Traffic and Highways Engineering

PART-2 - CHAPTER 1

Introduction

Transportation is concerned with the movement of goods and

people from one location to another
It is essential for any nation’s development and growth
Need for a strong transportation system arises mainly from
economic needs but is also strongly related to military purposes
and personal fulfillment
Strong empires and world powers across the history have always
been associated with good transportation systems
However, improvement of transportation systems comes at
economic, social, and environmental price
Consumption of land and resources
Loss of lives in accidents
Disturbance of wild-life habitat
Pollution and noise
Opportunities for engineering careers in transportation are
numerous
Careers related to civil engineering include:
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Planning: selection of projects for design and construction

through defining the problem, gathering and analyzing data, and
evaluating alternatives based on social, economic, and
environmental considerations
Design: designing all physical components to ensure smooth,
efficient, and safe operation
Construction: use of machinery and labour and managing time
and resources
Traffic operation: integration of vehicle, driver, and pedestrian
characteristics to improve the safety and capacity of roads
Maintenance: involves all work necessary to ensure that the
highway system is kept in proper working order and includes
maintenance of pavement, traffic control devices, and other
elements

Design
 Geometric
Planning  Structural Construction Operation
 Drainage

Research Experience
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Transportation systems are now complex networks of modes

and facilities
Highway transportation is one of the most important
components of the overall transportation system
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Highway Networks

Highway systems provide two fundamental functions:

Movement between various types of human activities
(MOBOLITY)
Movement access to various types of human activities
(ACCESS)

Freeway

Mobility

Access

Local

Road Classification
The orderly grouping of roads into systems according to the type
and degree of service they provide to the public
Many classification systems have been developed
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Division or cut-off lines are arbitrary

Can serve engineering or administration purposes
Can be based on location (rural or urban), road service, design
speed, and divided or undivided
Road Classification in Canada
Public Lanes
Urban areas only
Land access only function
Local Streets
To provide land access
Have “Stop”, “Yield”, or signalized controls
Connect other locals and collector streets
Account for about 70% of the total length of urban streets
Collector Streets
Provide both traffic service and land access
Connect between local and arterial streets
Design yearly traffic volume: 1,000 to 12,000 vpd
Have more than 2 lanes and can be divided
Arterial Streets
Carry large volumes of traffic moving at medium to high speeds
Serve the major traffic flows between the principal traffic
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

generators and connect between collectors and freeways

Design yearly traffic volume: 5,000 to 30,000 vpd
May have interchanges
Urban Expressways
Class for urban roads only
Uninterrupted flow except at signals
Speeds  80 km/h
Urban Freeways
Serve heavy traffic volumes moving at high speeds
Free-flow conditions (grade separated)
Serve as urban extension to principal rural highways
Yearly traffic volume > 20,000 vpd
Speeds  80 km/h
Rural Freeways
Connect between cities
Serve heavy traffic volumes at high speed
Free flow condition
The Road Classification System (Design Classification
System)
Due to location:
Urban  U
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Rural  R
Due to class:
Lane (urban only)
Local  L

Collector  C

Arterial  A

Expressway  E (urban only)

Freeway  F
Due to type:
Divided  D

Undivided  U
Due to quality:
Design Speed  xxx km/h

Example:
UAU70
RFD110
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

PART-2 -CHAPTER 2
Driver, Vehicle, and Road Characteristics

Main components of highway system are:

Road
Vehicle
Road users: driver, pedestrian, …
Efficient and safe highway transportation system requires:
Knowledge of the highway system components and their
limitations
Interrelationships among these components
Design challenges:
Varying skills and limitations of road users
Varying abilities within individuals depending on several
conditions: mood, environment.
Wide range of abilities required to process information and
drive: hear, see, evaluate, react, …
Varying abilities and limitations of vehicles
Average values are not suitable
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Driver Characteristics
The Human Response Process
Actions taken by drivers are responses to information they
received and evaluated
The information are obtained mainly through visual and hearing
perception
Visual Perception
The most important source of information
About 95% of information are received visually
Principal characteristics of the eye are:
Visual acuity:
The ability to see fine details of an object
Static visual acuity is related to the driver’s ability to identify an
object when both the driver and object are stationary
It increases with an increase in illumination up to a background
brightness of 3 candles/ft2
Dynamic visual acuity is related to the driver’s ability to detect
moving objects
Most people have a clear vision within a conical angle of 3 to
5and a fairly clear vision within a conical angle of 10 to 12
Peripheral vision:
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

The ability to see objects beyond the cone of clearest vision

The cone of peripheral vision could be one subtending up to
160
Objects can be seen within this zone but details and colour are
not clear
Colour vision:
The ability to differentiate one colour from another
Glare vision and recovery:
Direct glare occurs when relatively bright light appears in the
individual’s field of vision
Specular glare occurs when the image reflected by the relatively
bright light appears in the field of vision
Time required to recover from the effects of glare is known as
glare recovery
Depth perception:
The ability to estimate speed and distance
Hearing Perception
May be important to detect emergency vehicles
Perception-Reaction Process
The process through which a driver evaluates and reacts to a
stimulus
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Is divided into four sub-processes:

1. Perception: use of visual perception to see a control device,
warning sign, or object on the road
2. Identification: the driver identifies the object and
understands the stimulus
3. Emotion: the driver decides the proper action to take in
response to the stimulus (stop, slow, pass,…)
4. Reaction (or Volition): the driver actually executes the
action already decided

P I E V
Time
PIEV

Total time elapsed is PIEV or perception-reaction time

PIEV is important for safety of cars, drivers, and pedestrians
Examples of uses:
Minimum sight distance
Length of the amber phase
Length of pedestrian phase (or red)
Range of PIEV: 0.5 to 7.0 sec
Factors affecting PIEV:
Degree of complexity
Degree of surprise
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Experience, age, …
Person’s conditions: fatigue, alcohol, drugs, …
For design purposes:
AASHTO (American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials) and TAC (Transportation Association
of Canada) recommended 2.5 sec for stopping sight distance
Accommodates about 90% of drivers
PIEV distance = PIEV time * Speed
Example:
A driver with a PIEV time of 2.5 sec is driving at 100
km/h when she observes that an accident has blocked the
road ahead. Determine the distance the vehicle would move
before the driver could activate the brakes.
P = PIEV time = 2.5 sec
V = speed = 100 km/h
PIEV distance = P * V = 0.278 * 2.5* 100 = 69.44 m
Pedestrian Characteristics
There are road users other than the driver, for example
pedestrians and cyclists
Characteristics are mainly similar to those of the driver
Other characteristics may influence the design of some road
features
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

For example, walking speed of a pedestrian affects the design of

crosswalks and signalized intersections

Vehicle Characteristics
Static characteristics:
They include:
Size (dimensions) and weight
Minimum turning radii
Static characteristics affect the design of several physical
components of the highway such as:
Lane width
Dimensions of parking bays
Length of vertical curves
Minimum horizontal curve radius in urban areas
Pavement design
A number of design vehicles with standard dimensions and
turning radii are identified in the design guides
Kinematic characteristics:
Involve the motion of vehicle without considering the forces that
cause the motion
They affect the design of some road elements such as
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

acceleration and deceleration lanes, interchange ramps, …

The primary element among kinematic characteristics is the
acceleration capability of the vehicle
Distance-speed-acceleration relationships can be derived for a
constant or variable acceleration rates
Dynamic characteristics:
Involve the forces that cause the motion of the vehicle
They control the maximum speed of a vehicle, braking distance,
and minimum horizontal curvature
A primary element of dynamic characteristics is the resistance to
movement
Resistance to Movement
Several forces act on a vehicle while it is in motion
Air Resistance
Results from air friction and drag
Depends on vehicle speed, wind speed, and vehicle shape
 2.15 p C D A u 2 
Ra  0.5  

 g 

p = air density = 0.0766 lb/ft3

CD = drag coefficient  0.4 (passenger cars) or 0.5 – 0.8 (trucks)
A = frontal area of the car (ft2)
u = vehicle speed (mph)
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

g = gravitational acceleration = 32.2 ft/s2

Rolling Resistance
Friction between moving parts of the vehicle
Frictional slip between the pavement surface and tires
Depends on the vehicle speed and type of pavement
 
Rr  Crs  2.15 Crv u 2 W (passenger cars)
Crs = constant = 0.012
Crv = constant = 0.6510-6
u = vehicle speed (mph)
W = gross vehicle weight (lb)
Rr  Ca  1.47 Cb u  W (trucks)
Ca = constant = 0.2445
Cb = constant = 0.00044

Grade Resistance
Weight component W sin 

Rg =  W sin   W 
Rg =  W G W cos 

G = highway grade
W
Curve Resistance
On horizontal curves, external forces act on the front wheels
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

with retarding effects on the vehicle’s motion

 2.15 u 2 W 
Rc  0.5  

 gR 

R = radius of horizontal curve (ft)

Power Requirements
Usually expressed in horsepower units (1 hp = 550 lb.ft/s)
Power required to overcome resistance forces:
1.47 RT u
P
550

RT = Ra + Rr + Rg + Rc
Extra power produced by the engine can produce acceleration
At maximum speed, the power produced by the engine is equal
to that required to overcome the resistances
Example:
A 2500-lb vehicle originally traveling on a straight and level
road gets onto a section of the road with a horizontal curve
of 850-ft radius. If the vehicle was originally travelling at 55
mph, determine the original horsepower produced and the
additional horsepower required to maintain the original
speed on the curve. Assume the vehicle’s frontal area is 30
ft2.
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

W = 2500 lb, A = 30 ft2, u = 55 mph, G = 0

 2.15 p CD A u 2   2.15 * 0.0766 * 0.4 * 30 * 552 
Ra  0.5    0.5 
 
  92.83 lb

 g   32.2 


Rr  Crs  2.15 Crv u2 W 
Rr = (0.012 + 2.15 * 0.6510-6 * 552)*2500 = 40.57 lb
Rg = 0.0, Rc = 0.0

R1 = Ra + Rr + Rg + Rc = 92.83 + 40.57 + 0.0 + 0.0 = 133.40 lb

1.47 R1 u 1.47 * 133.40 * 55
P1    19.61 hp
550 550

Original horsepower = 19.61 hp

On the curved section:

 2.15 u 2 W   2.15 * 552 * 2500 
Rc  0.5    0.5 
 
  297.03 lb

 gR   32.2 * 850 

1.47 * 297.03 * 55
P2   43.66 hp
550

Additional horsepower = 43.66 hp

Braking Distance
V0

Vf D
W sin 
f W cos 


W cos 

 Forces  m a W
 Traffic and Highways Engineering
W
W sin   f W cos  m a  a (1)
g

 v 2f  v02  2 a D

v 2f  v02
a  (2)
2D

From (1) and (2)

v 2f  v 02
tan   f 
2 g D cos 

tan    G (grade)
cos  1.0
v 2f  v 02
G  f 
2gD

v02  v 2f
Or: D [downward slope]
2 g ( f  G)

v02  v 2f
For upward slope: D
2 g ( f  G)

For g = 9.81 m/s2 and converting v (m/s) into V (km/h):

V02  V f2
D
254 ( f  G )

For complete stopping: Vf = 0

V2
D
254 ( f  G )

Example:
A student, trying to test the braking ability of his car,
determined that he needed 32 ft more to stop his car when
driving downhill on a particular road than when driving
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

uphill at 55 mph. Determine the braking distance downhill

and the percent grade of the highway at that section of the
road (f = 0.3)

V2
D [Imperial units]
30 ( f  G )

55 2
D1  [uphill]
30 (0.3  G )

55 2
D2  [downhill]
30 (0.3  G )

55 2 55 2
D2  D1  
30 (0.3  G ) 30 (0.3  G )

Solving equation  G = 0.014 = 1.4%

552
D2   352.6 ft
30 (0.3  G )

Minimum Curvature of a Horizontal Curve

On horizontal curves, two main forces act on the vehicle:
Centrifugal force (outward)
Friction between pavement and tires (inward)
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Fc Fc
Ff W sin 
Ff


W cos 
W
A third (inward) force can be developed by raising the outside
edge of the road (superelevation)
Centrifugal forces can cause:
Sliding
Overturning (not very critical)
Minimum horizontal curve radius should provide enough
resistance to sliding

R
Fc cos
W sin 
Fc
Ff


W cos 

Fc 
W v2
,
W
F = f W cos
f
gR

From the balance of forces:

W v2
cos  W sin   f W cos
gR

v2
 tan   f
gR
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

tan    = e (superelevation rate)

v2
R 
g ( f  e)

V2
OR: R
127 ( f s  e)

Where:
V = speed (km/h)
fs = coefficient of side friction = 0.10 – 0.16 (Table 3.3)

Example:
An existing horizontal curve on a highway has a radius of 80 m
which restricts the max. speed on this section to only 60% of the
design speed of the highway. If the curve is to be improved so
that the max. speed will be as that of the design speed of the
highway, determine the min. radius of the new curve. Assume
the coefficient of side friction is 0.15 and the rate of
superelevation is 0.08 for both the existing curve and the new
curve to be designed.

For the old curve:

R = 80 m, e = 0.08, fs = 0.15
V2
R
127 ( f s  e)

80 
V2
 V = 48.34 km/h
127 (0.15  0.08)
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

For the new curve:

V = 48.34/0.6 = 80.57 km/h
V2 80.57 2
R   222.2 m
127 ( f s  e) 127 (0.15  0.08)

Degree of Curve l = 100 ft (30.48 m)

The central angle corresponding to a 100-ft
(30.48 m) arc
l=RD D

π
30.48  R * D *
180

 D
1746.4
R
 [D  degrees, R  m]

Or: D
5729.7
R
 [D  degrees, R  ft]

Road Characteristics
Sight distance is the most important road characteristic affecting
highway geometric design
Stopping Sight Distance (SSD)
The minimum sight distance required for a below-average driver
to stop before hitting an unexpected object on the road ahead
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

SSD
V
V
SSD

SSD = PIEV Distance + Braking Distance

V2
SSD  0.278 P V 
254 ( f  G )

P = PIEV time (sec)

V = design speed (km/h)
f = coefficient of longitudinal friction (Table 3.3)
G = longitudinal grade (decimal fraction) (-ve  downhill &
+ve  uphill)
Example:
If the design speed of a highway is 120 km/h, what is the
minimum SSD that should be provided on the road for (a) a
flat road and (b) 5% maximum grade?

Assume:
P = 2.5 sec and f = 0.3

(a) G = 0
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

120 2
SSD  0.278 * 2.5 *120   272.4 m
254 (0.3)

(b) G = -0.05
120 2
SSD  0.278 * 2.5 *120   310.2 m
254 (0.3  0.05)

Passing Sight Distance (PSD)

The distance required by an overtaking vehicle on a two-lane,
two-way highway to pullout, pass, and return to the driving lane

O
Phase 1
P I

Phase 2

d1 d2 d3 d4

Percentage of length with enough PSD is a measure of quality of

two-lane highways
Assumptions for calculating PSD:
VI (impeder) = V m (m  17 km/h)

VP (passer) = V m (initially) & accelerates to V

Time elapsed = t1 (time of initial manoeuvre)
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Distance traveled = d1 (initial manoeuvring distance)

 at 
d1  0.278 t1 (V  m)  1 
 2 

t1 = 3.5 - 4.5 sec

a = average acceleration = 2.5 – 2.65 km/h/sec
Time elapsed while occupying left lane = t2
Distance traveled = d2
d2 = 0.278 V t2
Clearance distance between passing and opposing vehicles at the
end of the pass = d3 = 30 – 90 m
Distance traveled by the opposing vehicle = d4
Vo = V & t4 = t2
d4 = d2

PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4
Example:
A driver traveling on a two-lane highway behind another car
traveling at 60 km/h observes on the opposing direction a
vehicle at a distance about 300 m. Can the driver overtake the
car in front of him?
Speed limit = 80 km/h
Initial manoeuvring time = 4 sec
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Average acceleration = 2.5 km/h/sec

Clearance distance = 50 m
Overtaking time = 10 sec

V = 80 km/h, V m = 60 km/h
 at   2.5 * 4 
d1  0.278 t1 (V  m)  1   0.278 * 4 * 60  = 72.3 m
 2   2 

d2 = 0.278 V t2 = 0.278 * 80 * 10 = 222.4 m

d3 = 50 m
d4 = d2 = 148.3 m

PSD = d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 = 72.3 + 222.4 + 50 + 148.3 = 493.0 m

Since available distance is 300 m, the driver cannot overtake the
car in front of him

Decision Sight Distance (DSD)

SSD is enough only in simple situations
In complex situations (information is difficult to perceive or
decision is complex), a longer sight distance may be required
DSD is “the distance required for a driver to detect an
information source or hazard which is difficult to perceive in a
roadway environment that might be visually cluttered, recognize
the hazard or threat potential, select appropriate action, and
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

complete the manoeuvre safely and efficiently” (TAC 1986)

Should be evaluated on a single-situation-basis
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

PART-2 -CHAPTER 3
Traffic Engineering Studies

Several problems are associated with the highway mode of

transportation including highway-related accidents, parking
difficulties, congestion, and delay
Adequate collection of data is essential in attempting to reduce
the negative impacts of highways
Traffic engineering studies address the process of adequate data
collection and presentation
They are generally grouped into three main categories:
Inventories: provide a list or graphical display of existing
information (e.g. street widths, parking spaces, transit routes,
…)
Administrative studies: use existing engineering records
available in government agencies to prepare inventory of
relevant data (licensed cars and drivers, …)
Dynamic traffic studies: involve collection of data under
operational conditions
In this section we focus on dynamic traffic studies
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Spot Speed
Speed is the most common measure of the quality of traffic flow
Types of speed are:
Spot speed
Overall speed
Running speed
Spot speed is defined as the instantaneous speed of a vehicle as
it passes a specified point along a street or a highway
Objectives of spot speed studies:
Design geometric alignments
Analyze accident data
Evaluate improvements or enforcement measures (before and
after studies)
Location and duration of spot speed measurement depends on
the objective of the study
Methods of conducting spot speed studies:
Originally manual methods
Road detectors: pneumatic tubes (laid across the road or lane) or
induction loops (rectangular wire loop buried under the roadway
surface)
Doppler-principle meters (radar guns): a number of
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

disadvantages
Electronic-principle detectors: video image processing (uses an
electronic camera and microprocessor to determine the traffic
characteristics in real time)
Presentation of spot speed data:
Average speed: the arithmetic mean of all observed vehicle
speeds
n
 ui
i 1
u
n

Median speed: the middle value in a series of spot speeds that

are arranged in an ascending order
Modal speed: the most frequently observed speed
The i-th percentile speed: the spot speed below which i% of
vehicles travel
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Frequency (%)
Pace
(width = 10
km/h)

Modal speed

Speed

85%
Frequency (%)
Cumulative

50% Pace

maximum
Speed
Median 85th
speed percentile
Pace: the range of speed (10 mphspeed
or 10 km/h) that has the
greatest number of observations

Volume
Traffic volume is defined as the number of vehicles and/or
pedestrians that pass a point on a highway facility during a
specified period of time
Types of traffic volumes:
Average annual daily traffic (AADT): the average of 24-hr
counts collected everyday in the year
Volume count in a full year
AADT 
365

Average daily traffic (ADT): the average of 24-hr counts

 Traffic and Highways Engineering

collected over a number of days greater than 1 but less than a

year
Peak hour volume (PHV): the maximum number of vehicles that
cross a point on a highway during a period of 60 consecutive
minutes
Design hourly volume (DHV): usually taken as the 30th hourly
volume: the hourly volume that is exceeded for 29 hrs/year

Hourly
volume

DH
V

Rank of
30 hours

Objectives of traffic volume studies:

Planning of highway activities
Evaluation of current demand
Functional classification of highways
Design of geometric characteristics
Vehicle classification
Methods of conducting volume counts:
Manual method: observers with counters
Automatic counters: pneumatic tubes, detectors, …
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Types of volume counts:

Cordon counts: for accumulation within an area

Screen line counts: study area is divided into two large sections

by imaginary line(s)

Intersection counts: vehicle classification and turning movement

at an intersection
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Pedestrian volume counts: at crosswalks, subway or bus

stations, or mid-blocks to evaluate existing or proposed
pedestrian facilities

Periodic Volume Counts

AADT data for a network of roads should be collected
continuously
To reduce cost, network is divided into three types of counting
stations:
Continuous count (permanent count stations):
Automatic count
365 days/year, 24 hours/day
Control counts:
Help establish seasonal and daily variation
Stations represent traffic volume on each type of highway or
street
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Two types of control stations:

Major (count is monthly, 24-hr directional, at least 3 days of a
week)
Minor (48-hrs, non-directional, at least once every 2 years)
Coverage counts:
To estimate average daily traffic
24-hr non-directional count every 4 years
ADT on coverage counting stations is estimated using expansion
factors obtained from a continuous or control counting station
with similar characteristics
These expansion factors account to the hourly, daily, and
seasonal variations of traffic
Hourly expansion factor (HEF): to expand counts of durations
shorter than 24 hrs to 24-hr volumes

Total volume for 24 - hr period

HEF 
Volume for particular hour

Daily expansion factor (DEF): to determine weekly volumes

from counts of 24-hr duration

Average total volume for week

DEF 
Average volume for particular day
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Monthly expansion factor (MEF): to determine AADT for a

given year from the ADT for a given month
AADT
MEF 
ADT for particular month

Example:
The traffic volume data collected on a roadway section on
a Tuesday of the month of May were:
Hour Volume
7:00-8:00 400
am
8:00-9:00 535
am
9:00-10:00 650
am
10:00-11:00 710
am
11:00-12:00 650
noon

Estimate the AADT if the expansion factors determined from a

similar continuous counting station are:
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Hour HEF
7:00-8:00 29.00
am
8:00-9:00 22.05
am
9:00-10:00 18.80
am
10:00-11:00 17.10
am
11:00-12:00 18.52
noon

DEF for Tuesday = 7.727

MEF for May = 1.394
Use HEF’s to estimate the 24-hr volume for Tuesday:
Hour Daily volume
7:00-8:00 400*29.00 =
am 11,600
8:00-9:00 535*22.05 =
am 11,797
9:00-10:00 650*18.80 =
am 12,220
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

10:00-11:00 710*17.10 =
am 12,141
11:00-12:00 650*18.52 =
noon 12,038
Average 59,796/5 =
volume 11,959

Use DEF to estimate the ADT for May:

11,959  7.727
ADT   13,201
7

Use MEF to estimate AADT:

AADT = 13,201*1.394 = 18,402 vpd

Travel Time and Delay

Travel time and delay studies are conducted to determine the
amount of time required to travel from one point to another
Location, duration, and causes of delay may also be investigated
Definitions:
Travel time: time taken by a vehicle to traverse a given section
of a highway
Running time: the time a vehicle is actually in motion while
traversing a given section of the highway
Running speed: the total distance traveled divided by the
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

running travel time

Delay: the time lost by a vehicle due to causes beyond the
control of the driver
Operational delay: that part of the delay caused by the
impedance of other traffic (may be due to side friction or
internal friction)
Stopped-time delay: that part of the delay during which the
vehicle is at rest
Fixed delay: that part of delay caused by control devices
(independent of traffic volume)
Overall speed: the total distance traveled divided by the overall
travel time

Applications of travel time and delay data:

Determining efficiency of a route
Identifying locations with relatively high delays and the causes
for these delays
Before-and-after studies
Methods for conducting travel time and delay studies:
Floating-car techniques: an observer driving a test car that floats
with the traffic (passes as many cars as those passing the test
car)
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Average speed techniques: speed of the test car is the average

speed of the traffic stream (in the opinion of the driver)
Moving-vehicle technique: observer drives in both directions
and records data on traffic in both directions
License-plate observations: observing and matching licence-
plates at the beginning and end of the test section
Interviews

Parking
The provision of parking facilities is an essential element of the
highway mode of transportation
Types of parking facilities:
On-street (curb facilities): parking bays alongside the curb of
one or both sides of a street; would affect road capacity and
traffic speed
Off-street: privately and publicly owned lots and garages
Definitions:
Space-hour: a unit of parking that defines the use of a single
parking space for a period of 1 hr
Parking volume: total number of vehicles that park in a study
area during a specific length of time (usually a day)
Parking accumulation: the number of parked vehicles in the
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

study area at any specific time (usually presented in an

accumulation curve)
Parking load: the number of space-hours used during a specified
period of time (area under the accumulation curve between
beginning and end of the time period)
Parking duration: the length of time a vehicle is parked at a
parking bay
Parking turnover: the rate of use of a parking space (parking
volume for a specific time period divided by the number of
parking spaces
A comprehensive parking study usually involves:
Inventory of existing parking facilities: detailed listing of the
location and characteristics of each legal parking facility
Collection of parking data: related to volume, accumulation,
turnover, duration, …
Identification of parking generators: e.g. shopping centres,
transit terminals, …
Collection of information on parking demand: interviewing
drivers using the parking facilities
Fundamental Principles of Traffic Flow
Traffic flow theory involves the development of mathematical
relationships among the primary elements of traffic stream
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

(flow, density, and speed)

These relationships are helpful in planning, design, and
simulation
Examples of applications include adequate lane lengths of left-
turn vehicles, average delay at intersection, pollution and gas
consumption, …

Traffic Flow Elements

Volume (V): the total number of vehicles that pass a point on a
highway or a lane during a given time interval (veh/h, veh/d, …)
Flow (q): the equivalent hourly rate at which vehicles pass a
point on a highway/lane during a time period less than 1 hr
(veh/h)
15 min 15 min 15 min 15 min

100 veh. 200 veh. 150 veh. 300 veh.

V = 100 + 200 + 150 + 300 = 750 veh/h

q = 300 * 4 = 1200 veh/h
Density (k): the number of vehicles traveling over a unit length
of highway at an instant in time (veh/km)

1 km
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Speed (u): the distance traveled by vehicles during unit of time

(km/h), and is defined as:
Time-mean speed ( u t ): arithmetic mean of speeds of all vehicles
passing a point during specified time interval

ut 
 ui   L / ti
n n

Space-mean speed ( u s ): arithmetic mean of speeds of all vehicles

occupying a relatively long section of the road at a given instant

L nL
us  
i
t / n  ti
Time headway (h): the difference between the time the front of a
vehicle arrives at a point on the highway and the time the front
of the next vehicle arrives
Space headway (d): the distance between front of a vehicle and
the front of the following vehicle

t=
t1 d

t=
t
h= t2 - 2
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Flow-Density Relationships
The general equation relating flow, density, and space mean
speed is:
Flow = density * space-mean speed
q  k * us

qmax

k
u u k0 kj

uf

u0 u0

q k
qmax k0 kj

Fundamental Diagram of Flow

When k = 0, q = 0
As k increases, q increases to a max value qmax
As k increases beyond k0 (critical density), q decreases
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

At maximum k = kj (jam density), q = 0 as cars would line up

Mathematical Relationship Describing Traffic Flow
Two categories of mathematical relationships describing traffic
flow:
Macroscopic: considers traffic streams and develops algorithms
that relate the flow to density and space mean speed
Microscopic: considers spacing between and speeds of
individual vehicles
We will focus on the two most commonly used macroscopic
models

Greenshields Model

Assumption: a linear relationship between speed and density

u
u
u = a + b kf
at k = 0  u = uf  a = uf
at k = kj  u = 0  b = - uf /kj
uf  k
u  u f   k (1)
 kj  kj
 

q=u*k
uf  2
q  u f k   k (2)
 kj 
 
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

where:
uf = free-flow speed
kj = jam density

dq uf
For qmax: 0uf 2 k
dk kj

 k0 = kj /2
Substituting in (1)  u0 = uf /2
qmax = u0 k0 = uf kj /4
Greenberg Model
Based on fluid flow analogy
Relation between u and k is logarithmic
u

u = c ln (kj /k)
q=u*k
q = c k ln (kj /k)u0
k
k0 kj

For qmax:
dq kj
 0  c ln c
dk k0

ln (kj /k0) = 1

u0 = c
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

u = u0 ln (kj /k)
q = u0 k ln (kj /k)

qmax = u0 k0
Note: Greenberg model is undefined at low densities
Example:
The data shown below were obtained from a rural highway.
Use regression analysis to fit these data to the Greenshields
model and determine:
(a) Mean free speed
(b) Jam density
(c) Capacity
(d) Speed at maximum flow

Speed 22.8 38.8 48.8 64.5 81.4 88.5

(km/h)
Density 137 113 88 66 32 24
(v/km)

Greenshields Model:
u= a + b k
Using regression: b = -0.566, a = 100.881
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

 u = 100.881 - 0.566 k
uf 
u  u f   k
 kj 
 

Therefore,
(a) uf = 100.881 km/h
(b) uf /kj = 0.566  kj = 178.23 v/km
(c) Capacity = qmax = uf kj /4 = 4495 vph
(d) Speed at maximum flow = u0 = uf /2 = 50.44 km/h
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

PART-2 -CHAPTER 4
Intersection Design and Control

An intersection is an area shared by two or more roads

Main function is to allow the change of route directions
It is an area of decision for all drivers and thus requires
additional effort
Intersections normally perform at levels below those of the rest
of the street or highway and thus control the quality of traffic
flow
Types of Intersections
Intersections can be classified as:
At-grade: all roads intersect at the same level
May be plain or channelized
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

May be three-leg (T or Y), four-leg, or multi-leg

 Traffic and Highways Engineering

T-intersection

Four-leg intersection

Multi-leg
intersection

Old alignment

New
alignment
Old alignment
New
alignment

Grade-separated without ramps: uninterrupted cross-flow of

traffic at different levels
Grade-separated with ramps (interchanges)

Sight Distance at Intersections

The high accident potential at an intersection can be reduced by
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

providing sight distance that allow drivers to have an

unobstructed view of the entire intersection at a distance great
enough to permit control of the vehicle
The required sight distance depends on the type of control at the
intersection
From the control type point of view, the types of intersection
are:
No control
Yield control
Stop control
Signal control
Case I: No Control Intersection
The intersection is not controlled by a yield sign, stop sign, or
traffic signal
SD in this case has to be enough for the driver approaching the
intersection to:
See a crossing vehicle
If necessary, adjust vehicle speed
This distance includes:
The distance travelled by the vehicle during the perception-
reaction time (usually 2 sec)
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

The distance travelled during brake actuation (usually 1 sec)

Therefore, the distance travelled during the period of 3 sec is the
limiting distance from which a driver approaching the
intersection should first observe an approaching vehicle on the
crossroad
Analysis of sight distance on the intersection is usually referred
to as sight distance triangle
Sight distance triangle at intersection with no control:
Vb

Approach
“B”

db – a
Obstruction

db
Approach
a

“A”
Va
da – b b

da

From the similarity of triangles:

db a

da da  b

where:
a, b = distances from the obstruction to the centreline of
approaches A and B, respectively
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Va, Vb = speeds of vehicles on approaches A and B

da, db = distances travelled by vehicles on approaches A and B
during 3-sec time period
By knowing any three factors, the fourth one can be estimated
It should be noted that the sight distance in this case will allow
drivers to adjust speed but not to stop before the intersection
It is a better practice to design uncontrolled intersections to
allow enough distance to stop
In this case, da and db should be calculated as stopping sight
distances
Case II: Yield-Control Intersection on Minor Road
Sight distance in this case has to be enough for the driver on the
minor road to slow down or stop prior to reaching the
intersection
The same equation provided in the previous case is applicable
here but with calculating da and db as a stopping sight distance
instead of travel distance during a 3-sec period
Case III Stop-Control Intersection on Minor Road
Sight distance in this case has to be enough for a safe departure
from the stopped position
There are three manoeuvres under this case:
Case IIIA: Crossing the intersection
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Case IIIB: Turning left onto the crossroad

Case IIIC: Turning right onto the crossroad
General Concepts of Traffic Control
The purpose of traffic control is to assign the right of way to
drives, and thus to facilitate highway safety by ensuring the
orderly and predictable movement of all traffic on highways
Control can be achieved by using traffic signals, signs, or
markings that regulate, guide, warn, and/or channel traffic
A traffic control device must:
Fulfill a need
Command attention
Convey a clear simple meaning
Command the respect of road users
Give adequate time for proper response
For the traffic control device to have these five properties, five
factors should be considered:
Design: size, colour, size, …
Placement: within the cone of vision with adequate response
time
Operation: used in a manner that ensures the fulfillment of
traffic requirements
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Maintenance: regularly maintained to sustain legibility

Uniformity: to ensure recognition and understanding of these
devices
Guidelines for the different types of traffic control devices are
provided in the Manual on Uniform Traffic Control Devices
(MUTCD)
Conflict Points at Intersections
Conflicts occur when traffic streams moving in different
directions interfere with each other
Three types of conflicts:
Merging
Diverging
Crossing
The number of possible conflict points at any intersection
depends on:
Number of approaches
Turning movements
Type of traffic control
Example: conflict points at a four-leg intersection
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Crossing = 16
Diverge = 8
Merge = 8
Total = 32

Types of Intersection Control

The primary objective of a traffic control system at an
intersection is to reduce the number of conflict points
The choice of one method for traffic control at the intersection
depends on many factors:
Vehicle volume
Turning movements
Pedestrian volume
Accident experience
Delay
Other considerations
Warrants for the different types of traffic control devices are
given in the MUTCD
The types of intersection control are:
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Yield Signs
Drivers on approaches with yield signs are required to slow
down and yield the right of way to all conflicting vehicles at the
intersection
Stopping is not mandatory unless it interferes with a traffic
stream that has the right of way
Stop Signs
Approaching vehicles are required to stop before entering the
intersection
Use of stop signs results in considerable inconvenience to
motorists and thus must be used only when warranted
Stop signs may be warranted at intersection with restricted view
Multiway Stop Signs
All vehicles approaching the intersection stop before entering it
Used as a safety measure at some intersections with traffic
volumes on all approaches are approximately equal
Intersection Channelization
Used to separate turn lanes from through lanes
Solid lines or raised barriers guide traffic within a lane so that
vehicles can safely negotiate a complex intersection
Raised islands can also provide a refuge for pedestrians
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Traffic Signals
Traffic signals are used to assign the use of the intersection to
different traffic streams at different times, and thus eliminate
many conflicts
Efficient operation of a traffic signal requires proper timing of
the different colour indications
Signal Timing at Isolated Intersections
An isolated intersection is one in which the signal time is not
coordinated with that of any other intersection and therefore
operates independently
Definitions:
Cycle (cycle length): the time in seconds required for one
complete colour sequence of signal indication
Phase (signal phase): that part of a cycle allocated to a stream of
traffic, or a combination of two or more streams of traffic,
having the right of way simultaneously during one or more
intervals
Interval: any part of the cycle length during which signal
indications do not change
 Traffic and Highways Engineering
Phase A Phase B

Green Yello Red Red Green Yello

w w
Cycle length Cycle length

Change and clearance interval: total length of time in seconds of

the yellow and all-red signal indications (allows vehicles to clear
the intersection before conflicting movements are released
All-red interval: the display time of a red indication for all
approaches
Peak-hour factor (PHF): a measure of variability of demand
during the peak hour, and is equal to the ratio of the volume
during the peak hour to the maximum rate of flow during a
given period within the peak hour
Passenger car equivalent (PCE): a factor to convert straight-
through volumes of buses and trucks to straight-through
volumes of passenger cars (1.6–2.5 for intersections)
Turning movement factors: factors to convert turning vehicles to
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

equivalent straight-through vehicles (1.4–1.6 for left-turning

vehicles and 1.0–1.4 for right-turning vehicles)
Critical lane volume: maximum lane volume in a phase (vph)
The main objectives of signal timing are:
To reduce the average delay of all vehicles
To reduce the probability of accidents
The two objectives may conflict with each other as increasing
the number of phases will reduce the probability of accidents (by
reducing conflict points of traffic) and increase average delay
Yellow Interval
The objectives of the yellow indication after the green are:
To alert motorists to the fact that the green time is about to
change to red
To allow vehicles already in the intersection to cross it
A bad choice of yellow interval may lead to the creation of a
dilemma zone, an area in which vehicles can neither stop safely
before the intersection nor clear it without speeding before the
red signal comes on
Therefore, the yellow interval must guarantee that an
approaching vehicle can either stop safely or proceed through
the intersection without speeding
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

X0 W L

Cannot stop
Cannot go

Xc
Dilemma
zone

At the minimum yellow interval required to eliminate the

dilemma zone (min): X0 = Xc
For vehicles to just clear the intersection:
Xc = u0 min – (W + L)
Where:
u0 = speed limit on the approach (m/sec)
W = width of intersection (m)
L = length of vehicle (m)
For vehicles to stop before the intersection:
u02
X 0  u0 
2a

Where:
 = perception-reaction time (sec)
a = rate of braking deceleration (m/sec2)
Therefore,
u02
u0 min  (W  L)  u0  , and
2a
 Traffic and Highways Engineering
(W  L) u0
min    
u0 2a

If the effect of grade is added:

(W  L) u0
min    
u0 2( a  Gg )

Where:
G = grade of the approach
g = acceleration due to gravity (m/sec2)
Note that:
For safety considerations, the yellow interval should not be less
than 3 sec
To encourage motorists’ respect for the yellow interval, it should
not be greater than 5 sec
If a longer yellow interval is required, use the maximum yellow
interval and add an all-red interval
Example:
Determine the minimum yellow interval at a flat intersection
whose width is 12 m if the maximum allowable speed on the
approach roads is 50 km/h. Assume average length of vehicle
is 6.0 m, comfortable deceleration rate is 0.27g, and
perception-reaction time is 1.0 sec
(12  6) 50 * 0.278
min  1.0    4.92 sec
50 * 0.278 2 * 0.27 * 9.81

Therefore, use a 5-sec yellow interval

 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Cycle Length
We will only discuss pre-timed (fixed) signals, where each
signal has a preset cycle length that remains fixed for a specific
period of the day or for the whole day
Other types of signals are semi-actuated and fully actuated
Several methods exist for determining the cycle length; we will
study only Webster method
Rate of discharge of vehicles at an intersection:

Saturation
discharge

flow
Rate of

Lost Lost
time time
Effective
green

Time

Green Yello Red

w

At the beginning of the green interval, some time is lost before

the vehicles start moving
The rate of discharge then increases to a maximum (saturation
flow, S)
If there are sufficient vehicles in the queue to use the available
green time, the saturation flow will be sustained until the yellow
interval occurs
The rate of discharge then falls to zero when the yellow signal
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

changes to red
The number of vehicles discharged through the intersection is
represented by the area under the curve
Dividing the number of vehicles by the saturation flow will give
the effective green time
The effective green is less than the sum of the green and yellow;
the difference is considered lost time
Webster method:
For a wide range of practical conditions, minimum intersection
delay is obtained when the cycle length is obtained by:
1.5L  5
Co  
1   Yi
i 1

Where:
Co = optimum cycle length (sec)
L = total lost time per cycle (sec)
Yi = qij/Sj = maximum value of the ratios of approach flows to
saturation flows for all traffic streams using phase i
 = number of phases
qij = flow on lane j having the right of way during phase i
Sj = saturation flow on lane j
Lost time for each phase can be estimated as:
ℓi = Gai + i – Gei
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Where:
ℓi = lost time for phase i
Gai = actual green time for phase i
i = yellow time for phase i
Gei = effective green time for phase i
Total lost time is given as:

L   i  R
i 1

Where:
R = total all-red time during the cycle
Total effective green time per cycle is:
  
Gte  C  L  C     i  R 
 i 1 

Where:
C = actual cycle length (the value of Co rounded to the nearest 5
sec)
The total effective green time is distributed among the different
phases in proportion to their Y values:
Yi
Gei  
Gte
 Yi
i 1

The actual green time is obtained as:

Gai = Gei +ℓi – i
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Example
The following figure shows peak-hour volumes for a major
intersection on an expressway. Using the Webster method,
determine suitable signal timing for the intersection using a
four-phase system and the additional data given in the
figure. Use a yellow interval of 3 sec and assume the total
lost time is 3.5 sec per phase. Additional information:
 PHF = 0.95
 Left-turn factor = 1.4
109

N
75
25

321
321
128
222
464
464
352

206
100

 PCE for buses and trucks = 1.6

 Truck percentages:
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

North South West East

Approach Approach Approach Approach
Troug Left Troug Left Troug Left Troug Left
h h h h
0 0 0 0 4 4 0 0

 Assume the following phasing system:

Phase A Phase B Phase C Phase D

N
115
79
37

338
338
189
335
499
499
519

217
105

 First, convert mixed volumes to equivalent straight-

through passenger cars
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

For example:
DHV for EB (West Approach) through traffic = 464/0.95 = 488
vehicles
PCE = (488 – 0.04*488) + 0.04*488*1.6 = 468 + 31 = 499

 The critical lane volumes are as follow:

Phase,  Critical Lane
Volume
A 499
B 338
C 115
D 519
Total 1471
 Total lost time L = 3.5 * number of phases = 3.5 * 4 =
14 sec
 Determine Yi and Yi
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Phase A (EB) Phase B Phase C (SB) Phase D (NB)

(WB)
Lan 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3
es
qij 335 499 499 189 338 338 115 79 37 519 105 217
Sj 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200 200
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
qij/Sj 0.17 0.25 0.25 0.09 0.17 0.17 0.06 0.04 0.02 0.26 0.05 0.11
Yi 0.25 0.17 0.06 0.26

Yi = 0.74

 Optimum cycle length:

1.5L  5
Co  
1   Yi
i 1

1.5 *14  5
Co   100 sec
1  0.74

 Total effective green time:

Gte = C – L = 100 – 14 = 86 sec
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

 Effective and actual green times for each phase:

Yi Y
Gei  Gte  i * 86
 Yi 0.74

Gai = Gei +ℓi – i = Gei + 3.5 – 3.0

 Actual green time for phase A (GaA) = (0.25/0.74)*86
+ 3.5 – 3.0  30 sec
 Actual green time for phase B (GaB) = (0.17/0.74)*86
+ 3.5 – 3.0  20 sec
 Actual green time for phase C (GaC) = (0.06/0.74)*86
+ 3.5 – 3.0  7 sec
 Actual green time for phase D (GaD) = (0.26/0.74)*86
+ 3.5 – 3.0  31 sec
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

PART-2 -CHAPTER 5
Highway Capacity and Level of Service

Capacity: the maximum hourly flow rate at which vehicles can

reasonably be expected to transverse a point or uniform section of a
lane or roadway under prevailing roadway, traffic and control
conditions
Roadway conditions: are associated with the geometric design of the
road; e.g., no. of lanes, lane width, shoulder width, horizontal and
vertical alignment, …
Traffic conditions: are associated with characteristics of traffic stream;
e.g., traffic composition, directional distribution on two-lane
highways, …
Control conditions: include traffic control devices, signal phasing,
cycle length, …
Capacity analysis involves the quantitative evaluation of the capability
of a road section to carry traffic
Level of service (LOS): a qualitative measure of:
The operating conditions within a traffic system, and
How these conditions are perceived by drivers and passengers
Two-Lane Highways
Factors describing service quality:

1
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Percent time spent following another vehicle (PTSF): is the

average percentage of time that vehicles are traveling behind slower
vehicles (time headway between consecutive vehicles is less than
three seconds)
Average travel speed (ATS): is the space mean speed of vehicles in
the traffic stream
Capacity of a two-lane highway is:
1700 passenger cars per hour (pc/h) for each direction of travel
3200 passenger cars per hour (pc/h) for the two direction of the
extended segment
3200-3400 pc/h for short sections of two-lane highway, such as a
tunnel or bridge
Ideal conditions for two-lane highways:
Level terrain
Passing permitted
Lane width  12ft and clear shoulders  6 ft
Same traffic volume in both directions (50/50 directional split)
All passenger cars in traffic stream
No restriction on through traffic due to control
The performance of a highway at traffic volumes less than capacity is
expressed by the level of service (LOS)
LOS designations are from A (highest) to F (Lowest)

2
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

LOS A
For Class I: ATS is  50 mph, and PTSF is  35%

For Class II: PTSF is  40 %

Flow rate < 490 pc/h (both directions)
LOS B
For Class I: ATS is 50-55 mph, and PTSF is 35-50%
For Class II: PTSF is 40-55 %
Flow rate < 780 pc/h (both directions)
LOS C
For Class I: ATS is 45-50 mph, and PTSF is 50-65%
For Class II: PTSF is 55-70 %
Flow rate < 1190 pc/h (both directions)
LOS D
Flow is unstable
Passing capacity approaches zero
For Class I: ATS is 40-45 mph, and PTSF is 65-80%
For Class II: PTSF is 70-85 %
Flow rate < 1830 pc/h (both directions)
LOS E
Traffic operations are unstable and difficult to predict
Passing has become virtually impossible
For Class I: ATS is  40 mph, and PTSF is  80%

3
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

For Class II: PTSF is  85 %

Flow rate < 3200 pc/h (both directions)
LOS F
Congested flow (demand is greater than capacity)
For LOS analysis, two-lane highways are classified into two classes:
Class I: Two-lane highways that function as primary arterials, daily
commuter routes, and links to other arterial highways; motorists'
expectations are that travel will be at relatively high speeds
Class II: Two-lane highways where the expectation of motorists is that
travel speeds will be slower than that for Class I roads; average trip
lengths on Class II highways are shorter than on Class I highways
LOS is based on:
Two measures for Class I highways: PTSF and ATS (Table 9.1)
A single measure for Class II highways: PTSF (Table 9.2)
Types of analysis:
Operational level of analysis: LOS is required for specific traffic and
roadway characteristics
Planning level of analysis: AADT or DHV is required for specific
LOS and roadway characteristics
Analysis can be carried out for:
Two-way traffic
A specific direction

4
 Traffic and Highways Engineering

A directional segment with a passing lane

Procedures for Evaluating LOS of Two-Way Segments
Analysis is usually performed on extended lengths (at least 2 mi) in
level or rolling terrain
Level terrain: segments contain flat grades of 2% or less
Rolling terrain: segments contain short or medium length grades of
4% or less
For operational analysis of Class I:
Calculate ATS and PTSF
Find LOS from Table 9.1
For operational analysis of Class II:
Calculate PTSF
Find LOS from Table 9.2
Calculating PTSF
PTSF = BPTSF + fd/np
BPTSF = base percent time spent following for both directions
fd/np = adjustment in PTSF to account for the combined effect of (1)
percent of directional distribution of traffic and (2) percent of passing
zones (Table 9.3)

BPTSF  100 1  e
0.000879v p

vp = passenger-car equivalent flow rate for the peak 15-min period
V
vp 
PHF * f G * f HV

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

V = hourly volume (vph)

hourly volume
PHF = peak-hour factor 
4 * peak 15 min volume

fG = grade adjustment factor for level or rolling terrain (Table 9.4)

fHV = adjustment factor for the effect of heavy vehicles
1
f HV 
1  PT ( ET  1)  PR ( E R  1)

PT & PR = decimal portion of trucks (and buses) and RVs in traffic

ET & ER = Passenger car equivalent for trucks (and buses) and RVs in
traffic (Table 9.5)
Note that fG, ET & ER are functions of vp and therefore iterative process
is required
First, estimate vp using PHF only
Use the calculated vp to estimate fG, ET & ER and recalculate vp
If the second value of vp is within the range used to estimate fG, ET &
ER, the computed value is correct
Otherwise, estimate fG, ET & ER, recalculate vp and check the last two
values of vp
Calculating ATS
ATS = FFS – 0.00776vp – fnp
ATS = average travel speed for both directions of travel combined
(mi/h)
FFS = free flow speed, the mean speed at low flow when volumes are
< 200 pc/h
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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

fnp = adjustment for the percentage of no-passing zones (Table 9.6)

vp is calculated similar to previously but the factor fG is obtained from
Table 9.7 and ET & ER are obtained from Table 9.8
FFS can be determined by three way:
Field measurements at volumes < 200 pc/h
Field measurements at volumes > 200 pc/h using the following
correction:
Vf
FFS  S FM  0.00776
f HV

SFM = mean speed of traffic measured in the field (mi/h)

Vf = observed flow rate (veh/h)
fHV = heavy vehicle adjustment factor
Indirect estimation, when field data are unavailable
FFS = BFFS – fLS – fA
FFS = estimated free-flow speed (mi/h)
BFFS = base free-flow speed (mi/h)
FLS = adjustment for lane and shoulder width (Table 9.9)
fA = adjustment for number of access points per mile (Table 9.10)
Note that BFFS depends on local conditions and the transportation
engineer should estimate it based on their knowledge of the area and
the speeds on similar facilities
The range of BFFS is 45–65 mi/h
Posted speed limits may serve as surrogates for BFFS
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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Example:
Determine the LOS for a 6-mile two-lane highway in rolling
terrain. The existing data for this road are as follows:
Volume = 1600 veh/h (two-way)
Percent track = 14%, Percent RV’s = 4%
PHF = 0.95
Percent directional split = 50–50
Percent no-passing zone = 50%
BFFS = 60 mi/h
Lane width = 11 ft, Shoulder width = 4 ft
Number of access points = 20 point/mi

Calculating PTSF:
Compute peak 15-min hourly passenger car equivalent (vp):
V
vp 
PHF * f G * f HV

Trial value for vp is V/PHF = 1600/0.95 = 1684 pc/h

ET = 1 & ER = 1 (Table 9.5)
PT = 0.14 & PR = 0.04 (given)
1
f HV 
1  PT ( ET  1)  PR ( E R  1)

1
f HV   1.00
1  0.14(1  1)  0.04(1  1)

fG = 1.00 (Table 9.4)

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

1600
v p   1684 pc / h
0.95 * 1 * 1

Compute base percent time spent following (BPTSF):

BPTSF  100 1  e 0.000879v p
 1001  e 0.000879*1684
  77.2%

Compute percent time spent following (PTSF):

PTSF = BPTSF + fd/np
fd/np = 4.8 (by interpolation from Table 9.3)
PTSF = 77.2 + 4.8 = 82%

Calculating ATS:
Compute the free speed under the given conditions (FFS)

FFS = BFFS – fLS – fA

BFFS = 60 mi/h (given)
fLS = 1.7 (Table 9.9)
fA = 5.0 (Table 9.10)
FFS = 60 – 1.7 – 5 = 53.3 mi/h

Compute average travel speed (ATS):

ATS = FFS – 0.00776vp – fnp
V
vp 
PHF * f G * f HV

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

1
f HV 
1  PT ( ET  1)  PR ( E R  1)

V = 1600 veh/h, PHF = 0.95 (given)

fG = 0.99 (Table 9.7)
ET = 1.5 & ER = 1.1 (Table 9.8)
PT = 14 & PR = 4 (given)
1
 f HV   0.931
1  0.14(1.5  1)  0.04(1.1  1)

1600
vp   1827 pc/h
0.95 * 0.99 * 0.931

fnp = 0.8 (Table 9.6)

ATS = 53.3 – 0.00776*1827 – 0.8 = 38.3 mi/h

Calculating LOS:
PTSF = 82%
ATS = 38.3 mi/h

Class I LOS = E (Table 9.1)

Class II LOS = D (Table 9.2)

Calculating Other Performance Measures

Volume-to-capacity ratio, v/c
vp
v/c 
c

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

c = two-way segment capacity (3200 for a two-directional

segment, 1700 for a directional segment)
vp = passenger car equivalent flow rate for peak 15-min period (pc/h)
Total number of vehicle-miles during the peak 15-min period, VMT15
(veh.mi)
 V 
VMT15  0.25  Lt
 PHF 

Lt = total length of the analysis segment (mi)

V = hourly volume (veh/h)
Total number of vehicle-miles during the peak hour, VMT60 (veh.mi)
VMT60 = V(Lt)
Total travel time during the peak 15-min period, TT15 (veh.h)
VMT15
TT15 
ATS

Example:
Use the data of the previous example to determine the following:
Volume to capacity ratio (v/c)
Total number of vehicle-miles during the peak 15-min period (VMT15)
Total number of vehicle-miles during the peak hour (VMT60)
Total travel time during the peak 15-min periods (TT15)

Volume to capacity ratio (v/c):

vp 1827
v/c    0.57
C 3200

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Total number of vehicle-miles during the peak 15-min period

(VMT15):
 V 
VMT15  0.25  Lt
 PHF 

Lt = 6 mi, V = 1600 veh/h, PHF = 0.95 (given)

1600 
VMT15  0.25  * 6  2526 veh/mi
 0.95 

Total number of vehicle-miles during the peak hour (VMT60)

VMT60 = V(Lt) = 1600 * 6 = 9600 veh/mi

Total travel time during the peak 15-min periods (TT15)

VMT15 2526
TT15    66 veh/mi
ATS 383

Directional Segments
Three categories are considered:
Extended segments: located in level or rolling terrain with a length of
at least 2 mile
Specific upgrades or downgrades: located in mountains terrain or with
grades of at least 3% for segment lengths of at least 0.6 mile long
(grade of +3% or more and at least 0.25 mile in length may be
analyzed as a specific upgrade)
A passing lane: added within a section in level or rolling terrain or as a
truck climbing lane

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Extended Segment and Specific Upgrade or Downgrade

Calculating PTSFd:
PTSFd = BPTSFd + fnp
PTSFd = percent time spent following in the direction analyzed
BPTSFd = base percent time spent following in the direction analyzed
fnp = adjustment for percentage no-passing zones in the analysis
direction (Table 9.11)

BPTSFd  100 1  e avd
b

vd = passenger-car equivalent flow rate for the peak 15-min period in
the analysis direction (pc/h)
a, b = coefficients based on opposing flow rate vo (Table 9.12)
Vd
vd 
PHF * f G * f HV

Vd = hourly volume (veh/h)

fG from (Table 9.4 for extended segment, Table 9.14 for specific
upgrade, and =1 for downgrade)
ET & ER from (Table 9.5 for extended segment, Table 9.15 for specific
upgrade, and Table 9.5 – level terrain – for downgrade)

For specific downgrades that are long and steep fHV is calculated as
follow:
1
f HV 
1  PTC PT ( ETC  1)  (1  PTC ) PT ( ET  1)  PR ( E R  1)

PTC = decimal portion of trucks in the traffic stream that travel at

crawl speeds
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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

ET C = Passenger car equivalent for trucks in the traffic stream that

travel at crawl speeds (Table 9.19)
Calculating ATS:
ATSd = FFSd – 0.0077(vd + vo) – fnp
ATSd = average travel speed in the analysis direction of travel (mi/h)
FFSd = free flow speed in the analysis direction
fnp = adjustment for the percentage of no-passing zones in the analysis
direction (Table 9.13)
Vo
vo 
PHF * f G * f HV

vo = passenger car equivalent flow rate for the peak 15-min period in
the opposing direction of travel
Vo = demand volume for the full peak hour in the opposing direction
of travel
fG from (Table 9.4 for extended segment, Table 9.16 for specific
upgrade, and =1 for downgrade)
ET & ER from (Table 9.5 for extended segment, Tables 9.17 & 9.18 for
specific upgrade, and Table 9.5 – level terrain – for downgrade)
Multilane Highways
Multilane highways differ from both two-lane highways and freeways
They may exhibit some of the following characteristics:
Posted speed limits are usually between 40 and 55 mi/h
They may be undivided or include medians
They are located in suburban areas or in high-volume rural corridors
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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

They may include a two-way left-turn median lane (TWLTL)

Traffic volumes range from 15,000 to 40,000/day
Volumes are up to 100,000/day with grade separations and no cross-
median access
Traffic signals at major crossing points are possible
There is partial control of access
LOS can be described by any two of three performance
characteristics:
Flow rate, vp (pc/h/ln)
Average car speed, S (mi/h)
Density, D (pc/mi/ln)
LOS designation:
LOS A
Travel conditions are completely free flow
Density (D)  11 pc/mi/ln
LOS B
Travel conditions are at free flow
Localized reduction in LOS
D  18 pc/mi/ln
LOS C
Traffic density begins to influence operations
Travel speed shows some reduction when free flow speeds exceed 50

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

mi/h
D  26 pc/mi/ln
LOS D
The ability to manoeuvre is severely restricted due to congestion
Queues may begin to form
D  35 pc/mi/ln
LOS E
Operations are unstable and at near capacity
Vehicles operate at the minimum spacing for which uniform flow can
be maintained
D  45 pc/mi/ln
LOS F
Breakdown in vehicular flow (forced-flow)
Number of cars arriving at a point > the number discharged
LOS analysis can be used for operational or design purposes
The procedure for LOS determination involves the following steps:
Step 1: compute the value of free-flow speed (FFS)
FFS = BFFS – fLW – fLC – fM – fA
BFFS = base free-flow speed (assume 60 mi/h if field data are
unavailable)
fLW = adjustment factor for lane width (Table 9.29)
fLC = adjustment factor for lateral clearance (Table 9.30)

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

fM = adjustment factor for median type (Table 9.31)

fA = adjustment factor for access point density (Table 9.32)
Step 2: compute the value of flow rate (vp)
V
vp 
PHF * N * f HV * f p

V = hourly peak volume in one direction (vph)

N = number of lanes/direction
PHF = peak-hour factor
fp = adjustment factor for the effect of driver population = 0.85–1.00
fHV = adjustment factor for the effect of heavy vehicles
1
f HV 
1  PT ( ET  1)  PR ( E R  1)
; two cases for ET and ER

Case 1: Extended general freeway segment

Not too long or too steep grades
Area is level, rolling, or mountainous
Use Table 9.25
Case 2: Specific grade
L > 1.0 mi & G < 3% or L > 0.5 mi & G > 3%
For upgrades: use Table 9.26 for ET & Table 9.27 for ER
For downgrades: use Table 9.28 for ET & ER = ER for level grade
Step 3: determine the value of average passenger car speed (S)
If vp  1400 pc/h/ln, S = FFS
Otherwise, use FFS and vp to determine S from Figure 9.7
Step 4: compute the density (D = vp /S)
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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Step 5: use D to get LOS from Table 9.24

Example:
A 3200 ft segment of 3.25 mi four-lane undivided multilane
highway in a suburban area is at a 2.5% grade. The highway is in
level terrain, and lane widths are 11 ft. The measured free-flow
speed is 46.0 mi/h. The peak hour volume is 1900 veh/h, PHF is
0.9, and there are 13% trucks and 2% RV’s. Determine the LOS,
speed, and density, for upgrade and downgrade.

For downgrade:
Compute peak 15-min hourly passenger car equivalent (vp)
1
f HV 
1  PT ( ET  1)  PR ( E R  1)

V = 1900 veh/h, PHF = 0.90, N = 2 (given)

fp = 1.00 (assume commuter drivers)
L = 3200/5280 = 0.606 mi, G = 2.5%
ET = 1.5 (Table 9.28) & ER = 1.2 (Table 9.25 – level terrain)
PT = 0.13 & PR = 0.02 (given)
1
f HV   0.935
1  0.13(1.5  1)  0.02(1.2  1)

V
vp 
PHF * N * f p * f HV

1900
vp   1129 pc/h/ln
0.90 * 2 * 1 * 0.935

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Determine average car speed (S)

Since vp < 1400  S = FFS = 46 mi/h

Compute Density (D)

D = vp/S = 1129/46 = 24.5 pc/mi/ln

Determine LOS
From Table 9.24 and based on the calculated density  LOS = C

For upgrade:
Compute peak 15-min hourly passenger car equivalent (vp)
L = 3200/5280 = 0.606 mi, G = 2.5%
PT = 0.13 & PR = 0.02 (given)
ET = 1.5 (Table 9.26) & ER = 3.0 (Table 9.27)
1
f HV   0.905
1  0.13(1.5  1)  0.02(3.0  1)

V 1900
vp    1166 pc/h/ln
PHF * N * f p * f HV 0.90 * 2 * 1 * 0.905

Determine average car speed (S)

Since vp < 1400  S = FFS = 46 mi/h

Compute density (D)

D = vp/S = 1166/46 = 25.3 pc/mi/ln

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

Determine LOS
From Table 9.24 and based on the calculated density  LOS = C

Basic Freeway Sections

A freeway is a divided highway with full access control and two or
more lanes in each direction
Opposing traffic is separated by a raised barrier, an at-grade median,
or a raised traffic island
A freeway is composed of three elements:
Basic freeway sections
Weaving areas
Ramp junctions

Basic freeway section

Basic freeway sections are segments outside the influence area of

ramps or weaving areas
Base free-flow conditions include:
Lane width = 12ft
Lateral clearance  6 ft

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

No trucks, buses, or RV’s

Number of lanes  5/direction (urban freeways)

Spacing between interchanges  2 miles

Level grade (G  2%)

Drivers are familiar with the freeway
LOS designation
LOS A
Vehicles are completely unimpeded in their ability to manoeuvre
Density (D)  11 pc/mi/ln
LOS B
Free-flow conditions, and ability to manoeuvre is slightly restricted
Minor incidents and break downs are easily absorbed
D  18 pc/mi/ln
LOS C
Near free-flow speed, but freedom to manoeuvre is noticeably
restricted
Substantial local deterioration in service due to minor incidents
D  26 pc/mi/ln
LOS D
Freedom to manoeuvre is more noticeably limited
Minor incidents can create queuing
D  35 pc/mi/ln
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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

LOS E
No useable gaps, and little room to manoeuvre
Minor incidents cause immediate and extensive queuing
D  45 pc/mi/ln
LOS F
Breakdown in vehicular flow (forced-flow)
Number of cars arriving at a point > the number discharged
As per multilane highways, LOS of basic freeway sections can be
described by any two of vp (pc/h/ln), S (mi/h), D (pc/mi/ln)
The procedure for LOS determination is very similar to that of
multilane highways:
Step 1: compute the value of free-flow speed (FFS)
FFS = BFFS – fLW – fLC – fN – fID
BFFS = base free-flow speed (assume 65 mi/h for urban and 70 mi/h
for rural freeways)
fLW = adjustment factor for lane width (Table 9.34)
fLC = adjustment factor for lateral clearance (Table 9.35)
fN = adjustment factor for number of lanes (Table 9.36)
fID = adjustment factor for interchange density (Table 9.37)
Step 2: compute the value of flow rate (vp); same as multilane
highways except that G & L for the definition of specific grades are:
L > 0.25 mi & G > 3% or L > 0.5 mi & G < 3%
Step 3: use FFS and vp to determine the value of average passenger car
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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

speed (S) from Figure 9.9

Step 4: compute the density (D = vp /S)
Step 5: use D to get LOS from Table 9.33
Example:
Determine the LOS on a regular weekday on a 0.40-mi section of a
six-lane freeway with a grade of 2 percent, using the following
data:
Hourly volume, V = 3000 veh/h, PHF = 0.85
Percentage trucks = 12%, percentage RV’s = 2%
Lane width = 11 ft, shoulder width = 6 ft
Terrain = level
Base free-flow speed = 70 mi/h
Interchange spacing = 1 mile
Driver population adjustment factor fp = 1.0

Compute peak 15-min hourly passenger car equivalent (vp)

1
f HV 
1  PT ( ET  1)  PR ( E R  1)

PT = 0.12 & PR = 0.02 (given)

ET = 1.5 & ER = 1.2 (Table 9.25)
1
f HV   0.94
1  0.12(1.5  1)  0.02(1.2  1)

V
vp 
PHF * N * f p * f HV

V = 3000 veh/h, PHF = 0.85, N = 3, fp = 1.00 (given)

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 Traffic and Highways Engineering

3000
vp   1251 pc/h/ln
0.85 * 3 * 1 * 0.94

Compute the average car speed (S) and density

FFS = BFFS – fLW – fLC – fN – fID

BFFS = 70 mi/h (given)

fLW = 1.9 (Table 9.34)
fLC = 0 (Table 9.35)
fN = 3.0 (Table 9.36)
fID = 2.5 (Table 9.37)
FFS = 70 – 1.9 - 0 –3.0 – 2.5 = 62.6 mi/h
From Figure 9.9 and for vp < 1300  S = FFS = 62.6 mi/h
Compute the density (D)
D = vp/S = 1251/62.6 = 19.98 pc/mi/ln
Determine LOS

From Table 9.33  LOS = C

24