained gods and seduced ascetics
makes the space an endless source of visual and spiritual
enchantment. Twelve sets of stairs with forty steps each
ascend at a seventy degree angle to give access to this level.
All the repetitive elements of the architectural composition of
Angkor Wat are manifested on the upper level. The space is
divided into a cross-shaped area defined with covered
galleries and four paved courts.

An entry tower with a porch and columns occupies a stately position at

the top of each stairway. Passages supported on both sides by double
rows of columns which link the entry tower tower to the central structure.
The corners of the upper level are dominated by the four towers. Steps
both separate and link the different parts.

A narrow covered gallery with a double row of pillars, windows and

balustrades surrounds the third level.The Central Sanctuary rises on a
tiered base forty-two meters above the upper level.The highest of the five
towers is equal to the height of the cathedral of Notre Dame in Paris. Only
the king and the high priest were allowed on the upper or third level of
Angkor Wat. Probably for this reason, it lacks the stately covered galleries
of the other two levels. It does, though, support the five central towers
and contain the most sacred image of the temple.

At the summit the layout of Angkor Wat reveals itself at last. The view is a
spectacle of beauty befitting the Khmer's architectural genius for creating
harmonious proportions. Angkor Wat is the 'most remarkable body of ruins
in the world, whether one regarded the prodigious magnitude of the
ground plan, the grandiose dimensions of the principal palaces, and
temples, or the artistic beauty and delicacy of the bas-reliefs and
sculpture.' The Architecture of Angkor Wat .(Dawn Rooney | Publication date
12 March 1993 | 07:00 ICT)

Let me interject with a story about an English teacher who visits Cambodian
school and asks the children in a Class as to whom they admire? –they answer
“Cambodian Kings or Queens.”
The teacher points out that those who build the temples were indeed people like
the children –common people. It is they who deserve the admiration!

50
Former ASI engineer DS Sood (left) was a part of the Indian team at Angkor Vat
between 1986 and 1993.

The piece de resistance at the temple complex has to be the twin bas
reliefs of the Ramayana and the Mahabharata, hundreds of meters long
and adorned by thousands of delicately carved devas, asuras and apsaras
that are so varied in their poses, expressions and attire. Thus, while
Angkor Wat’s architecture is distinctly Khmer, its inspiration is essentially
Indian.

However, few know that the awe-inspiring Angkor Wat shares a unique
link with India apart from the ancient legends on its walls: the
Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) has played a pivotal role in restoring
and conserving the temple! The year was 1986. For the past decade, Angkor
Wat had remained shrouded in mystery and gun smoke as the Cambodian civil
war had dragged. Apart from the battle scars left by Khmer Rouge guerrillas,
long years of neglect and nature’s vagaries had began to show on the ancient
edifice.
In fact, the jungle surrounding Angkor Wat had started swallowing the
entire superstructure, with the exquisite carvings developing cracks and
the ornate columns beginning to sink.

It was this imminent danger to the famed temple that pushed Cambodia’s
new government (established with Vietnamese support after the expulsion
of the Khmer Rouge in 1979) to finally act to save it.
But Cold War politics had led to Cambodia’s new government being
rejected by most of the international community, leaving it without friends
or funds to help restore its fabled monument to its original majesty.

Enter India. One of the few countries to have diplomatic relations with
Cambodia at the time, India accepted the south-east Asian nation’s
request to restore Angkor Wat and signed a six-year agreement regarding
the same.
Following this, it assigned funds and a team of ASI archaeologists for the
historic project. Dr. B Narasimhaiah, who has written a book documenting

51
India’s contribution (Angkor Vat: India’s Contribution in Conservation,
published by the ASI, 1994), headed the team for much of the time.

When the ASI team arrived in Cambodia, they knew they faced a
challenging task. The temple complex lay in ruins, with signs of decay
everywhere. Encroaching tentacles of wilderness had torn asunder the
courtyards, moss had turned the walls sooty black and a thick green
blanket of water hyacinth carpeted the moat. Jungle-clad balustrades too
were on the brink of crumbling, bas-relief galleries had giant cracks and
the carvings of the celestial beings had developed ugly pockmarks.
Moreover, thousands of bats had colonised the temple, their pungent
excreta mixing with rainwater to corrode the sandstone and eat into the
superstructure.

Tumultous years of civil war too had taken its toll. Some of Angkor Wat’s
best carvings were burnt by napalm-caused fires, riddled with bullets or
blown off by bombs. In fact, nearly 50 statues of the Buddha (the complex
had been a Buddhist monastery during the 15th century) had been
beheaded by the ruthless regime of Khmer Rouge.The forest around Ankor
Wat was still heavily mined. Sourcing and organising the necessary
supplies was also a tough task. As such, day-to-day survival was as much
of a challenge for the ASI team as the restoration job itself.

Nonetheless, the Indian archeologists persevered with the help of

Cambodian workers and in the presence of an armed escort. Employing
conservation techniques and material available at the time, they begun
the mammoth task that had been started by French conservators (who
had fled in 1972 leaving their work unfinished).Spending Rs 3 crore over a
period of seven years, the ASI team completed the task in 1993. For the
war-weary Cambodians, this restoration deeply endeared India to them.

As Cheng Phon, Cambodia’s then-minister of culture had dramatically said

in 1988:
“By restoring Angkor Wat, the Indian team is in fact healing our souls.”
However, soon afterwards some European conservators (especially the
strangely possessive French) began accusing the ASI of using
inappropriate methods in the restoration, turning what should have been
a moment of triumph into a frustrating battle to defend its work at
international cultural fora.

The good news is that most Cambodians remain unswayed by the French
arguments, retaining positive memories of ASI’s presence in their country
during those difficult days. When asked about their view, some even point
to how one side of the Angkor Wat’s stepped embankment (repaired by
the ASI) was still intact, whereas the other (repaired by the French) had
collapsed!

In the Angor Wat the temple complex is surrounded by a 190m-wide

moat forming a 1.5km by 1.3km rectangle. A sandstone causeway crosses

52
the moat on its western side. The stylistic elements of the complex are
characteristic of Khmer architecture and include the ogival, lotus bud-
shaped towers, half-galleries, axial galleries, connecting enclosures and
cruciform terraces.
The main pyramid takes the form of three stepped terraces with
covered galleries bordering all sides of each step. The corners of the
second and third steps are punctuated by towers, the highest of which
rises to 55m.
At the time of its construction, Khmer architects were proficient in the use
of sandstone as a building material, and
the complex was constructed using 5-10 million sandstone blocks, each
weighing up to 1.5 tons. These blocks were quarried from the mountain of
Phnom Kulen, more than 50km away, and were floated on rafts down the
Siem Reap River. Inscriptions record that the construction involved
1.
300,000 workers and 6,000 elephants.

The sandstone blocks form the most visible elements of the structure,
while a type of clay local to the area, laterite, was used for the
outer wall and concealed structural elements. The precise binding
agent for the blocks is unknown, although it is believed to be
natural resin or slaked lime.
Internally, the smooth stones were laid with very
tight joints without mortar, held together instead by mortise and tenon
joints, or by dovetails and gravity. It is believed
the blocks were assembled using a combination of elephants, coir ropes
and pulleys, and bamboo scaffolding.
Angkor Wat is famous for its vast array of symbolic detailing. Nearly
2,000 sq.m of bas reliefs are intricately carved into the sandstone,as well
as extensively carved lintels, friezes and pediments, and nearly 2,000
depictions of apsaras (celestial dancers).
After King Suryavarman II’s death, the temple was converted to Buddhist
use by King Jayavarman VII. Western interest in the temple only really
began with the writings of the French naturalist Henri Mouhot in the
1860s.
Conservation work was started by the French in the early-20th century
and continued over the decades in an attempt
to preserve the structure from damage caused by plant growth,
fungi, ground movement, war and looting. Conservation efforts were
halted for around 20 years during the Cambodian civil war and the rise
to power of the Khmer Rouge.
In 1992, Angkor Wat became a UNESCO World Heritage Site,
and teams from around the world have returned to stabilise
and preserve it. In particular, they have worked to tackle
microbial biofilms which degrade sandstone.
Extensive conservation works have replaced and restored some of the
sculptures which were lost or damaged.

53
https://www.thebetterindia.com/146776/asi-angkor-wat-india-connection-
cambodia-history/ ( From Of Legends & Legacy: The Unique Link Between India
& Cambodia’s Angkor Wat! Sanchari Pal, June 22, 20180)

Eight buried towers and the remains of a massive spiral structure created
from sand have been discovered at Angkor Wat in Cambodia.

The massive structure — almost a mile long — contains a spiral design,

with several rectangular spirals that form a giant structure, archaeologists
say. "This structure, which has dimensions of more than 1,500 m × 600 m
(about 1 mile by 1,970 feet) is the most striking discovery associated with
Angkor Wat to date. Its function remains unknown and, as yet, it has no
known equivalent in the Angkorian world," Roland Fletcher, a University of
Sydney professor, said in a statement put out by the university.
Today, the spiral structure is hard to make out on the ground, having
been obscured by modern features and vegetation.

By examining the mile-long spiral structure and the stone towers,

researchers date them back to when Angkor Wat was first built in the 12th
century A.D.
King Suryavarman II had Angkor Wat built as a Hindu temple to the god
Vishnu. The temple has a 213-foot-tall (65 meters) central tower that is
surrounded by four smaller towers and a series of enclosure walls. The
layout "is considered to correspond with the cosmology of Mount Meru
and the surrounding Sea of Milk from which ambrosia was churned by the
gods and demons," wrote a research team in an article published this
month in the journal Antiquity.
Antiquity recently published a special section dedicated to the latest
archaeological research at Angkor Wat.

Spiral mystery
The spiral structure is difficult to make out from the ground, and
archaeologists found it using LiDAR — a laser-scanning technology that
allows scientists to detect structures obscured by vegetation or modern
development.
When surveyed on the ground the structure turned out to be made of
"archaeologically sterile banks of sand," meaning it contained no artifacts
from the past, wrote archaeologists Damian Evans, a researcher with
École française d'Extrême-Orient, and Roland Fletcher in an Antiquity
article.

"Quite how the spirals functioned is not at all clear," Evans and Fletcher
wrote. One possibility is that it is a garden that provided the temple with
produce for rituals and eating, the spiral patterns possibly having a
spiritual significance.

Evans and Fletcher found that the spiral structure was not in use for long.
A canal that cut through the spiral design was built later in the 12th
century.

54
"The spiral features would only have been functional for a brief period
during the mid-to-late twelfth century A.D.," Evans and Fletcher wrote.
They say that it's possible the spiral structure was never completed.

Buried towers

The remains of eight towers (marked in yellow) were discovered near the
western gateway of Angkor Wat. (Image credit: Image by Till Sonnemann
and image base courtesy of ETH Zurich)
Another discovery, made using ground-penetrating radar and
archaeological excavation, are the remains of what appear to be eight
demolished towers constructed out of sandstone and laterite (a type of
rock). They were found on the western side of Angkor Wat beside a
gateway across the moat.
The dating is not entirely clear but it appears that many of the towers
were created during the early-to-mid 12th century when Angkor Wat was
being constructed.
Archaeologists found that some of the towers form a series of squares
that may have supported one or more structures. They also found that
many of the towers were constructed before the gateway wall.
They theorize that the towers could have supported a shrine that was in
use while construction of Angkor Wat was underway.
"The configuration of the buried 'towers' contains the unique possibility
that a shrine was built on the western side of the Angkor Wat platform
during the period when the main temple was being constructed," a
research team wrote in an article published in Antiquity.
Advertisement
Once the main temple was constructed and work on the gateway across
the western moat began, the shrine could have been torn down,
researchers say.

More discoveries
Archaeologists uncovered several other secrets of Angkor Wat. For
instance, the LiDAR survey revealed the remains of homes and ponds that
would have been used by workers who serviced the temple.
Additionally, researchers found that later in Angkor Wat's history — after it
had been converted to a Buddhist temple — the site was turned into a
military fortification with wooden structures being built to defend the
moated site.
"Angkor Wat is the first and only known example of an Angkorian temple
being systematically modified for use in a defensive capacity," Fletcher
said. The fortification of it was "one of the last major constructions at
Angkor and is perhaps indicative of its end."

Based on these, the research has pursued the identification of the

heterotopic character of the heritage space, along Foucault’s coordinates
and through the restoration intervention—which ultimately reflects the
perception and conceptualisation of heritage. The analysis of the various

55
interpretations of alterity and of the concept of heterotopia unfolded in
this chapter, focus on the identification of a space-oriented and heritage-
oriented reading. The evolution of the attitudes towards heritage as well
as its perceptions—given its transition towards a more objective “gaze”,
the accumulation of meanings, the creation of and the relationship with
the heritage ideal, the impact of the official status previously analysed—
can explain the way in which the heritage object and the heritage space
acquire heterotopic coordinates

And what is the heritage of Angkor?

Angkor Wat is famous for its vast array of symbolic detailing. The 12th
century temple complex is built from five to ten million sandstone
blocks weighing up to 1.5 tons that were hewn from quarries at the base
of nearby Mount Kulen. The main materials used to construct Angkor Wat
were sandstone and laterite (a clayey soil and rock material rich in iron
and aluminum). Sandstone was used as the main material for visible parts
of the temple. Laterite was mainly used for the hidden structures. The
massive sandstone bricks used to construct the 12th-century temple of
Angkor Wat were brought to the site via a network of hundreds of canals,
according to new research.
The findings shed light on how the site's 5 million to 10 million bricks,
some weighing up to 3,300 pounds, made it to the temple from quarries
at the base of a nearby mountain. Archaeologist knew that the rock came
from quarries at the base of a mountain nearby, but wondered how the
sandstone bricks used to build Angkor Wat reached the site. Previously
people thought the stones were ferried to Tonle Sap Lake via canal, and
then rowed against the current through another river to the temples.
Angkor was built by human labor power. Hundreds of thousands of
slaves put their sweat, their blood and their whole lives into its
construction. Their experiences and abilities led them to solve the
technical and engineering problems, as well as to create the great art
works.

In the times of the Khmer the King was the Lord over lives of his subjects
who toiled and died to build his egoistic temple creations/ The beautiful
temples hid the grotesque truth. In his Nortre Dame, the King was no
quasmido just ugly and evil die to his deeds. History repeats itself they
say.

The King of modern Cambodia Norodom Sihanouk was the titular head of
the Khmer Rouge in the nineteen-seventies, when it held power under the
command of Pol Pot, and presided over the extermination of nearly two
million Cambodians. When he did decide to retire in the nineteen-nineties,
he moved to Pyongyang—where Kim Il Sung’s insane misrule was killing
millions of his own people by. That’s where Sihanouk felt at home. And in
spite of all this the Cambodian people always remained respectful, even
worshipful of him. Rather than seeing him as the personification of their

56
wretched twentieth-century history, they imagined in him a national glory
that he never represented except in fantasy.

Prince Norodom Sihanouk (C), President of Royal Government of National

Union of Cambodia (GRUNC) poses 21 April 1973 with Hou Youn (L) and Son
Sen (R) top Khmer Rouge leaders, in the Angkor forest maquis. Sihanouk,
deposed in March 1970 by Lt.Gen. Lon Nol, formed an alliance with North
Vietnam and with an underground Marxist insurgency group, the Khmers
Rouges, led by Pol Pot, Khieu Samphan and Ieng Sary. CHINA OUT (Photo
credit should read STR/AFP via Getty Images)PICTURE TO THE RIGHT- With the
Pol Pot Cadre right in front of Angkor

Angkor was built by human labor power. Hundreds of

thousands of slaves put their sweat, their blood and their
whole lives into its construction. Their experiences and
abilities led them to solve the technical and engineering
problems, as well as to create the great art works.The
ancient kings may have thought that these monuments
would bring eternal glory to themselves and to the gods
they believed in. But really, Angkor brings glory to the
traditions of the Kampuchean people. If we could
accomplish such great feats even in the dark days of
slavery, then we know that we will be able to accomplish
things ten times greater now that we have been liberated.

Angkor Wat is a well-chosen symbol. It represents the spirit

of “daring to scale the heights” that fills the Kampuchean
people today as they build a new society free from the
oppression of the old one.

57
 Indian Ambassador Ms. Manika Jain speaks during India’s
74th Republic Day celebration at the embassy in Phnom Penh.

BIBLIOGRAHY
1.https://www.iias.asia/the-review/angkor-wat-transcultural-history-
heritage
2. https://www.jstor.org/stable/3318261

58
Angkor Wat Baphuon Terra by Bruno Levy

59
World of Angkor by Indian Artist Amit Nitore

60
61
 Dravya, ( “substance”) a fundamental concept of
Jainism

Dravya, (Sanskrit: “substance”) a fundamental concept of Jainism, a religion of India

that is the oldest Indian school of philosophy to separate matter and soul completely.
The Jains recognize the existence of five astikayas (eternal categories of being) which
together make up the dravya (substance) of existence. These five are dharma,
adharma, akasha, pudgala, and jiva. Dharma is both a moral virtue and, in a meaning
unique to Jainism, the medium that allows beings to move. Adharma, the medium of
rest, enables beings to stop moving. Akasha, the space in which everything exists, is
separated in two categories, world space (lokakasha) and non-world space
(alokiakasha), which is infinitely larger than world space but empty. These three
categories are unique and inactive. Pudgala (“matter”) and jiva (“soul”) are active
and infinite. Only pudgala is perceptible, and only jiva has consciousness. Added later
by the Digambara sect, a sixth category of dravya, kala (time), is eternal but not
universal, because it does not occur in the outermost layers of the world.Dravya

62
(Hindi: द्रव्य) means substance or entity. According to the Jain philosophy, the
universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls (jīva), non-
sentient substance or matter (pudgala), principle of motion (dharma), the principle
of rest (adharma), space (ākāśa) and time (kāla).[1][2] The latter five are united as the
ajiva (the non-living). As per the Sanskrit etymology, dravya means substances or
entity, but it may also mean real or fundamental categories.[2]

Jain philosophers distinguish a substance from a body, or thing, by declaring the

former as a simple element or reality while the latter as a compound of one or more
substances or atoms. They claim that there can be a partial or total destruction of a
body or thing, but no dravya can ever be destroyed. 1

Classification and importance in Jainism

The dravya in Jainism are fundamental entities,

called astikaya (literally, 'collection that exists').
They are believed to be eternal, and the
ontological building blocks that constitute and
explain all existence, whether perceived or not.
According to the Śvētāmbara tradition of Jainism,
there are five eternal substances in existence:
Soul (jiva), Matter (pudgala), Space (akasha),
motion (Dharma) and rest (Adharma). To this list of five, the Digambara Jain tradition
adds "Time" (kala) as the sixth eternal substance. In both traditions, the substance of
space is conceptualized as "world space" (lokakasha) and "non-world space"
(alokiakasha). Further, both soul and matter are considered as active ontological
substances, while the rest are inactive.[6] Another categorization found in Jain
philosophy is jiva and ajiva, the latter being all dravya that is not jiva.

Out of the six dravyas, five except time have been described as astikayas, that is,
extensions or conglomerates. Since like conglomerates, they have numerous space

63
points, they are described as astikaya. There are innumerable space points in the
sentient substance and in the media of motion and rest, and infinite ones in space; in
matter they are threefold (i.e. numerable, innumerable and infinite). Time has only
one; therefore it is not a conglomerate. Hence the corresponding conglomerates or
extensions are called—jivastikaya (soul extension or conglomerate), pudgalastikaya
(matter conglomerate), dharmastikaya (motion conglomerate), adharmastikaya (rest
conglomerate) and akastikaya (space conglomerates). Together they are called
pancastikaya or the five astikayas.

Jīva (living entity)

A special feature of Acharya Umasvami’s Tattvarthsutra is that it is the first Jaina

scripture written in the Sanskrit language. The work is of great value for the beginner

64
as well as for the learned. Its composition has great charm. Each Sutra is composed
in least possible words and can easily be memorized. Many Jains recite these Sutras.

Tattvarthsutra is invaluable for understanding life, and pursuit of happiness. The

hardships and afflictions that we have to endure are of our own making. Our deeds,
driven by passions, lead to sufferings and reproach in this world and in the next.
Virtuous activity alone, which is the cause of merit (punya), leads to joyous feeling,
auspicious life, charming and lustrous physique, and high status. Our ultimate goal is
the attainment of the divine attributes, in fullness and perfection, of our souls. We
can reach our goal only through the three-fold path of right faith, right knowledge
and right conduct.2

Jiva means "soul" in Jainism, and is also called jivatman. It is a core concept and the
fundamental focus of the Jain theology. The soul is believed to be eternal, and a
substance that undergoes constant modifications, in every life, after every rebirth of
a living being. Jiva consists of pure consciousness in the Jain thought, has innate "free
will" that causes it to act but is believed to be intangible and formless. It is the soul
that experiences existence and gains knowledge, not mind nor body both believed to
a heap of matter. Jain philosophy further believes that the soul is the mechanism of
rebirth and karma accumulation. It is the same size in all living beings, such as a
human being, a tiny insect and a large elephant. Jiva is everywhere, filling and
infused in every minuscule part of the entire loka (realm of existence), according to
Jainism. The soul has the potential to reach omniscience and eternal bliss, and end
the cycles of rebirth and associated suffering, which is the goal of Jain spirituality.

65
According to Jain philosophy, this universe consists of infinite jivas or souls that are
uncreated and always existing. There are two main categories of souls: un-liberated
mundane embodied souls that are still subject to transmigration and rebirths in this
samsara due to karmic bondage and the liberated souls that are free from birth and
death. All souls are intrinsically pure but are found in bondage with karma since
beginning-less time. A soul has to make efforts to eradicate the karmas attain its true
and pure form.

10th-century Jain monk Nemichandra describes the soul in Dravyasamgraha:

The sentient substance (soul) is characterized by the function of understanding, is

incorporeal, performs actions (doer), is co-extensive with its own body. It is the
enjoyer (of its actions), located in the world of rebirth (samsara) (or) emancipated
(moksa) (and) has the intrinsic movement upwards.
— Dravyasaṃgraha (2)

66
The qualities of the soul are chetana (consciousness) and upyoga (knowledge and
perception). Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really
destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one
state and appearing of another state and these are merely the modes of the soul.
Thus Jiva with its attributes and modes, roaming in samsara (universe), may lose its
particular form and assume a new one. Again this form may be lost and the original
acquired.

Jivas are believed to be of two types: stationary and mobile. Illustration of the former
are plants, while moving jivas include examples such as human beings, animals, gods,
hell beings and insects. Jivas are further classified in Jain philosophy by an assigned
number of senses which range from one to five sensory organs. Inert world such as
air, fire or clod of dirt, considered non-sensate in contemporary science, are asserted
in historic texts of Jainism to be living and with sensory powers.

Ajiva (five non-living entities)

The jiva is believed to rely on other dravya to function. The Jain philosophy
completely separates body (matter) from the soul (consciousness). Souls reside in
bodies and

67
Sculpture depicting the Jainism's message: "Ahinsa Parmo Dharm" (non-violence is the
highest virtue or religion).

journey endlessly through saṃsāra (that is, realms of existence through cycles of
rebirths and redeaths. Ajiva consists of everything other than jiva.[22] Life processes
such as breath means of knowledge such as language, all emotional and biological
experiences such as pleasure and pain are all believed in Jainism to be made of
pudgala (matter). These interact with tattva or reality to create, bind, destroy or
unbind karma particles to the soul. According to Dundas, Dharma as a metaphysical
substance in Jain philosophy may be understood as "that which carries" instead of
the literal sense of ordinary physical motion. Thus, dharma includes all verbal and
mental activity that contributes to karma and purification of the soul.

Pudgala (Matter)

Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-
fine matter i.e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle (atoms or sub-
atomic particles) is the basic building block of all matter. It possesses at all times four

68
qualities, namely, a color (varna), a taste (rasa), a smell (gandha), and a certain kind
of palpability (sparsha, touch).[25] One of the qualities of the paramāṇu and pudgala
is that of permanence and indestructibility. It combines and changes its modes but
its basic qualities remain the same.[26] It cannot be created nor destroyed and the
total amount of matter in the universe remains the same.

Dharmastikaay

Dharmastikaay means the principles of Motion that pervade the entire universe.
Dharmastikaay and Adharmastikaay are by themselves not motion or rest but
mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikaay motion is not
possible. The medium of motion helps matter and the sentient that are prone to
motion to move, like water (helps) fish. However, it does not set in motion those that
do not move.

Adharmastikaay

Without adharmastikaay, rest and stability is not possible in the universe. The
principle of rest helps matter and the sentient that are liable to stay without moving,
like the shade helps travellers. It does not stabilize those that move. According to
Champat Rai Jain:

The necessity of Adharmastikaay as the accompanying cause of rest, that is, of

cessation of motion will be clearly perceived by any one who will put to himself the
question, how jīvas and bodies of matter support themselves when coming to rest
from a state of motion. Obviously gravitation will not do, for that is concerned with
the determination of the direction which a moving body may take.

Ākāśa (space )

Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the principle of
motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite
space-points.[30]

69
Kāla (time)

Kāla is a real entity according to Jainism and is said to be the cause of continuity and
succession. Champat Rai Jain in his book "The Key of Knowledge wrote:

...As a substance which assists other things in performing their ‘temporal’ gyrations,
Time can be conceived only in the form of whirling posts. That these whirling posts,
as we have called the units of Time, cannot, in any manner, be conceived as parts of
the substances that revolve around them, is obvious from the fact that they are
necessary for the continuance of all other substances, including souls and atoms of
matter which are simple ultimate units, and cannot be imagined as carrying a pin
each to revolve upon. Time must, therefore, be considered as a separate substance
which assists other substances and things in their movements of continuity. 3

— Champat Rai Jain

Jaina philosophers call the substance of Time as Niścay Time to distinguish it from
vyavhāra (practical) Time which is a measure of duration- hours, days and the like.

Attributes of Dravya

These substances have some common attributes or gunas such as:

 Astitva (existence): indestructibility; permanence; the capacity by which a

substance cannot be destroyed.
 Vastutva (functionality): capacity by which a substance has function.
 Dravyatva (changeability): capacity by which it is always changing in
modifications.
 Prameyatva (knowability): capacity by which it is known by someone, or of
being the subject-matter of knowledge.
 Agurulaghutva (individuality): capacity by which one attribute or substance
does not become another and the substance does not lose the attributes
whose grouping forms the substance itself.
 Pradeshatva (spatiality): capacity of having some kind of location in space.

70
There are some specific attributes that distinguish the dravyas from each other:

 Chetanatva (consciousness) and amurtavta (immateriality) are common

attributes of the class of substances soul or jiva.
 Achetanatva (non-consciousness) and murtatva (materiality) are attributes of
matter.
 Achetanatva (non-consciousness) and amurtavta (immateriality) are common
to Motion, Rest, Time and Space.

 10th century Jain Acarya, Nemicandra Siddhānta Cakravartin is regarded as

the author of Dravyasaṃgraha. He was the teacher of Camundaraya—the
general of the Western Ganga Dynasty of Karnataka. Nemicandra was a
prolific author and a specialist in summarizing and giving lucidly the essence of
teachings in various fields; saṃgrahas (compendium) and sāras (essence)
were his specialty. He also wrote Trilokasāra (essence of cosmology),
Labdhisāra (essence of attainments), Kṣapaṇasāra (essence on destruction of
karmas), and Gommaṭasāra (essence of Gommata, a treatise on soul and
Karma). Although not much is known about him from his own works, at the
end of the Trilokasāra and of the Gommaṭasāra, he introduces himself as a
pupil of Abhayanandi, Vīranandi, Indranandi and Kanakanandi. He is said to
have inspired Camundaraya to build the famous Bāhubali statue at
Shravanabelagola. Vahuvali Charitra (a Jain work based on collection of
traditions) notes that Nemicandra belonged to the monastic order of Desiya
gana. After establishing the statue of Bāhubali, Camundaraya offered villages
yielding a revenue of 96,000 gold coins to Nemicandra for daily worship of and
festivals for Gommatesvara (Lord Bāhubali).

71
 English translation by Nalini Balbir

Dravyasaṃgraha has played an important role in Jain education and is often

memorized because of its comprehensiveness and brevity. [1] The composition of
Dravyasaṃgraha is influenced from the earlier Jain works such as Umāsvāti's
Tattvārthasūtra and Kundakunda's Pañcāstikāyasara because these works are based
on the same topics as the Dravyasaṃgraha.

According to Nalini Balbir, the Dravyasaṃgraha is largely a work of definitions of

concepts with mnemonic perspective. In its 58 verses, the author makes skillful use
of āryā metre.[3] Nemicandra's presentation is often articulated around the
opposition between the conventional and the absolute points of view (vyavahāra
and niścaya-naya), or around the contrast between the material and the spiritual
angles (dravya and bhāva). Sarat Chandra Ghoshal, the translator of
Dravyasaṃgraha, divides the entire text in three convenient parts—the first part
deals with six dravyas (verses 1–27), the second with seven tattvas (verses 28–39)
and the third part describes the way to attain liberation (verses 40–57).

The six dravyas

72
In tine opening verse, along with the usual mangalacharana (eulogy), it is mentioned
that dravya consists of jiva and ajiva. In the second verse Jiva is defined. The
sentient substance (soul) is characterized by the function of understanding, is
incorporeal, performs actions (doer), is co-extensive with its own body. It is the
enjoyer (of its actions), located in the world of rebirth (samsara) (or) emancipated
(moksa) (and) has the intrinsic movement upwards.

— Dravyasamgraha—2

The various characteristics of Jiva mentioned in the definition are taken up one by
one in verses 3–14. Dravyasaṃgraha classifies the embodied souls on the basis of
the number of senses possessed by it: from one to five senses. [6] After this detailed
description of Jivas the author proceeds to describe Ajivas—Pudgala, Dharma,
adharma, Akasa and Kala, each of which is defined in verses 16–22. Among these, as
per verse 23, the Jiva, pudgala, dharma, adharma, and akasa are called astikayas,
the extensibles or conglomerates.

Tattvas

The second part deals with the seven tattvas (fundamental principles or verities):
jīva (soul), ajīva (non soul), āsrava (karmic inflow), bandha (bondage of karmas),
saṃvara (stoppage of karmas), nirjarā (shedding of karmas) and mokṣa
(emancipation or liberation). Together with puṇya (merit or beneficial karma) and
pāpa (demerit or harmful karma) they form nine padārtha. Some call all nine as
navatattava or nine tattvas.[4]

Moksa

The third part of Dravyasaṃgraha begins with verse 39 describing the means to
attain liberation from conventional and real point of views. The three jewels of

73
Jainism also known as Ratnatraya—Samyak darśana (rational perception), samyak
jñāna (rational knowledge) and samyak cāritra (rational conduct)—which are
essential in achieving liberation—are defined and the importance of dhyāna
(meditation) is emphasized. On meditation, Nemicandra says

Do not be deluded, do not be attached, do not feel aversion for things which are
(respectively) dear or not dear (to you), if you desire a steady mind for the
attainment of extraordinary meditation.

— Dravyasamgraha—48

Do not act, do not talk, do not think at all, so that the soul is steady and is content
in the self. This indeed is supreme meditation.

— Dravyasaṃgraha (56)

Obeisance to Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (five supreme beings)

Pañca-Parameṣṭhi : Verses 49 to 54 of the Dravyasaṃgraha, succinctly characterizes

the five Supreme Beings (Pañca-Parameṣṭhi) and their characteristics.

Having destroyed the four inimical varieties of karmas (ghātiyā karmas), possessed of
infinite faith, happiness, knowledge and power, and housed in most auspicious body
(paramaudārika śarīra), that pure soul of the World Teacher (Arhat) should be
meditated on.

74
 — Dravyasaṃgraha (50)

The IAST| "Pañca-Parameṣṭhi" (Sanskrit for "fivefold superiority") in Jainism are a

five-fold hierarchy of religious authorities worthy of veneration:
#Arihanta: the 24 Tirthankaras or Jinas, the legendary founding figures of Jainism in
the present Kaalchakra (time-cycle)
#Ashiri: the Siddhas or "perfected" saints
#Acharya: "teachers"
#Upadhyaya: "preceptors"
#Munis: monks
The five initials, viz. "A+A+A+U+M" are taken as forming the Aum syllable.

The five supreme beings are:

1. Arihant: The awakened souls who have attained keval gyan are considered as
Arihant. The 24 Tirthankaraas or Jinas, the legendary founding figures of
Jainism in the present time cycle are Arihants. All Tirthankaras are Arihants
but not all Arihants are Thirthankars.[2]
2. Siddha (Ashiri): The souls which have been liberated from the birth and death
cycle.
3. Acarya
4. Upadhyaya ("Preceptors")
5. Muni or Jain monks

The five initials, viz. A+A+A+U+M are taken as forming the Aum syllable.

75
Obeisance to Pañca-Parameṣṭhi (five supreme beings)

Dravyasaṃgraha, a major Jain text, succinctly characterizes the five Supreme Beings
(Pañca-Parameṣṭhi)

1. Definition of the World Teacher (Arhat) - verse 50

2. Definition of the liberated souls (Siddha) - verses 51.
3. Definition of the Chief Preceptor (Acarya) - verse 52.
4. Definition of the Preceptor (Upadhyaya) - verse 53.
5. Definition of the Ascetic (Sadhu) - verse 54.

Meditate on, recite or chant the sacred mantras, consisting of thirty-five, sixteen, six,
five, four, two and one letter(s), pronouncing the virtues of the five supreme beings
(Pañca-Parameṣṭhi). Besides, meditate on and chant other mantras as per the
teachings of the Preceptor (guru).

Arihant

Having destroyed the four inimical varieties of karmas (ghātiyā karmas), possessed of
infinite faith, happiness, knowledge and power, and housed in most auspicious body
(paramaudārika śarīra), that pure soul of the World Teacher (Arhat) should be
meditated on.

— Dravyasaṃgraha (50)[

76
Dravyasaṃgraha (Compendium of substances) is a 10th-century Jain text in Jain
Sauraseni Prakrit by Acharya Nemicandra belonging to the Digambara Jain tradition.
It is a composition of 58 gathas (verses) giving an exposition of the six dravyas
(substances) that characterize the Jain view of the world: sentient (jīva), non-sentient
(pudgala), principle of motion (dharma), principle of rest (adharma), space (ākāśa)
and time (kāla. It is one of the most important Jain works and has gained widespread
popularity. Dravyasaṃgraha has played an important role in Jain education and is
often memorized because of its comprehensiveness as well as brevity.

Dravya (Hindi: द्रव्य) means substance or entity. According to the Jain philosophy,
the universe is made up of six eternal substances: sentient beings or souls (jīva), non-
sentient substance or matter (pudgala), principle of motion (dharma), the principle
of rest (adharma), space (ākāśa) and time (kāla). The latter five are united as the
ajiva (the non-living). As per the Sanskrit etymology, dravya means substances or
entity, but it may also mean real or fundamental categories. Jain philosophers
distinguish a substance from a body, or thing, by declaring the former as a simple
element or reality while the latter as a compound of one or more substances or
atoms. They claim that there can be a partial or total destruction of a body or thing,
but no dravya can ever be destroyed.

77
 Chart showing the classification of dravya and astikaya

Classification and importance in Jainism

The dravya in Jainism are fundamental entities, called astikaya (literally, 'collection
that exists'). They are believed to be eternal, and the ontological building blocks that
constitute and explain all existence, whether perceived or not. According to the
Śvētāmbara tradition of Jainism, there are five eternal substances in existence: Soul
(jiva), Matter (pudgala), Space (akasha), motion (Dharma) and rest (Adharma. To this
list of five, the Digambara Jain tradition adds "Time" (kala) as the sixth eternal
substance. In both traditions, the substance of space is conceptualized as "world
space" (lokakasha) and "non-world space" (alokiakasha). Further, both soul and
matter are considered as active ontological substances, while the rest are inactive. [6]
Another categorization found in Jain philosophy is jiva and ajiva, the latter being all
dravya that is not jiva.

78
Out of the six dravyas, five except time have been described as astikayas, that is,
extensions or conglomerates. Since like conglomerates, they have numerous space
points, they are described as astikaya. There are innumerable space points in the
sentient substance and in the media of motion and rest, and infinite ones in space; in
matter they are threefold (i.e. numerable, innumerable and infinite). Time has only
one; therefore it is not a conglomerate. [9] Hence the corresponding conglomerates or
extensions are called—jivastikaya (soul extension or conglomerate), pudgalastikaya
(matter conglomerate), dharmastikaya (motion conglomerate), adharmastikaya (rest
conglomerate) and akastikaya (space conglomerates). Together they are called
pancastikaya or the five astikayas.

Jīva (living entity)

Jiva means "soul" in Jainism, and is also called jivatman.[11] It is a core concept and
the fundamental focus of the Jain theology. The soul is believed to be eternal, and a
substance that undergoes constant modifications, in every life, after every rebirth of
a living being.[4][13] Jiva consists of pure consciousness in the Jain thought, has innate
"free will" that causes it to act but is believed to be intangible and formless. It is the
soul that experiences existence and gains knowledge, not mind nor body both
believed to a heap of matter. [14][15] Jain philosophy further believes that the soul is the
mechanism of rebirth and karma accumulation. It is the same size in all living beings,
such as a human being, a tiny insect and a large elephant. Jiva is everywhere, filling
and infused in every minuscule part of the entire loka (realm of existence), according
to Jainism.[14] The soul has the potential to reach omniscience and eternal bliss, and
end the cycles of rebirth and associated suffering, which is the goal of Jain
spirituality.

According to Jain philosophy, this universe consists of infinite jivas or souls that are
uncreated and always existing. There are two main categories of souls: un-liberated
mundane embodied souls that are still subject to transmigration and rebirths in this

79
samsara due to karmic bondage and the liberated souls that are free from birth and
death. All souls are intrinsically pure but are found in bondage with karma since
beginning-less time. A soul has to make efforts to eradicate the karmas attain its true
and pure form.

10th-century Jain monk Nemichandra describes the soul in Dravyasamgraha:

The sentient substance (soul) is characterized by the function of understanding, is

incorporeal, performs actions (doer), is co-extensive with its own body. It is the
enjoyer (of its actions), located in the world of rebirth (samsara) (or) emancipated
(moksa) (and) has the intrinsic movement upwards.

— Dravyasaṃgraha (2)

The qualities of the soul are chetana (consciousness) and upyoga (knowledge and
perception). Though the soul experiences both birth and death, it is neither really
destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively to the disappearing of one
state and appearing of another state and these are merely the modes of the soul.
Thus Jiva with its attributes and modes, roaming in samsara (universe), may lose its
particular form and assume a new one. Again this form may be lost and the original
acquired.

Jivas are believed to be of two types: stationary and mobile. Illustration of the former
are plants, while moving jivas include examples such as human beings, animals, gods,
hell beings and insects.[19] Jivas are further classified in Jain philosophy by an assigned
number of senses which range from one to five sensory organs. [19] Inert world such as
air, fire or clod of dirt, considered non-sensate in contemporary science, are asserted
in historic texts of Jainism to be living and with sensory powers.

Ajiva (five non-living entities)

80
The jiva is believed to rely on other dravya to function. The Jain philosophy
completely separates body (matter) from the soul (consciousness). Souls reside in
bodies and journey endlessly through saṃsāra (that is, realms of existence through
cycles of rebirths and redeaths). [21] Ajiva consists of everything other than jiva.[22] Life
processes such as breath means of knowledge such as language, all emotional and
biological experiences such as pleasure and pain are all believed in Jainism to be
made of pudgala (matter). These interact with tattva or reality to create, bind,
destroy or unbind karma particles to the soul. According to Dundas, Dharma as a
metaphysical substance in Jain philosophy may be understood as "that which carries"
instead of the literal sense of ordinary physical motion. Thus, dharma includes all
verbal and mental activity that contributes to karma and purification of the soul.

Pudgala (Matter)

Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine Karmic materials and extra-
fine matter i.e. ultimate particles. Paramāṇu or ultimate particle (atoms or sub-
atomic particles) is the basic building block of all matter. It possesses at all times four
qualities, namely, a color (varna), a taste (rasa), a smell (gandha), and a certain kind
of palpability (sparsha, touch). One of the qualities of the paramāṇu and pudgala is
that of permanence and indestructibility. It combines and changes its modes but its
basic qualities remain the same.[26] It cannot be created nor destroyed and the total
amount of matter in the universe remains the same.

Dharmastikaay

Dharmastikaay means the principles of Motion that pervade the entire universe.
Dharmastikaay and Adharmastikaay are by themselves not motion or rest but
mediate motion and rest in other bodies. Without Dharmastikaay motion is not
possible. The medium of motion helps matter and the sentient that are prone to
motion to move, like water (helps) fish. However, it does not set in motion those that
do not move.

81
Adharmastikaay

Without adharmastikaay, rest and stability is not possible in the universe. The
principle of rest helps matter and the sentient that are liable to stay without moving,
like the shade helps travellers. It does not stabilize those that move. [28] According to
Champat Rai Jain:

The necessity of Adharmastikaay as the accompanying cause of rest, that is, of

cessation of motion will be clearly perceived by any one who will put to himself the
question, how jīvas and bodies of matter support themselves when coming to rest
from a state of motion. Obviously gravitation will not do, for that is concerned with
the determination of the direction which a moving body may take.

Ākāśa (space)

Space is a substance that accommodates the living souls, the matter, the principle of
motion, the principle of rest and time. It is all-pervading, infinite and made of infinite
space-points.[30]

Kāla (time)

Kāla is a real entity according to Jainism and is said to be the cause of continuity and
succession. Champat Rai Jain in his book "The Key of Knowledge wrote:

...As a substance which assists other things in performing their ‘temporal’ gyrations,
Time can be conceived only in the form of whirling posts. That these whirling posts,
as we have called the units of Time, cannot, in any manner, be conceived as parts of
the substances that revolve around them, is obvious from the fact that they are
necessary for the continuance of all other substances, including souls and atoms of
matter which are simple ultimate units, and cannot be imagined as carrying a pin
each to revolve upon. Time must, therefore, be considered as a separate substance
which assists other substances and things in their movements of continuity.

— Champat Rai Jain

82
Jaina philosophers call the substance of Time as Niścay Time to distinguish it from
vyavhāra (practical) Time which is a measure of duration- hours, days and the like.

Attributes of Dravya

These substances have some common attributes or gunas such as:

 Astitva (existence): indestructibility; permanence; the capacity by which a

substance cannot be destroyed.
 Vastutva (functionality): capacity by which a substance has function.
 Dravyatva (changeability): capacity by which it is always changing in
modifications.
 Prameyatva (knowability): capacity by which it is known by someone, or of
being the subject-matter of knowledge.
 Agurulaghutva (individuality): capacity by which one attribute or substance
does not become another and the substance does not lose the attributes
whose grouping forms the substance itself.
 Pradeshatva (spatiality): capacity of having some kind of location in space.

There are some specific attributes that distinguish the dravyas from each other: [31]

 Chetanatva (consciousness) and amurtavta (immateriality) are common

attributes of the class of substances soul or jiva.
 Achetanatva (non-consciousness) and murtatva (materiality) are attributes of
matter.
 Achetanatva (non-consciousness) and amurtavta (immateriality) are common
to Motion, Rest, Time and Space.

Tattva

Jain philosophy explains that seven tattva (truths or fundamental principles)

constitute reality.[1] These are:

1. jīva- the soul which is characterized by consciousness

2. ajīva- the non-soul
3. āsrava (influx)- inflow of auspicious and evil karmic matter into the soul.
4. bandha (bondage)- mutual intermingling of the soul and karmas.
5. samvara (stoppage)- obstruction of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul.
6. nirjara (gradual dissociation)- separation or falling-off of part of karmic matter
from the soul.

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 7. mokṣha (liberation)- complete annihilation of all karmic matter (bound with
any particular soul).

The knowledge of these reals is said to be essential for the liberation of the soul.
However , as per one sect of Jain i.e. Shwetamber(Sthanakwasi) , there are total nine
tattva-
( truths or fundamental principles ).
Seven tattva are same as above but 2 more tattva are there namely :-
8. Punya (alms-deed) - Which purifies our soul and provide happiness to others .
9. Paap (sinful acts) - which impurifies our soul.

Overview

The first two are the two ontological categories of the soul jīva and the non-soul
ajīva, namely the axiom that they exist. The third truth is that through the
interaction, called yoga, between the two substances, soul and non-soul, karmic
matter flows into the soul (āsrava), clings to it, becomes converted into karma and
the fourth truth acts as a factor of bondage (bandha), restricting the manifestation of
the consciousness intrinsic to it. The fifth truth states that a stoppage (saṃvara) of
new karma is possible through asceticism through practice of right conduct, faith and
knowledge. An intensification of asceticism burns up the existing karma – this sixth
truth is expressed by the word nirjarā. The final truth is that when the soul is freed
from the influence of karma, it reaches the goal of Jaina teaching, which is liberation
or mokṣa.[3] In some texts punya or spiritual merit and papa or spiritual demerit are
counted among the fundamental reals. But in major Jain texts like Tattvārthasūtra
the number of tattvas is seven because both punya and papa are included in āsrava
or bandha.[4] According to the Jain text, Sarvārthasiddhi, translates S.A. Jain:

It is not necessary to include these (merit and demerit), as these are implied in influx
and bondage. If it were so, the mention of influx etc. is unnecessary, as these are
included in the soul and the non-soul. No, it is not unnecessary. Here liberation is the
main theme of the work. So that must be mentioned. And that (liberation) is
preceded by the cycle of births and deaths. Influx and bondage are the main causes
of transmigration. Stoppage and gradual dissociation are the chief causes of

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liberation. Hence these are mentioned severally in order to indicate the chief causes
and effects. It is well-known that the particulars implied in the general are mentioned
separately according to needs.

Jīva

Jainism believes that the souls (jīva) exist as a reality, having a separate existence
from the body that houses it. Jīva is characterised by chetana (consciousness) and
upayoga (knowledge and perception).[5] Though the soul experiences both birth and
death, it is neither really destroyed nor created. Decay and origin refer respectively
to the disappearing of one state of soul and appearance of another state, these being
merely the modes of the soul.

Depiction of the concept of soul (in transmigration) in Jainism. Golden color

represents nokarma – the quasi-karmic matter, Cyan color depicts dravya karma– the
subtle karmic matter, orange represents the bhav karma– the psycho-physical karmic
matter and White depicts sudhatma, the pure consciousness.

Ajīva

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Ajīva are the five non-living substances that make up the universe along with the jīva.
They are:

 Pudgala (Matter) –Matter is classified as solid, liquid, gaseous, energy, fine

Karmic materials and extra-fine matter or ultimate particles. [7] Paramānu or
ultimate particles are considered the basic building block of all matter. One of
the qualities of the Paramānu and Pudgala is that of permanence and
indestructibility. It combines and changes its modes but its basic qualities
remain the same. According to Jainism, it cannot be created nor destroyed.
 Dharma-tattva (Medium of Motion) and Adharma-tattva (Medium of rest) –
They are also known as Dharmāstikāya and Adharmāstikāya. They are unique
to Jain thought depicting the principles of motion and rest. They are said to
pervade the entire universe. Dharma-tattva and adharma-tattva are by
themselves not motion or rest but mediate motion and rest in other bodies.
Without dharmāstikāya motion is not possible and without adharmāstikāya
rest is not possible in the universe.
 Ākāśa (Space) – Space is a substance that accommodates souls, matter, the
principle of motion, the principle of rest, and time. It is all-pervading, infinite
and made of infinite space-points.
 Kāla (Time) – Time is a real entity according to Jainism and all activities,
changes or modifications can be achieved only through time. In Jainism, the
time is likened to a wheel with twelve spokes divided into descending and
ascending halves with six stages, each of immense duration estimated at
billions of sagaropama or ocean years.[8] According to Jains, sorrow increases
at each progressive descending stage and happiness and bliss increase in each
progressive ascending stage.

Āsrava

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Asrava (influx of karma) refers to the influence of body and mind causing the soul to
generate karma. It occurs when the karmic particles are attracted to the soul on
account of vibrations created by activities of mind, speech and body.

The āsrava, that is, the influx of karmic occurs when the karmic particles are
attracted to the soul on account of vibrations created by activities of mind, speech
and body. Tattvārthasūtra, 6:1–2 states. "The activities of body, speech and mind is
called yoga. This three-fold action results in āsrava or influx of karma."[12] The karmic
inflow on account of yoga driven by passions and emotions cause a long term inflow
of karma prolonging the cycle of reincarnations. On the other hand, the karmic
inflows on account of actions that are not driven by passions and emotions have only
a transient, short-lived karmic effect.

Bandha

The karmas have effect only when they are bound to the consciousness. This binding
of the karma to the consciousness is called bandha. However, the yoga or the
activities alone do not produce bondage. Out of the many causes of bondage,
passion is considered as the main cause of bondage. The karmas are literally bound
on account of the stickiness of the soul due to existence of various passions or
mental dispositions.

Saṃvara

Saṃvara is stoppage of karma. The first step to emancipation or the realization of

the self is to see that all channels through which karma has been flowing into the
soul have been stopped, so that no additional karma can accumulate. This is referred
to as the stoppage of the inflow of karma (saṃvara). There are two kinds of saṃvara:
that which is concerned with mental life (bhava-saṃvara), and that which refers to
the removal of karmic particles (dravya- saṃvara). This stoppage is possible by self-
control and freedom from attachment. The practice of vows, carefulness, self-

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control, observance of ten kinds of dharma, meditation, and the removal of the
various obstacles, such as hunger, thirst, and passion stops the inflow of karma and
protect the soul from the impurities of fresh karma.

Nirjarā

Nirjarā is the shedding or destruction of karmas that has already accumulated.

Nirjarā is of two types: the psychic aspect of the removal of karma (bhāva-nirjarā)
and destruction of the particles of karma (dravya-nirjarā). Karma may exhaust itself
in its natural course when its fruits are completely exhausted. In this, no effort is
required. The remaining karma has to be removed by means of penance (avipaka-
nirjarā). The soul is like a mirror which looks dim when the dust of karma is
deposited on its surface. When karma is removed by destruction, the soul shines in
its pure and transcendent form. It then attains the goal of mokṣa.

Mokṣha

Mokṣha means liberation, salvation or emancipation of soul. As per Jainism, Mokṣha

is the attainment of an altogether different state of the soul, completely free from
the karmic bondage, free from samsara (the cycle of birth and death). It means the
removal of all the impurities of karmic matter and the body, characterized by the
inherent qualities of the soul such as knowledge and bliss free from pain and
suffering.[16] Right faith, right knowledge, and right conduct (together) constitute the
path to liberation.[17] A liberated soul is said to have attained its true and pristine
nature of infinite bliss, infinite knowledge and infinite perception. In Jainism, it is the
highest and the noblest objective that a soul should strive to achieve. It fact, it is the
only objective that a person should have; other objectives are contrary to the true
nature of soul. That is why, Jainism is also known as mokṣamārga or the “path to
liberation”.

88
 REFERENCES
1.Jain Studies: Their Present State and Future Tasks, Prof Dr Ludwig Alsdorf,English
tr. by Bal Patil,Pandit Nathuram Premi Research Series Volume 1,Published in
2006,ISBN 978-81-88769-13-1
2. Acharya Umasvami’s Tattvarthsutra: With Hindi and English Translation, Vijay K.
Jain (Ed), Foreword by Acharya 108 Vidyanand,Vikalp Printers, 2011 - Jaina
philosophy - 163 pages

3. JOURNAL ARTICLE -The Living Cosmos of Jainism: A Traditional Science Grounded

in Environmental Ethics ,Christopher Key Chapple ,Daedalus ,Vol. 130, No. 4, Religion
and Ecology: Can the Climate Change? (Fall, 2001), pp. 207-224,Published by: The
MIT Press on behalf of American Academy of Arts &
Sciences,https://www.jstor.org/stable/20027724

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 IV
Sacred space and symbolic form of a Stupa with
reference to the Vedika or railing
Architect SRISHTI DOKRAS
Devotees approach the Stupaor temple from the east and walk around its entirety—an
activity known as circumambulation. They begin walking along the large plinth of the
temple’s base, moving in a clockwise direction starting from the left of the stairs. Sculpted
friezes along the plinth depict images of daily life, love, and war and many recall historical
events of the past period.
Railing or railings may refer to:

 Guard rail, a structure blocking an area from access

 Handrail, a structure designed to provide support on or near a staircase
 Grab bar, a structure to provide support elsewhere, for instance in a bathroom or kitchen
 Insufflation (medicine), the act of inhaling a substance, generally a drug
 "Railing," a song by Roni Size / Reprazent on the album New Forms

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In its most fundamental essence, the stupa is a funerary mound erected over the remains of
the Buddha . Its antecedents can be traced to primitive burial cists, which evolved in the
Buddhist and Jain traditions into places of veneration . In its earliest meanings, the Stupa
represented the Buddha and his Parinirvana (“complete extinction”) and, as we shall explore,
deeper symbolism synonymous with concurrent traditions.
This paper aims to analyze the ‘physical and metaphysical’ aspects of the stupa . It intends to
achieve this by studying some of its most celebrated versions –namely Sanchi, Bharhut and
Amravati.

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Before addressing the question, I would like to digress into briefly discussing the historical
background of the Buddhist religion. The focus will primarily be on two significant epochs/
forces that pre-date these stupas, which I believe, were instrumental in shaping them. The
first is the parinirvana of Buddha and the second, the imperial impetus of the great mauryan
emperor Asoka. Therafter the paper will focus on decoding the architectural template of the
stupa and its significance, followed by the importance and meaning of the decorative motifs.

In the 8th century BC, the gangetic plain witnessed great religious and metaphysical ferment.
Philosophical speculation gained currency and salvation from mortality became the greatest
goal of life. The profoundest expression of this age is found in the Upanishads, which
presented a world view in stark contrast to that of the Vedas . Out of this flux emerged other
heterodox cults, opposed to vedic supremacy and dogma, chief amongst which were
Buddhism and Jainism.
Buddhism was founded by a prince of the Sakya clan , who renounced the world in spiritual
quest. After six years of futile austerities, he reflected in calm contemplation, whereupon he
attained enlightenment and became the “awakened one”. His life thereafter was that of a
mendicant teacher and he preached his doctrine across the length and breadth of
madhyadesha . Simplicity, inclusiveness and the compelling personality of the Buddha
presented an adoptable alternative to the increasingly complex world of the Vedas.

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While Buddhism blossomed under the inspiring stewardship of the Buddha, his impending
death, in my view, presented a classic case of crisis of leadership . In his lifetime, the Buddha
embodied his doctrines, his persuasive presence was central to the propagation of the
religion. His absence and the lack of a chosen successor would leave a gaping void, a concern
possibly voiced in his pre-mortem interactions with his disciple, Ananda and the sangha. At
this juncture the Buddha appointed Dharma his successor. However in doing so, the Buddha
cleaved apart what had been a powerful conjoined entity – his rupakaya (physical form ) and
his dharmakaya (doctrinal corpus)- the driving force behind his missionary impetus. Even his
attempt to imbue it with the force of his personality, “Anyone who sees the dharma sees the
Buddha” could not match up to the potency of the whole he represented. It lacked the
facileness of what his presence commanded for dharma was esoteric , seen through the eyes
of wisdom, prajnacaksu . Whereas his mortal presence, seen through mamsacaksu -ordinary
eyes of flesh had an essential criticality of its own . In this context the enshrinement of the
relics makes imminent sense – it is an act of perpetuation, of retaining the rupakaya of
Buddha which could “evoke or make real the absent Buddha in nirvana”
A powerful force that leapfrogged the religion onto the global worldstage came in the form of
the patronage of the mauryan emperor Asoka (272-234 BC) . The emperor’s dramatic
conversion to Buddhism and his personal zeal saw the reallocation of the relics across the
expanse of his empire. The emperor was instrumental in creating a dharmalogical ecosystem
where the stupas and edicts on pillars and rock faces worked in unison to evoke both kayas of
the Buddha. The edicts were an imperial concretization of the idea of merit, virtue,
righteousness . His messages in their simplicity and mass appeal, were imbued with the

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power of his personal endorsement . This combination of unprecedented scale and imperial
espousal set the stage for the incorporation of the dharmakaya in the meaning of the stupa .
The redistribution of the relics, not only provided unprecedented visibility, it furthered
contact with local cultures and indigenous cults, encouraging cross-fertilization, absorption
and assimilation of diverse ideas and themes, all of which impacted the construct of the
Stupas. Ashoka’s focus also tweaked the economic model of the sangha and gave another
dimension to its symbiotic relationship with the lay community. It defined a shift from
dependency for subsistence to a large scale contribution towards construction of physical
establishments. This set the stage for a stupa’s ascendance from a funerary emblem to a
popular religious monument.

In its essential construct the stupa consists of a focal earthen mound, bearing relics and an
axial pillar in its recess. The enclosed upper extremity of this central shaft ends in capping
finials which extend upwards and outwards beyond the confines of the dome. The horizonal
boundary of the structure is marked by a railing (vedika) constructed such that it creates a
circumabulatory path (pradakshina path) around the dome.
In analyzing the architectural elements and their symbolism, I will take an outside-in
approach, starting at its outermost bound of the stupa

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 Fig 2: Vedika and Torana Sanchi Stupa 1 ©Kanchan Tuli 2010
The railing (Vedika), the threshold of the stupa encloses the precincts. In its construction, it is
based on wooden porototypes, forming a “net” of pillars and beams . It opens out in four
diametrically placed gateways (Toranas), which, in some instances, are monumental and
elaborately ornate. Symbolically the vedika executes a delineation of sacred space, it is “the
frontier that distinguishes and opposes the two worlds “, the sacred and the profane, “and at
the same time the paradoxical place where those worlds communicate, where passage from
the profane to the sacred world becomes possible” . In this consecration of sacred, ordered
space, there is an emulation of primal creation .The carving out of a space where rta (order)
and vrata (prescribed function) prevailed and the unveiling of the central axis- the fulcrum of
orientation. The four gateways positioned in relation to the four quarters of the universe are
concordant with this cosmicized plan .

Containment finds significance in the vedic corpus, and, antedates it, as is evident from
depictions in Indus valley seals .This decryption at the emblematic level begs an obvious
question. What would compel a heterodox religion to attach itself with conventional
symbolism? The dichotomy is explicable if one views the stupa as a product of its times. A
time when structural aspects were based not on functional, utilitarian foundations but on
deeply spiritual conceptions. The act of creation, as Coomarswamy has famouly said, was an
act of replication.”We must do what the gods did in the beginning. Thus the gods did; thus
men do” . The stupa, in its meaning, is replete with this primordial injunction and its
appropriation reflects fundamental, primal, human motivations.
At another level, this inclusion may have been necessitated by the dynamics of the existing
religious milieu. A rudimentary situation analysis of the moment in time when this fledgling
religion operated, and, when the first stupa was instituted, reveals the case of a relatively new
entrant jostling for space against a dominant ideology. Of an incumbent mythology replete
with cosmological interpretations and paradigmatic creator gods. In this setting, legitimacy
would require equally potent antecedents. What better way to consecrate the remains of the
one, who, like the Vedic god, Indra was born from his mother’s side than to have the sacred
place of his interment evoke the archetypal feat of Indra?

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The vedika enclosure marks off a path (Pradakshina Path) for the ritual of circumambulation.
An important rite, it involved a physical engagement with the stupa and was performed by
entering the precinct through the east gate and walking clockwise. The directional emphasis
related the devotee to the passage of the sun, “the transcendent centre of the universe” ,
“cosmic intelligence” whose light is “intellectual wisdom”. In vedic mythology Indra is
credited with releasing the sun , setting its “wheel in motion” and “making a pathway through
the darkness” . The Buddha, whose birth is likened to the rising of the sun , compares his
abhijana (“superknowledge”) to a rediscovery of ancient wisdom , “ clearing of an ancient
jungle path from the brush that has overgrown and concealed it for generations” – a veritable
pathway, a casting of light on what has been hidden in the darkness. And thence he proceeds
to “turn the wheel of law”. With these inherent parallels, the ritual act performs the important
function of linking the worshipper with the wheel turning Buddha, and the Sun , on a path
that is homologous with the archetypal path .A further instrument to re-emphasize this
symbolism is seen in the alignment of the gateways, which form a cosmological diagram in
the form of a swastika- a metonymical symbol evoking the wheel and the movement of the
light giving sun.
This act, replete with cosmological significance puts the worshipper in harmony with the
cosmos while it also reminds him of the Buddha and his odyssey across several lifetimes to
attain final liberation-transcendental nirvana.

At the centre of the stupa complex is the solid hemispherical dome described variously in
Buddhist texts as garbha, container or alternatively as anda . It bears within itself the seed
(bija)-relic. Symbolically this links the dome to the cosmic womb eg: the vedic hiranyagarbha
(golden womb) which emerges from the primordial waters of chaos . This analogy is explicit
in reliefs at Sanchi and on some early coins where the stupa is shown floating on water .So
deep are the cosmological interlinkages that the mythic womb, the embodiment of life and
prosperity, was said to encompass the riches of the universe. In a ritual enactment of the
myth, the relic caskets are often made of precious metals/stone and routinely suffused with

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precious elements.
In the brahmanical context, the womb represents the creative unity. In the Buddhist context, it
is the enfolder of the seed and signifies the involutional tendency of the spiritual path- the
return to the centre, to unity. “The stupa symbolically designates this centre to which the
seeker directs his life’s pilgrimage”. and it bears within itself the “pivotal presence” of the
wheel turning Buddha . This is significant in the light of inscriptions , which state that the
corporeal remains of the Buddha are “endowed with life” ( “prana sammada”) for it implies
that the dome not only allows the devotee to experience proximity to the Buddha, but also
makes him aware of his involutional unity.

The cosmological theme continues with the axial pillar which represents the world axis . This
pole is symbolic of the link between the human and the divine worlds. It indicates a pathway
of spiritual acscent, an upward movement away from the confines of the physical world , to
the limitless realm. In this sense, the pole is a beacon, a representation of the devotee’s goal,
for in its verticality, one can measure one’s own progress towards the supreme attainment, a
goal triumphantly achieved by the Buddha in nirvana.

The summit of the dome is capped by a smaller railing (harmika) which encloses the
projecting end of central axis. The theme of containment is replicated,creating a second
sacred precinct. The harmika also evokes solar resonances, the unmoving sun atop the world
axis, evoking the Buddha and his enlightenment .The axis is capped by a series of parasols
(chattras) honorific elements that protect relics below in the heart of the mound.

The chattra is a link to another theme closely linked to the Buddha – that of kingship. The
imperial parasol indicates the rank and status accorded to a monarch. The temporal
charkravartin who through the turning of the wheel , subjugates the four quarters and
maintains a paradisical state through the rule of dharma or righteousness. His capital is the
centre of the world , and his grave dome the hub of the earth .
In a parallel, yet, supra-terrestrial identity, the Buddha subjugates the “realm of the spirit”,
“rolls back the veil of ignorance” . He is the upholder of transcendent dharma – the cosmic
sovereign. This analogous symmetry is repeated in events spanning the Buddha’s life and it
finds expression in the honour accorded to the stupa both in terms of worship and the
iconographic template through the overt usage of regal themes .

In analyzing the sculptural adornments on the railings and gateways , I would tend to diasgree
with Susan Huntinton in her statement that the sculptures served a “subsidiary/ secondary”
purpose . They may be locationally on the extremities, the outer bounds of the complex –
however they are at the critical point of inflexion, the marker of the entry into sacred portals.

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Along with the gateways they symbolize a transformative potency -an entry into an ordered
realm, in the presence of the Buddha’s relics, into the complex that is the “essence of
transcendental reality, nirvana” . Their intent and meaning in this context cannot be
secondary.
In my opinion, the imagery, successfully completes the task and intent of the asokan edicts,
which despite their spread and scale, were curtailed by demands of literacy. I link back to the
edicts, as the earliest examples of visual narrative, the reliefs at Bharhut showcase a spirit
similar to that of the edicts- lay precepts and morality, a focus on virtues and meritorious
deeds through the depiction of Jataka tales (49% of the reliefs at Bharhut portray these
stories)

The dual potency of a visually alive medium, and the familiarity of stories would have
created a field of influence that would have ensured maximization of participation and effect.
While one sees an inversion of themes at Sanchi and Amravati , where the depiction of key
episodes from the life of Buddha take centrestage. (At Amravati one also sees the advent of
the anthropomorphic image of the Buddha which had hitherto been totally symbolic)- the role
of the ornate sculptures and decorative motifs remained focussed and goal oriented. With a
rich vocabulary of stories, themes, symbols and narrative modes, the ornate railings and
gateways enriched the experience of the stupa. The ancient sculptor was able to craft eloquent
expressions that served to re-emphasize the credo of Buddhism and helped in propagating the
faith. The sculptures were efficacious means for proselytization , through their vivid narration
of the greatness of Buddha’s quest, the portrayal of virtues, merit and moral excellence, and
their emphasis on the importance of holy pilgrimage and worship.

This art also spelt the democratization of the stupa complex, not only were the narratives
mass in their appeal, their collective commissioning transformed the stupa to a participative,
shared entity. This art stood for “the art of the people, used for the glorification of the
religion” . The stupa became a veritable punyakshetra (a field of spiritual merit) where votive
reliefs of pious devotees could win them karmic merit.

This theme of democratization is also evident in the profusion of images of nagas vriskha
devatas, yakshas and yakshinis . These indicate the assimilatory efforts of the religion which
resulted in an amalgamation of pre-buddhistic folk traditions and authochotonous cults into
its folds. The stupa became a vertitable showpiece for ancient motifs and in turn gets charged
with the symbolism and mythology of these primitive expressions and beliefs. This

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integration powerfully signals the inclusiveness of the religion, the reconciliation of
antagonistic
principles. Its a magical, harmonious union , a force that charges the railings and gateways
with deeper meaning and primeval energy. With the incorporation of the nagas came the life
force of fertility and birth. These guardians of the sustaining, nourishing terrestrial waters
kept a protective watch over the stupa and its devotees. With the yakhas, the soil genii of
fertility, riches and prosperity, the stupa was imbued with notions of abundance, growth and
fertility and these benign, munificent creatures poured their blessings over those who passed
through the gates into the holy enclosure. The pre-aryan cult of tree worship , the pre-
buddhistic goddess gaja laxmi ,among other traditions found a place on the stupa portals. The
emphasis accorded to them demonstrates that they were no less important than the buddhistic
precepts in the scheme of the stupa. They were all “ parts of one and the same vital process” .

The simplistic design of the stupa belies a deep significance that is epitomized in every
element. The architectural fabric links the stupa back to cosmogonic codes and themes of
kingship. In doing so it imbues with a sacrality and symbolism that transcends religious
constructs and links it to the realm of ageless principles. The stupa is an “imago mundi” a
representation of the cosmos on earth. It is the realm of the chakravartin (chakravartikshetra),
albeit a supra-terristrial one . The decorative motifs imbue it with terrestrial life forces – the
potency of nature, of indigenous vitality . It is under the union of this primeval energy and
universal principles that stupa formalizes and executes it basic purpose , and wherein lies its
importance and centrality– that of a “magical structural milieu” which evokes the buddha and
allows the devotee to commune with him in a sacred, ordered, potent, divine world, and chart
his own progress to spiritual salvation.

CIRCUMAMBULATION is a ritual term meaning literally "to walk a circle around" a holy
place, person, or object. Such rituals are related to the widespread significance of the sacred
circle, which is the architectural ground plan and ideational scheme of such monuments as
the stupa, such cities as Banaras and Jerusalem, and such ritual constructions as the medicine
lodges and Sun Dance lodges of the North American Plains Indians. Thus, this topic is related
to that of the sacred circle or the maṇḍala and is its ritual extension. One walks around what
is set apart, circumscribed as charged or sacred; one might even say that circumambulation
sets something apart by circumscribing it with one's own body. It is also to be noted that
circumambulation, as a rite of both centering and bonding, is related in some ways to the
many types of circle dancing such as the Ghost Dance of the Plains Indians, the maypole
dances of the British Isles, and the circular dances and marches of the Shakers; such dance
forms, however, will not be discussed here.plains, it is symbolically going around the holy
structure.
1. It is a railing
2. 2. It is the direction provider of those who circumambulate the stupa.

The Vedic air the railing is the first and original structural circumambulation of the Stupa.
Apart from offering protection to the stupa premises and

Circumambulation is a fundamental rite of orientation, and is often thought of as a human

repetition of the apparent movement of the sun. The Lakota would walk "sunwise" around a
fire or a ritual arena. The sense of this direction as the natural order also appears in Hindu
ritual texts such as the Śatapatha Brāhmaṇa and the Gṛhyasūtras, which speak of the sunwise
movement of ritual performance in rites meant to secure the blessings of the gods. This
sunwise circling is known as pradakṣiṇa, "going to the right." Pradakṣiṇa around the sacred

99
fire or the teacher, and later around the temple, became an act of centering and honoring in
the Hindu tradition.
In Native American and Hindu traditions, as in many others, reversing the direction of
circling was considered a reversal of the natural order and was associated with catastrophe or
death. This circling to the left, contrary to the apparent course of the sun, was
called prasavya in the Hindu tradition and was associated with the left hand and with rites for
the dead, for the ancestors, and for the nāga s, or serpents. Anticipating or recovering from
disasters, the Lakota circle counterclockwise after the fashion of the "thunder beings," whose
movement, unlike that of the sun, is antinatural. In sixteenth-century England this turning in
an unnatural direction came to be called widdershins and was associated with danger, magic,
and witches.

In the Hindu tradition today, pradakṣiṇa is simultaneously an act of taking a place, deity, or
person as one's center and of honoring that center, keeping it ever on the side of the
auspicious right hand. The most concise pradakṣiṇa honoring the sacred place on which one
stands, is simply to turn all the way around in place, as pilgrims do at the very southern tip of
India at Kanyā Kumārī. The most extensive is the pradakṣiṇa of the entire subcontinent of
India, from the north at Badrināth, to the east at Purī, to the south at Rāmeśvaram, to the west
at Dvārakā (Dwarka), and back to the north again. One of India's great rivers, the Narmadā of
central India, has a traditional circumambulation in which pilgrims, beginning wherever they
wish, walk its entire length of 801 miles from Amarakanṭaka to the Bay of Cambay and back
again. Mountains too are circumambulated, as in the well-known routes around Kailāsa in the
Himalayan north, Arunācala in the Tamil country of the south, and Kamadgiri and
Govardhan in the northern sanctums of Rāma and Kṛṣṇa, respectively. Many of India's sacred
cities also have pradakṣiṇa routes, the best known being the Pañcakrośī pradakṣiṇa of the
city of Banaras (modern-day Varanasi). This sacred circuit of the city takes pilgrims five days
to perform, passing 108 shrines along the way and circumscribing with their footsteps the
perimeter of the sacred zone of the city where simply to die is to attain mokṣa ("liberation").

More common, however, is simply the pradakṣiṇa of the sanctum sanctorum,

the garbhagṛha, in a Hindu temple. Depending upon the size of the temple, the pilgrim will
circumambulate either the entire complex or merely the inner courts before approaching the
deity for darśana. There may be several circumambulatories, which usually will include their
own circuit of ancillary shrines. In some popular temples, especially in the North, this is a
very "close" circumambulation, with the devout running their hands along the temple walls,
frequently stopping to touch the place at the back of the temple nearest the image of the
divine inside. In the South, however, especially in Kerala and Karnātaka, there are often
circumambulatory markers, outside of which the honorific circuit must be made, at a
respectful distance of several feet from the temple itself.

The circumambulation of a center also formed a strong part of the early Buddhist tradition of
worship, especially the circling of the stupa with its hemispherical dome, originally said to
house a relic of the Buddha. The dome of the stupa, called the aṇḍa ("egg"), was said to have
cosmic significance as the dome of heaven: the smaller superstructure on top was Mount
Meru, and the surmounting umbrellas signaled the Buddha's world-kingship. The entire stupa
was surrounded by a fence, with gates in the four principal directions. Between the fence and
the aṇḍa was a pradakṣiṇapatha, a circumambulatory path. Very often, as in the case of the
stupa of Amaravati in the Andhra area of India, there was an upper circumambulatory of
the aṇḍa itself, with its own enclosing rail. The famous stupa of Borobudur in Java was built

100
in nine levels, with a circumambulatory around each of the lower six levels that took the
pilgrim not only around the stupa but also past bas-reliefs depicting the earthly life, the
previous lives, and the instructive deeds of the Buddha.

The circling of the stupa, called the chedi in modern Thailand, continues as a common part of
festival rituals. In the evening during the Thai celebration of Viśākha Pūjā (the day of the
Buddha's birth, enlightenment, and death) monks and laity circle the chedi three times,
holding lighted candles. Other festival days are marked with a similar threefold
circumambulation.

The divine also circumambulates, reaffirming the sacred claim upon the territory
circumscribed by the route. In Sri Lanka, for example, the annual procession of the relic from
the Temple of the Tooth takes a circumambulatory route through the city of Kandy. In South
India, such annual circuits of the gods are common. During the Chittarai festival in Madurai,
for example, when the goddess Mīnākṣī moves in her giant chariot through the concentric
rectangular circumambulatory streets of the city, she reclaims the four directions as her own.

In the ancient Hebrew tradition, the story of Joshua's siege of Jericho displays the power of
the Lord in encircling the city. For six days Joshua's army, led by the ark of the covenant and
seven priests with seven trumpets of rams' horns, made one circuit a day around the city; on
the seventh day they made seven circuits and the city wall fell (Jos. 6). In the later tradition,
circumambulatory circuits (haqqafot ) are performed both to mark holy ground and, it would
seem, to remember the power of the Lord that was with the children of Israel in the siege of
Jericho.

The most festive haqqafot take place during the Feast of Booths, Sukkot, when those present
make seven ceremonial circuits carrying the festal bouquet of willow branches and lemons
around the altar in the synagogue. In the time of Philo Judaeus the procession, like that of
Joshua, took place once a day for six days and seven times on the seventh. At Simḥat
Torah, haqqafot are performed with the scrolls of the Torah being carried around the
synagogue.

SEE MORE

Christian worship has tended to focus the attention of the worshiper directionally toward the
east or vertically toward the vaulting heavens, rather than inward toward an encompassed
center. Even so, Christian architecture displays a tension between the center, which can be
circumambulated, and the "transcendent" or the "east," which cannot. In the Middle Ages,
churches were built with ambulatories to facilitate the movement of pilgrims through the
church and around the altar, beneath which or near which a relic was enshrined.
Circumambulation is an important part of pilgrimages, such as that of Saint Patrick's
Purgatory on an islet in Lough Derg in Ireland, where pilgrims walk around the basilica four
times, saying seven decades of the rosary beads. In the Christian tradition, as in others as
well, circumambulation is often part of rites of consecration. For instance, when the new
basilica of Our Lady of Guadalupe in Mexico City was consecrated in 1976, the consecrating
procession circled the building sprinking it with sanctified water, anointing it with holy oil,
and fumigating it with incense.

101
The Muslim ḥājj has the circumambulation (ṭawāf) of the Kaʿbah as one of its central rites.
The original meaning of ḥājj is "to describe a circle," and this circling of the Kaʿbah is a pre-
Islamic rite, said to have been done naked, a practice that was prohibited by the Prophet. Here
the circles are made with the left side, said to be the side of the heart facing toward the sacred
Kaʿbah. The ṭawāf consists of seven circuits of the Kaʿbah. The full pilgrimage contains
three ṭawāfs: the initial ṭawāf on arrival, which is part of the ordinary ʾumrah, or lesser
pilgrimages; a ṭawāf on return from the journey to Arafat; and a farewell ṭawāf before
leaving.

The ṭawāf is interpreted in a spiritual way by theologians such as al-Ghazālī, who

describes ṭawāf as a form of prayer. Ṭawāf is not merely the circling of the body around the
Kaʿbah but the circling of the heart around God. In doing ṭawāf, the faithful are like the
angels circling the throne of God. Some Sūfīs were believed to have reached such a high peak
that the Kaʿbah came to circumambulate them, and not they the Kaʿbah.

In many traditions, circumambulation is associated not only with places of holiness or of

worship, but also with life-cycle rites. Marriage rites often involve circling, since a wedding
is preeminently a rite of bonding and union. In some traditional Jewish communities, the
bride makes either three or seven haqqafot around the groom at the wedding. The circling
establishes a common world for the couple. Roman weddings, for instance, called for the
circling of the bride and groom around the family altar. In the Agni Pradakṣiṇa rite of the
Hindu marriage, the bride follows the groom three times around the sacred fire, her sari tied
to his dhoti. The rite immediately precedes the "seven steps," the legal culmination of the
marriage ceremony. Interestingly, this rite repeats the groom's three circuits around the sacred
fire during his initiation rite, the Upanayana, just before he received the sacred Sāvitrī mantra
from the gurū and thus established the primary bond of his years of education.

In addition to being a rite of honoring, centering, and bonding, circumambulation also can set
apart what is circumscribed. This is especially the case for the "dangerous holy," that is, the
dead. Both the dead and places associated with the dead are circumambulated, sometimes
counterclockwise, as a protective or apotropaic rite to keep the spheres of the living and dead
apart.

In the Sephardic and Hasidic traditions of Judaism, seven haqqafot are made around a
cemetery prior to burial. It has also been the custom in Ireland, Holland, Germany, and
elsewhere in northern Europe to carry the casket in procession three times, sunwise, around
the cemetery before burial. According to the Mahāparinirvāṇa Sūtra, five hundred of the
Buddha's disciples circled his body before his cremation pyre was lit. The Hindu cremation
rite today begins as the chief mourner, usually the eldest son, circles the pyre four times
counterclockwise, carrying the flaming bundle of sacred kuśa grass and touching the body
symbolically with each round, finally lighting the pyre at the head. In Buddhist Thailand as
well the body is circumambulated three times before the cremation. In the case of a king or
member of the royal family, a special palace-mountain pavilion called the phra meru is built
for the cremation. On arrival, the body is borne around the phra meru three
times, uttaravatta, in a "left-hand direction," before being placed upon the elaborate pyre.
While the threefold circumambulation in the Buddhist tradition ordinarily marks reverence
for the Buddha, the Dharma, and the Samgha, here it is said to remind the living of the three
wearisome worlds of saṃsāra— that of earth, of heaven, and of hell.

Sacred space and symbolic form at Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho (India)

102
by Dr. Cristin McKnight Sethi .
Ideal female beauty

Sculpture of a woman removing a thorn from her foot, northwest side exterior wall,
Lakshmana temple, Khajuraho, Chhatarpur District, Madhya Pradesh, India, dedicated 954
C.E. (image source)
Sculpture of a woman removing a thorn from her foot, northwest side exterior wall,
Lakshmana temple, Khajuraho, Chhatarpur District, Madhya Pradesh, India, dedicated 954
C.E. (image source)

103
Look closely at the image to the left. Imagine an elegant woman walks barefoot along a path
accompanied by her attendant. She steps on a thorn and turns—adeptly bending her left leg,
twisting her body, and arching her back—to point out the thorn and ask her attendant’s help
in removing it. As she turns the viewer sees her face: it is round like the full moon with a
slender nose, plump lips, arched eyebrows, and eyes shaped like lotus petals. While her right
hand points to the thorn in her foot, her left hand raises in a gesture of reassurance. Images of
beautiful women like this one from the northwest exterior wall of the Lakshmana Temple at
Khajuraho in India have captivated viewers for centuries. Depicting idealized female beauty
was important for temple architecture and considered auspicious, even protective. Texts
written for temple builders describe different “types” of women to include within a temple’s
sculptural program, and emphasize their roles as symbols of fertility, growth, and prosperity.
Additionally, images of loving couples known as mithuna (literally “the state of being a
couple”) appear on the Lakshmana temple as symbols of divine union and moksha, the final
release from samsara (the cycle of death and rebirth).[1] The temples at Khajuraho, including
the Lakshmana temple, have become famous for these amorous images—some of which
graphically depict figures engaged in sexual intercourse. These erotic images were not
intended to be titillating or provocative, but instead served ritual and symbolic function
significant to the builders, patrons, and devotees of these captivating structures.[2]

Lakshmana temple, Khajuraho, Chhatarpur District, Madhya Pradesh, India, dedicated 954
C.E. (Chandella period), sandstone (photo: Christopher Voitus, CC BY-SA 3.0)
Chandella rule at Khajuraho
The Lakshmana temple was the first of several temples built by the Chandella kings in their
newly-created capital of Khajuraho. Between the 10th and 13th centuries, the Chandellas
patronized artists, poets, and performers, and built irrigation systems, palaces, and numerous

104
temples out of sandstone. At one time over 80 temples existed at this site, including several
Hindu temples dedicated to the gods Shiva, Vishnu, and Surya.[3] There were also temples
built to honor the divine teachers of Jainism (an ancient Indian religion). Approximately 30
temples remain at Khajuraho today. The original patron of the Lakshmana temple was
a leader of the Chandella clan, Yashovarman, who gained control over territories in the
Bundelkhand region of central India that was once part of the larger Pratihara Dynasty.
Yashovarman sought to build a temple to legitimize his rule over these territories, though he
died before it was finished. His son Dhanga completed the work and dedicated the temple in
954 C.E.

Nagara style architecture

The central deity at the Lakshmana temple is an image of Vishnu in his three-headed form
known as Vaikuntha[4] who sits inside the temple’s inner womb chamber also known
as garba griha (above)—an architectural feature at the heart of all Hindu temples regardless
of size or location. The womb chamber is the symbolic and physical core of the temple’s
shrine. It is dark, windowless, and designed for intimate, individualized worship of the divine
—quite different from large congregational worshipping spaces that characterize many
Christian churches and Muslim mosques.

The Lakshmana Temple is an excellent example of Nagara style Hindu temple architecture.
[5] In its most basic form, a Nagara temple consists of a shrine known as vimana (essentially
the shell of the womb chamber) and a flat-roofed entry porch known as mandapa. The shrine
of Nagara temples include a base platform and a large superstructure known
as sikhara (meaning mountain peak), which viewers can see from a distance.[6] The
Lakshmana temple’s superstructure appear like the many rising peaks of a mountain range.

105
Plan of Lakshmana temple

Approaching the divine

Devotees approach the Lakshamana temple from the east and walk around its entirety—an
activity known as circumambulation. They begin walking along the large plinth of the
temple’s base, moving in a clockwise direction starting from the left of the stairs. Sculpted
friezes along the plinth depict images of daily life, love, and war and many recall historical
events of the Chandella period.

106
Section of a narrative frieze encircling the temple at the level of the plinth, Lakshmana
temple, Khajuraho, Chhatarpur District, Madhya Pradesh, India, dedicated 954 (photo:
Sheep”R”Us, CC BY-NC-ND 2.0) PIC AT RIGHT Ganesha in niche, exterior mandapa wall,
south side, Lakshmana temple, Khajuraho, Chhatarpur District, Madhya Pradesh, India,
dedicated 954 (photo: Manuel Menal, CC BY-SA 2.0)

Devotees then climb the stairs of the plinth, and encounter another set of images,
including deities sculpted within niches on the exterior wall of the temple (view in Google
Street View). In one niche (left) the elephant-headed Ganesha appears. His presence suggests
that devotees are moving in the correct direction for circumambulation, as Ganesha is a god
typically worshipped at the start of things. Other sculpted forms appear nearby in lively,
active postures: swaying hips, bent arms, and tilted heads which create a dramatic “triple-
bend” contrapposto pose, all carved in deep relief emphasizing their three-dimensionality. It
is here —specifically on the exterior juncture wall between the vimana and the mandapa (see
diagram above)—where devotees encounter erotic images of couples embraced in sexual
union (see image below and here on Google Street View). This place of architectural juncture
serves a symbolic function as the joining of the vimana and mandapa, accentuated by the
depiction of “joined” couples. Four smaller, subsidiary shrines sit at each corner of the plinth.
These shrines appear like miniature temples with their own vimanas, sikharas,__mandapas,
and womb chambers with images of deities, originally other forms or avatars of Vishnu.
Following circumambulation of the exterior of the temple, devotees encounter
three mandapas, which prepare them for entering the vimana. Each mandapa has a
pyramidal-shaped roof that increases in size as devotees move from east to west.

107
Figural groupings on the temple exterior including Shiva, Mithuna, and erotic couples,
Lakshmana temple, Khajuraho, Chhatarpur District, Madhya Pradesh, India, dedicated 954
(photo: Antoine Taveneaux, CC BY-SA 3.0). View this on Goole Street View.
Figural groupings on the temple exterior including Shiva, Mithuna, and erotic couples,
Lakshmana temple, Khajuraho, Chhatarpur District, Madhya Pradesh, India, dedicated 954
(photo: Antoine Taveneaux, CC BY-SA 3.0). View this on Goole Street View.
Once devotees pass through the third and final mandapa they find an enclosed passage along
the wall of the shrine, allowing them to circumambulate this sacred structure in a clockwise
direction. The act of circumambulation, of moving around the various components of the
temple, allow devotees to physically experience this sacred space and with it the body of the
divine.

108
Entrance to the Mandapa, Lakshmana Temple, Khajuraho, Chhatarpur District, Madhya
Pradesh, India, dedicated 954 (photo: Antoine Taveneaux, CC BY-SA 3.0)

Notes:
[1] Mithuna figures appear on numerous Hindu temples and Buddhist monastic sites
throughout South Asia from as early as the 1st century C.E.
[2] Some scholars suggest that these erotic images may be connected to Kapalika tantric
practices prevalent at Khajuraho during Chandella rule. These practices included drinking
wine, eating flesh, human sacrifice, using human skulls as drinking vessels, and sexual union,
particularly with females who were given central importance (as the seat of the divine). The
idea was that by indulging in the bodily and material world, a practitioner was able to
overcome the temptations of the senses. However, these esoteric practices were generally
looked down upon by others in South Asian society and accordingly very often were done in
secrecy, which raises questions about the logic of including Kapalika-related images on the
exterior of a temple for all to see.
[3] There is also at least one temple at Khajuraho, the Chausath Yogini Temple, dedicated to
the Hindu Goddess Durga and 64 ("chausath") of her female attendants known as yoginis. It
was built by a previous dynasty who ruled in the area before the Chandella kings rose to
power.
[4] The original Vaikuntha at Lakshmana temple was itself politically significant:
Yashovarman took it from the Pratihara overlord of the region. Susan Huntington indicates
that the stone image currently on view at Lakshmana temple, while indeed a form of
Vaikuntha, is not in fact the original (metal) image which Yashovarman appropriated from
the Pratihara ruler. Appropriating another ruler’s family deity as a political maneuver was a
widespread practice throughout South Asia. For more on this practice, see the work of
Finbarr B. Flood, Objects of Translation: Material Culture and Medieval ‘Hindu-Muslim’
109
Encounter (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2009), particularly Chapter 4. A similar
Vaikuntha image now appears in the central shrine of the Lakshmana temple and is notable
for its depiction of the deity’s three heads with a human face at the front (east), a lion’s face
on the left (south), and a boar’s face on the right (north)—the latter two of which are now
badly damaged. An implied, though not visible fourth face is that of a demon’s head at the
rear of the image (west-facing) which has led some scholars to identify this form as
Chaturmurti or four-faced.
[5] In general, there are two main styles of Hindu temple architecture: the Nagara style,
which dominates temples from the northern regions of India, and the Dravida style, which
appears more often in the South.
[6] The base platform is sometimes known as pitha, meaning “seat.” A flattened bulb-shaped
topper known as amalaka appears at the top of the superstructure or sikhara. The amalaka is
named after the local amla fruit and is symbolic of abundance and growth.

Bibliography

Heiler, Friedrich. Erscheinungsformen und Wesen der Religion. Stuttgart, 1961.

Pandey, Raj Bali. Hindu Saṁśkāras. 2d rev. ed. Delhi, 1969. A description of the
major saṃskāra s, or sacraments from birth to death of the Hindu Brahmanical tradition.
Turner, Victor, and Edith Turner. Image and Pilgrimage in Christian Culture. New York,
1978. An anthropological study of Christian pilgrimages, looking at both Mexican and Irish
pilgrimages as well as Marian pilgrimages in other countries.
Von Grunebaum, G. E. Muhammadan Festivals. New York, 1951. A discussion of Muslim
worship, including the rites of the pilgrimage to Mecca, the ḥājj.
Wells, Kenneth E. Thai Buddhism: Its Rites and Activities (1939). Reprint, Bangkok, 1960. A
study of daily, weekly, and yearly Buddhist rites and festivals in Thailand, with discussions
of major life crisis rites such as ordination to the monastic order and funerals.
New Sources
Deegan, Chris. "The Narmada: Circumambulation of a Sacred Landscape." In Hinduism and
Ecology: The Intersection of Earth, Sky, and Water, edited by Christopher Key Chapple and
Mary Evelyn Tucker, pp. 389–400. Cambridge, U.K., 2000.
Nakamura, Susumu. "Pradakshiṇā, A Buddhist Form of Obeisance." In Semitic and Oriental
Studies: A Volume Presented to William Popper on the Occasion of His Seventy-Fifth
Birthday, edited by Walter J. Fischel, pp. 345–354. Berkeley, 1951.
Peters, Francis. The Hajj: The Muslim Pilgrimage to Mecca and the Holy Places. Princeton,
1994.
Sudhi, Padma. "An Encyclopaedic Study on Circumambulation." Annals of the Bhandarkar
Oriental Research Institute 65, nos. 1–4 (1984): 205–226.
Diana L. Eck (1987)

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© Dr. Uday Dokras-

DEAN
INDO NORDIC AUTHORS’ COLLECTIVE
International Institute of Historiography
B.Sc., B.A. (managerial economics) LL.B. Nagpur University, INDIA
Graduate Studies, Queen’s University,Kingston, CANADA
Graduate Diploma in Law & PhD, Stockholm University, SWEDEN
Vedic Architecture, Vaastu and Astrology Consultant
 Holder of the 8
WORLD RECORDS
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 780- BOOKS & 2500 RESEARCH PAPERS- in academia.edu & Researchgate.in .3 million
Readers as on 1 June, 2024.

Dr. Uday Dokras, a leading historiographer, is Ranked as #1 in the world in Eight categories for
having written the highest number of books and research papers on-Vedic Architecture, Dhamma,
(including Borobudur Buddhism), Angkor Wat (Vrah Vishnuloka), Shivagriha at Prambanan, Design
elements of he ancient Kingdoms of Dvaravatim,Vandan in Indo China and Hindu temples. He also
has the #1bb Rank in the world for fastest writing- having written 1500 articles and Books in 17
months He is consultant to numerous Projects involving Vaastu Shastra and Beneficial and applied
Vedic Astrology

Earlier in his career he was a senior management professional in HR domain during his career, Group
Vice -President of MZI Group in New Delhi , anchored Human Relations in Go Air ( Go Airlines
India Pvt Ltd-Mumbai) , Hotel Holiday Inn; and a Large Hospital and 5 Medical Colleges- amongst
other corporate entities. Resident of Sweden for 12 years, where he studied and worked, he anchored
HR in Stadbolaget RENIA, SSSB.

He has studied in Nagpur for B. Sc. B.A. (Economics) and LLB.

He has done his Graduate Studies from Canada at the Queen's University, Kingston
He has a PhD, Stockholm University, Sweden.
Apart from that he has done a Management Training Program in Singapore.
A scholar of the Swedish Institute for 5 years, he has been an Edvard Cassel Fund and Wineroth Fund
Awardee.

In 1984 he was involved with the Comparative Labor Law Project of the University of California, Los
Angeles, U.S.A. He was also visiting lecturer there. In 1985 he was invited by the President of
Seychelles to do a study of the efficacy of the labor laws of Seychelles.

Author of thousands of research papers and almost 640 + books, his brief life sketch is part of the
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His books adorn many International Libraries and the US Library of Congress has awarded him a
copyright. A prolific writer and decipherer of ancient mysteries. Is currently Consultant in Vedic
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of the International Institute of Historiography, Tampare , FINLAND.
Dr Dokras has his family in Gurugram, India-Australia and New Jersey, USA.

2700 Research Papers and 780 BOOKS written by DR UDAY DOKRAS

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Referred by more than 200+ researchers in papers, books and theses .
Contributor to various magazines and literary Fora.

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Maximum sociocultural research papers uploaded by an individual on a

single website INDIA BOOK of RECORDS
[email protected]

Award and honor Bahujan Hitai Sangh award for writing highest
number of books and Research on BOROBUDUR

https://www.academia.edu/110112500/
Bahujan_Hitai_Sangh_Fetes_dr_Uday_for_highest_number_of_Books_an
d_Research_papers_written_on_BOROBUDUR

The Jain Foundation presented the Jaina Achiever Trophy to Dr Uday

Dokras for his prolific writings on historiography of Jainism and Jain
religious structures and contributing erudite articles to numerous Jain
Journals such as Nagabharana: Recent Trends in Jainism Studies and
SWASTIKA: Epigraphy, Numismatics, Religion and Philosophy
https://www.academia.edu/110112203/
Jaina_award_to_Dr_Uday_Dokras
Economic Times (20 July 2022) mentions and acknowledges
contribution of Dr. Uday to design elements of New Parliament House
of India vis-a-vis Dwarpals or door guardians.
https://www.academia.edu/109139672/
Design_components_of_the_new_Parliament_complex_of_INDIA_inspire
d_by_the_author_Dr_Uday_Dokras_work
Fastest Writing in Religion- 1500 Papers & Books on Religion
from 26 -5- 2023 to 1-10-2024- 17 Months

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 https://
drive.google.com/file/d/1rr86sEWr4SVN4pdIMHkS-lqmKF6jl5nR/view?usp=sharing

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 From the Newspaper Times of India March 24, 2018

Iceland & Sweden- both countries use the English Text book
SPOTLIGHT-one of the lessons in which is about Dr Uday Dokras
https://mms.is/sites/mms.is/files/atoms/files/
7057_spotlight_8_nem.pdf (page 44)

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Prof. S.Deshpande,Past President of the Indian Institute of
Architects, New Delhi INDIA releasing the book of Dr Dokras
HINDU TEMPLES on the web in CARONA times ( May 2020)

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AMONGST the Great Au thors of Borobudur

Search Borobudur and come across a Plethora of my writings

Red arrows

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