Water Quality
Water Quality
Definition of water quality????????
It is a measure of condition of water based on the
requirements
The water required for public water
supply should be potable i.e., fit
for drinking purposes and
Preference?
wholesome, i.e., it may not be
chemically pure but does not
contain anything harmful to human
body
2
Factors affecting water quality????
→ Natural Factors
Geology of the Area
Climate & Weather Conditions
Hydrology & Flow Conditions
Natural Disasters
→ Anthropogenic (Human-Induced) Factors
Industrial Discharges
Agricultural Activities
Sewage & Wastewater Discharges
Urbanization & Land Use Changes
Mining Activities
Deforestation & Soil Erosion
3
Impurities in Water
→ Physical Impurities
→ Chemical Impurities
→ Biological Impurities
4
Physical Impurities
The physical impurities are those impurities which affect the
physical characteristics of water such as colour, odour, taste
and turbidity.
5
Chemical Impurities
The Chemical impurities are those impurities which affect the
Chemical characteristics of water such as pH, hardness,
chlorides, etc……
Biological Impurities
The biological impurities are those impurities which affect the
bacteriological characteristics of water such as pathogens…
6
Water Quality Analysis
→ Physical Analysis
➢ Colour
➢ Taste and Odor
➢ Turbidity
➢ Temperature
7
(Cont…)
❖ Colour
❑ Colour in water is the result of dissolved extracts from metals in
rocks and soil, from organic matter in soil and plants, and
occasionally from industrial by-products.
❑ Colour in water is expressed in TCU (True colour unit).
❑ Colour of the water should be monitored regularly because of the
following reasons:
• Coloured water is objectionable for domestic use.
• Colour causing compounds react with chlorine to produce bad
taste and odour.
8
Water Quality Analysis
Measurement of colour
Visual method
•In this
Due method, the
to presence of colour
natural of the water
metallic sample
ions (iron and can be determined
manganese), by
peat, weeds,
comparing it with
and industrial the colour
discharge comparison slides or tubes.
(dyes).
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0 4.5 5.0 5.5 6.0 6.5 7.0 7.5 8.0
Water sample
Colour comparison tubes (Nessler’s tubes) with
series ranging from 0–70 TCU. 9
(Cont…)
Spectrophotometer
❑ Laboratory analysis of coloured water samples can be done using
spectrophotometer.
❑ Spectrophotometer with an operating wavelength range of 400-700
nm can be used.
10
(Cont…)
Portable spectrophotometer
❑ Portable spectrophotometer can be used for field measurements.
Portable spectrophotometer 11
(Cont…)
❖ Taste and odour
❑ Taste and odour are caused by dissolved gases like hydrogen
sulphide and methane.
❑ Algae secretes oily substances that may result in bad taste and
odour.
❑ Intensity of taste and odour is measured in threshold odour number
(TON).
𝐀+𝐁
TON =
𝑨
Where,
A is the volume of odorous water in ml
B is the volume of odour free water mixed in ml
12
(Cont…)
❖ Turbidity
❑ Suspended (> 1µm) and colloidal (1 to 10-3 µm) particles, such as clay,
silt, finely divided organic and inorganic matter, and plankton and
other microscopic organisms, causes turbidity in water.
❑ Turbidity of water samples is expressed in NTU. (Nephelometric
Turbidity Unit)
❑ Turbidity is an important consideration in public water supply for
three main reasons:
• It makes water aesthetically displeasing.
• Increases load on filter beds.
• It reduces disinfection efficiency.
13
(Cont…)
Measurement of turbidity
Nephelometer
❑ This method works by comparing the intensity of light scattered by
the sample with the intensity of light scattered by a standard
reference suspension under similar conditions.
❑ Nephelometer is calibrated using stock solutions (0.02 NTU, 40
NTU, 4000 NTU) before actual sample is measured.
Standard solutions Nephelometer Water samples
14
(Cont…)
Digital turbidity meter
❑ It can be conveniently used for field measurements. The turbidity
measurement range is 0-200 NTU.
Digital turbidity meter 15
(Cont…)
Drinking water specifications for physical water quality parameters
Permissible limit in the
Requirement
Parameter absence of alternate
(Acceptable limit)
source
Turbidity (NTU unit) 1 5
Colour (Hazen units) 5 15
Taste Agreeable Agreeable
Odour Agreeable Agreeable
TON < 3 (For domestic water supply)
Source: IS 10500 : 2012
16
Objectives
The range of size of colloidal particles is
(a) 1 µm - 100 µm
(b) 1 µm - 10⁻² µm
(c) 1 µm - 10⁻³ µm
(d) 1 µm - 1000 µm
Which of the following methods is used to determine colour in wastewater?
(a) ADMI method
(b) Pt-Co method
(c) Threshold scale method
(d) JTU method
What is the maximum permissible threshold odour number for a domestic water
supply source?
(a) 1
(b) 3
(c) 7
(d) 10
17
Objectives
A 13 ml sample of treated water requires 208 ml of odour
free distilled water to reduce odour to a level that is just
perceptible. What is the Threshold odour number for
water sample.
(a) 17
(b) 16
(c) 15
(d) 18
18
Chemical water quality parameters
Chemical water quality parameter are as follows:
Total Solids
Alkalinity
Hardness
Nitrogen Compounds
Chloride
Dissolved Oxygen
pH
19
(Cont…)
❖ Solids
❑ Solids in water is due to the presence of the following:
• Inorganic particles like silt, clay etc.
• Organic particles like plant fibres, algae, etc.
• Immiscible solids like oil, grease etc.
❑ The possible effects of solids in water are as follows:
• It gives water a muddy appearance.
• It provide adsorption sites for chemical and biological agents.
• It leads to incrustation in pipes.
20
(Cont…)
Measurement of solids
Switch on the balance
Switch on Note down the
the balance initial dry weight
Note down the of the crucible
initial dry weight of
the crucible
Take the filter paper
Place the and place it on the
crucible Filter 50 mL of
evaporating dish
inside the field water sample
Take 20 mL of using filter paper
oven at
water sample in
103 oC
the crucible
Place the
evaporating
dish inside the Cool it to room
oven at 103 oC temperature in
Cool it to room
desiccator
temperature in
desiccator
Note down the Note down the final dry
final dry weight weight of the filter paper
of the crucible
Total solids (TS) Total suspended solids (TSS) 21
(Cont…)
Switch on the Note down the Portable TDS meter
balance initial dry weight of
the crucible
❑ It is best suited for filed
measurements.
Take 20 mL of
water sample in
the crucible Filter 50 mL of
field water
sample using
filter paper
Place the
crucible
inside the
Cool it to room
oven at
temperature in
103 oC
desiccator
Note down the
final dry weight
of the crucible
Total dissolved solids (TDS) Portable TDS meter
22
(Cont…)
❖ pH
❑ A pH is a measure to indicate the acidity or alkalinity of the water
sample. The range goes from 0 – 14.
pH = − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [ 𝐇 + ]
pOH = − 𝐥𝐨𝐠 [ 𝐎𝐇 − ]
pH + pOH = 14
Measurement of pH
pH scale
The pH scale measures the acidity or basicity of a solution. The pH
scale ranges from 0 to 14. A pH of 7 is neutral. A pH less than 7 is
acidic. A pH greater than 7 is basic.
23
(Cont…)
Measurement of pH
pH indicator paper
pH strips with pH scale
24
(Cont…)
Potentiometer pH meter
❑ A potentiometer with calomel electrode ❑ It is best suited for filed
can be used for pH measurement. measurements.
❑ Buffer solutions having pH of 7, 4.01,
1.68, 10.01 can be used for calibration.
Buffer solution for
calibration
Potentiometer with calomel electrode Portable pH meter 25
(Cont…)
Example
Q1. Two samples of water, A and B, have pH values of
3.6 and 6.6 respectively. How many times is sample A
more acidic than sample B? (Ans: 1000)
Q2. In a water treatment plant the pH values of incoming
and outgoing waters are 7.3 and 8.5 respectively.
Assuming a linear variation of pH with time, determine
the average pH value of water. (Ans: 7.574)
26
(Cont…)
❖ Alkalinity
❑ The alkalinity of water is its capacity to neutralize a standard
solution of acid.
❑ Major constituents of alkalinity are:
• 𝐂𝐎𝟐−
𝟑 : Carbonate alkalinity
• 𝐇𝐂𝐎− 𝟑 : Bi-carbonate alkalinity
• 𝐎𝐇 − : Caustic alkalinity
❑ Alkalinity is expressed in terms of mg/L as CaCO3
❑ The possible effects of alkalinity are as follows:
• Alkalinity adds bitter taste to water.
• It reacts with certain cations and forms precipitate.
• It can cause fouling of pipes and other appurtenances.
27
(Cont…)
Measurement of alkalinity
Titration Pipette out 100 mL Add 2 drops of
phenolphthalein
of the field sample
❑ Alkalinity measurements are done indicator
by titrating the water with an acid,
thereby determining the hydrogen
equivalent of alkalinity.
Continue the
titration till the Fill the burette with
colour changes sulphuric acid
to colourless
Continue the Continue the
titration with titration till
sulphuric acid the colour
changes to
red
ml of titrant used Add 2 drops of methyl Calculate the
orange indicator alkalinity of the
sample 28
(Cont…) Measurement of alkalinity
Determination of alkalinity
29
(Cont…)
Example 1
Consider Normality of H2SO4 = 0.02N
Example 2
Determine the total and individual alkalinity from the following laboratory record.
• Strength of titrant: N/40
• Volume of sample: 50 ml
• Phenolphthalein end point: 5.8 ml
• Methyl orange end point: 13.5 ml
Also, estimate the pH value of the sample.
30
(Cont…)
❖ Hardness
❑ It is defined as ability of the water to destroy the surfactant
property of the soap.
❑ The hardness of water is caused by the presence of carbonates,
bicarbonates, sulphates, chlorides and nitrates of calcium and
magnesium
Types of hardness
Carbonate Hardness Non-carbonate Hardness
• Carbonate hardness is • Non-Carbonate hardness is
temporary in nature. permanent in nature.
• It can be removed by boiling • It cannot be removed by boiling
31
(Cont…)
❖ Hardness
❑ Possible effects of hardwater includes:
• Hardwater leaves stains, causes incrustation in pipes and
fouling of appurtenances.
• It reduces foam formation with soap and increases its
consumption.
Total Hardness = Carbonate Hardness + Non-Carbonate Hardness
32
(Cont…)
Incrustations in pipe fittings Curdy precipitate (soap scum)
and appurtenances formed by hard water and soap
33
(Cont…)
34
(Cont…)
Measurement of hardness
Titration Pipette out 20 mL
of the field sample
❑ Hardness is water sample can Add 2 mL of
ammonia buffer
be measured by titrating the
water with EDTA.
❑ EDTA:
Ethylene diaminetetracetic acid
Fill the burette Add 2 drops of
with EDTA EBT indicator
For drinking water, the total hardness wine-red color
Continue the
should be less than 200 mg/l. titration till the
colour changes to
Titrate the
steel blue
contents against
EDTA solution
Calculate
the total
hardness
35
(Cont…)
Example 1
36
(Cont…)
Example 2
two
37
Dissolved oxygen (DO)
❖ Dissolved oxygen (DO)
❑ Determination of dissolved oxygen in raw water is important and
can be related to the contamination of water with the organic
matter.
❑ DO is also important in precipitation and dissolution of inorganic
substances in water.
❑ The solubility of atmospheric oxygen in fresh water ranges from
14.6 mg/L at 0°C to about 7.0 mg/L at 35°C under normal
atmospheric pressure.
Measurement of dissolved oxygen
DO level of water sample can be measured by following methods:
• Modified Winkler’s method
• Membrane electrode method
38
(Cont…)
Titration
Modified Winkler’s method Fill the field Add 2 mL of Add 2 mL of
sample in manganese alkali-iodide-
BOD bottle sulphate azide reagent
Add 2 mL of Allow the
concentrated sulfuric precipitate to
acid via a pipette settle down
Mix the
content
thoroughly
White Precipitate
Invert the Sample for 8 hrs in
bottle to mix a cool dark place
the contents
Add 201 mL of
this solution
to a 500 mL
conical flask
Continue
titration until Add 2 mL of
sample is starch to the
Brown Precipitate colourless conical flask
Calculate the
dissolved oxygen
concentration Titrate the
contents
against sodium
thiosulphate. 39
(Cont…)
DO meter with membrane electrode PDO 519 Lutron DO
meter
40
(Cont…)
❖ Chloride
❑ Chloride in water are resulted from natural mineral deposits,
agricultural, and agricultural run-off.
❑ Presence of chloride in water indicates pollution of water due to
sewage or industrial discharge.
Measurement of chloride
Potassium chromate
silver nitrate (AgNO₃)
(K₂CrO₄))
41
(Cont…)
Measurement of chloride
❑ Chloride in water can be measured by spectrophotometer.
Free Chlorine Range 0.00 to 5.00 mg/L (as Cl2)
Free Chlorine Resolution 0.01 mg/L
Free Chlorine Accuracy ±0.03 mg/L ±3% of reading
Total Chlorine Range 0.00 to 5.00 mg/L (as Cl2)
Total Chlorine Resolution 0.01 mg/L
Total Chlorine Accuracy ±0.03 mg/L ±3% of reading
Chloride portable spectrophotometer
For drinking water, the chloride content should be less
than 200 mg/l.
42
Nitrogen Compounds
❑ The presence of nitrogen and its compounds in water is an indication of the
presence of organic matter in water.
❑ The nitrogen is present in water in the following four forms.
➢ (a) Free ammonia or Ammonia Nitrogen
➢ (b) Albuminoid nitrogen or Organic Nitrogen
➢ (c) Nitrites
➢ (d) Nitrates
Total Kjeldahl Nitrogen (TKN) = Free ammonia +
Albuminoid Nitrogen
Ammonia Nitrogen → Ammonia (NH3) or Ammonium (NH4)
Gas form or Ionic form will be influenced by pH of the water
NH3 + H+ ⇌ NH4+
43
Nitrogen Compounds
❑For Drinking Water
➢ (a) Free ammonia or Ammonia Nitrogen < 0.15 ppm
➢ (b) Albuminoid nitrogen or Organic Nitrogen < 0.3 ppm
➢ (c) Nitrites = 0
➢ (d) Nitrates < 45 mg/L
❑The presence of excess amount of
nitrates in drinking water may
adversely affect the health of infants,
causing a disease called
‘methemoglobinemia’ (commonly
known as ‘blue baby disease’), which
may result in the death of the child in
extreme cases.
44
Metals and Other Chemical Substances
❑Water may contain several metals and other chemical
substances such as iron, manganese, copper, lead,
barium, cadmium, arsenic, selenium, sulphates,
fluorides, etc.
45
Drinking water specifications for chemical water quality parameters
Permissible limit in the
Requirement
Parameter absence of alternate
(Acceptable limit)
source
pH 6.5-8.5 No relaxation
Total Hardness, mg/L (as
200 600
CaCO3)
Chlorides (as Cl− ), mg/L 250 1000
Sulphates (as SO2− 4 ), mg/L 200 400
Fluorides (as F − ), mg/L 1 1.5
Nitrates (as NO−3 ), mg/L 45 No relaxation
Calcium (as Ca2+ ), mg/L 75 200
Iron (as Fe2+ ), mg/L 0.3 No relaxation
Manganese (as Mn), mg/l 0.1 0.3
Total arsenic (as As), mg/l 0.01 0.05
Total chromium (as Cr), mg/l 0.05 No relaxation
Lead (as Pb), mg/l 0.01 No relaxation
Source: IS 10500 : 2012 46
Biological water quality parameters
❖ Indicator organisms
❑ An important biological indicator of water contamination is the
group of bacteria called coliforms.
❑ Water that has been recently contaminated with sewage will always
contain coliforms.
❑ A particular species of coliforms found in domestic sewage is
Escherichia coli or E. coli.
❑ It can be measured using techniques such as multiple-tube
fermentation and membrane filter method.
There are roughly 3 million
of E. coli bacteria in 100 mL
volume of untreated sewage.
47
(Cont…) Measurement of coliforms
Multiple-tube fermentation
In this technique, replicate portions of the original sample are cultured to
determine the presence or absence of microorganisms in each portion. The
presence of bacteria is represented as most probable number (MPN)/100 mL.
𝒏𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆𝒔 × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
MPN/100 mL = 48
(𝒎𝑳 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒏𝒆𝒈𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒗𝒆 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆𝒔) ×(𝒎𝑳 𝒐𝒇 𝒔𝒂𝒎𝒑𝒍𝒆 𝒊𝒏 𝒂𝒍𝒍 𝒕𝒖𝒃𝒆𝒔)
MPN index and 95% confidence limits for various combinations of positive
results when five tubes are used per dilution (10 mL, 1.0 mL, 0.1 mL)
49
50
Common Lab Space
Environmental Analysis Water Quality and
and Monitoring Lab-1 Material Testing Lab
Water
Quality Lab
Environmental Chemistry
Environmental Analysis
Lab and Monitoring Lab-2 51
