Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

Global Trends
Chapter One:
1. Introduction
The Rationale to study Global affairs and International Relations

 First, introduces students to key changes in current global politics/ Affairs in order to make sense of
major trends that are shaping our world that territory and borders of the state no longer matter, and
corporations compete with states to achieve their objectives

 Second, the study of contemporary global politics exposes the diminished importance of controlling
territory. Countries can fight wars thousands of miles away from their own territory, but they cannot
necessarily defend their own territory against contemporary military threats, like missile/rocket
strikes.

 Third, studying global politics today tells how leaky the borders of nation-states have become and how
easily persons, ideas, and things can be moved across them.

 In sum, we are living in a period that challenges our notion of states as the dominant actors in global
politics so that learning and studying global affairs and international relations is vitally important.
Global Affairs

 It study world politics however, an interdisciplinary field that borrows from economics,sociology,
geography, cultural and legal studies, public administration, communications, and criminal justice.

 Global affairs captures and describes the totality of political dynamics and interactions between a wide
range of actors (states and non-states) occurring across borders in an interconnected and
interdependent world.
1.1 Understanding International Relations
1.1.1 Concepts of International Relations
What is IR?

 International relations (IR) are the study of relationships among the actors of international politics.
Such actor includes nation-states, international organizations, nongovernmental organizations, and
multinational corporations.

 The IR also sometimes called international politics, international studies, or international affairs.

 IR is a branch of political science, what makes IR unique from other forms of political analysis is that
international politics is characterized by anarchy or the absence of any authority superior to the
nation-state.

 IR is interaction of states, non-state actors and individuals. The relations may be economic, political,
social and cultural, etc. and others see IR as a being any cross-border transaction of all kind
(political, economic and social).

1| Page
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 It is interactions between people, groups, firms, associations, parties, nations or states or between these
and (Non) governmental international organizations.

 IR is interdependence between states, among states actors because there is no self-sufficient state in the
world.
 International relations are not merely a field of study at university but are an integral aspect of our
(increasingly international) everyday lives. We now live in a world where it is impossible to isolate our
experiences and transactions from an international dimension.
 Today, International relations could be used to describe a range of interactions between people,
groups, firms, associations, parties, nations or states or between these and (non) governmental
international organizations
 Participation in international relations or politics is also inescapable.
 No individual, people, nation or state can exist in splendid isolation or be master of its own fate; but
none, no matter how powerful in military, diplomatic or economic circles, even a giant superpower, can
compel everyone to do its bidding.
 International politics is also about maintaining international order. But that order has to be maintained in
an anarchical world.

Why IR?
 International relations are not merely a field of study at university but are an integral aspect of our
(increasingly international) everyday lives. Because, it is impossible to isolate our experiences and
transactions from an international dimension.
 Enables students and professionals to better comprehend the information we receive daily from
newspapers, television and radio.
IR- emerged as an academic discipline in the years following the WWI (1914-18). The first university chair of
international relations was founded at the University of Wales in 1919. The world experienced two
devastating and protracted global conflicts: WWI (1914-18) and IIWW (1939-45). This war cost tens of
millions of lives, led to revolutionary social change around the world.
Why war and how peace?
There were two schools to address these questions. Realism and liberalism- each of them have their own
answer to address the question. If war gave the birth of academic IR, the establishment of peace was its first
mission. The first university chair of international relations was founded at the University of Wales in 1919.
 What focuses of IR? Is on issues of war and peace, conflict and cooperation
The concepts of nationalism, nations and International Relations
Nationalism is the most influential force in international affairs. It has caused the outbreak of
revolutions and wars across the globe. It is noted as a factor for the collapse of age old empires,
marker for new borders,a powerful component for the emergence of new states and it is used to
reshape and reinforce regimes in history. Nationalism’s triumph is the coming of the nation-state as key
actors in world politics-accepted as ultimate, legitimate and the most basic form of political entity.
According to Heywood (2014), nationalism is the doctrine that asserts the nation as the basic political unit
in organizing society.

2| Page
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

According to Heywood, ‘nations are historical entities that evolve organically out of more similar
ethnic communities and they reveal themselves in myths, legends, and songs (2014). On the other
hand, at the end of the eighteenth century this state came to be radically transformed. The ‘state’ was
combined with a ‘nation’ forming a compound noun – the ‘nation-state’ – which was organized
differently and pursued different goals. A nation, in contrast to a state, constitutes a community of people
joined by a shared identity and by common social practices. Communities of various kinds have always
existed but they now became, for the first time, a political concern. As a new breed of nationalist leaders
came to argue, the nation should take over the state and make use of its institutional structures to further
the nation’s ends. In one country after another the nationalists were successful in these aims. The nation
added an interior life to the state, we might perhaps say; the nation was a soul added to the body of the
early modern state machinery. The Congress of Vienna of 1815, where a settlement was reached at the end
of the Napoleonic Wars, was supposed to have returned Europe to its pre-revolutionary ways. Yet,
nationalist sentiments were growing across the continent and they constantly threatened to undermine the
settlement. All over Europe national communities demanded to be included into the politics of their
respective countries. Nationalism in the first part of the nineteenth century was a liberal sentiment
concerning self-determination – the right of a people to determine its own fate. This programme had far-
reaching implications for the way politics was organized domestically, but it also had profound
ramifications for international politics. Most obviously, the idea of self-determination undermined the
political legitimacy of Europe’s empires. As a result of the nationalist revolutions, the European
international system became for the first time truly ‘inter-national’. That is, while the Westphalian system
concerned relations between states, world affairs in the nineteenth century increasingly came to concern
relations between nation-states. In fact, the word ‘international’ itself was coined only in 1783, by the
British philosopher Jeremy Bentham. In most respects, however, the inter-national system continued to
operate in much the same fashion as the Westphalian inter-state system. Nation-states claimed the same
right to sovereignty which meant that they were formally equal to each other. In international politics,
nevertheless, the implication of nationalism and its essence is highly questioned. Especially in the
contemporary period, nation states are put under pressure and their role in world politics is significantly
challenged. However, there is also an emerging narrative which advances the idea that a revival of
nationalism is happening across the world with the post-cold war assertions of religion, culture and
ethnicity as potent forces in world politics – hence we have S.P. Huntington’s ‘clash of civilizations’ as an
alternative to Francis Fukuyama’s ‘End of History’ thesis on world politics.
1.3.1 The Nature and Evolution of International Relations
The genesis of the modern world system can be traced to the classical civilizations of ancient Greece
and Rome. Four important political concepts— the territorial state, sovereignty, nationalism, and
democracy—have evolved from these ancient states.
In medieval Europe there were two institutions with pretensions to power over the continent as a whole –
the (Catholic) Church and the Empire
The Catholic/ Church-was the spiritual authority, with its centre in Rome. The Empire – known as the
Holy Roman Empire – was established in the tenth century in central, predominantly German-speaking,
Europe. It also included parts of Italy, France and today’s Netherlands and Belgium.

3| Page
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

Following, the fall of the Roman Empire during the Middle Ages until 1500, governance rested in a
universalistic authority on the one hand and a local, micro level authority on the other.
The Treaty of Westphalia, 1648

 it is war between state and church

 it is warfare concluded at 30 years

 Symbolize the new way of organizing international politics.

 International politics was a matter of relations between states and no other political units.

 All states were sovereigni.e. to the exclusive right to rule their own territories and to act, in relation to
other states.

 All states were formally equal and they had the same rights and obligations that led to the problem of
anarchy==>Absence of central government. Then, the relations between states were complicated in
order to overcome this ambassadors, diplomacy and embassy established.
A historical to understand continuity as well as change in 1648 (west Phalia treaty) 1789(French
Revolutions 1918 (Frist World War) 1945 (Second World War )and 1990(End of the Cold War )
years.

 The Peace of Westphalia in 1648, for example, marked the onset of an era of territorial states.

 The French Revolution in 1789 ushered in modern nationalism and the marriage of nation and state.

 In 1918, with the end of World War I, America emerged as a superpower; communism triumphed in
Russia; and colonial empires eroded at an accelerating pace.

 In 1945, the end of World War II coincided with the use of weapons of mass destruction and the first
indications of a coming confrontation with the Soviet Union.

 Finally, the world that emerged in 1990, with the end of the Cold War, signaled the disappearance of the
Soviet Union and communism and revealed the new significance of many issues that we shall treat in
subsequent chapters, such as ethnic and nationalist conflict, the strengthening of non-state actors including
global terrorist networks, and international human rights law.
1.4. Actors in International Relations
There are two kinds of actors in international relations which are states and non-state actors.
1.4.1. State actors-International Relations (IR) traditionally focused on interactions between states and
states were the primary actors. All states were equally and sovereign and make decision in IR.
2.4.2. Non-state Actors- what is non-state actors? Any person or entity which plays a role that is valuable in
IR. Non- state actors are individuals or organizations that have powerful economic, political or social
power and are able to influence at national and sometimes international level while not belonging to or
ally themselves to any particular country or state.
Example: -IGOs (UN, WTO, WB, IMF), MNCs, NGOs
1.5. Levels of Analysis in International Relations

4| Page
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

In the early days of IR from 1919 until after the Second World War – a lot of what could be called traditional
or conventional IR was not concerned with any potential distinctions between different levels of analysis or
theoretical perspectives.

1.5.1. The individual level

 the motivation of leaders, according to their personality
 Focus on individual leader who make decisions on behalf of their country
 International relations can be analyzed from the perspective of individuals
 Here we would look at the behaviors, motivations, beliefs and orientation of the individual in affecting a
particular international phenomenon
 They are also an important factor in the analysis of foreign policy, whenever particular mindsets and
perceptions of political leaders and key actors might influence their decisions and behavior. For example,
a Prime Minister, encountering the leader of another state to negotiate an important financial agreement,
1.5.2. The group level
 A group level analysis would try and break the analysis down into certain kinds of groups.
 Eg. who discuss the global financial crisis as the ‘misrule of experts’, pointing at the politicized role
of technocratic circles and the relative lack of democratic control over the boards of large banks and
corporations
 A group-level analysis could be interested in activist/pressure groups
2.5.3. The state level
 State as the dominant unit of analysis.
 national domestic considerations, such as type of government and/or economic system
 On the state level of analysis, is referred to as the relative ‘state-centrism’ of the discipline. This means
that IR scholars would generally not only regard states as the central unit of analysis as such, they
also conceive of the state as a point of reference for other types of actors
 the state acts as the arena in which state officials, politicians and decision-makers operate
 State also being the main location of power within the international spheree.ithis idea that the state is
where power is primarily concentrated and located.
 States form the primary kind of actor in major international organizations such as the United Nations
 A state-level study would also require careful consideration of what kinds of states we are looking at (how
they are ordered politically), their geographical position, their historical ties and experiences and
their economic standing.
1.5.4. The system level
 Particularly important in that context is the distribution of power amongst states, meaning, whether there is
one main concentration of power (uni-polarity), two (bipolarity) or several (multipolarity).
 A system-level study would need to consider global linkages that go beyond single interactions between
states.
 To be successful, countries usually must make policy choices within the context of the realities of the
international system. Therefore, system-level analysis examines how the realities of the international
system influence foreign policy. Many factors determine the nature of any given system. Systemic factors
include its structural characteristics, power relationships, economic realities, and norms of behavior.

5| Page
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

1.6. The Structure of International System

International Relations scholars maintain that political power is usually distributed into three main types of
systems namely: (i) uni-polar system, (ii) bipolar system and, (iii) multi-polar system.
Uni-polar system, there is one state with the greatest political, economic, cultural and military power and
hence the ability to totally control other states. Probably, USA after Cold War
Bipolar system, there are two dominant states (super powers) and the less powerful states join either sides
through alliance and counter alliance formations. The problem with bipolar system is that it is vulnerable for
zero-sum game politics because when one superpower gains the other would inevitably lose.
E.g. USA vs USSR
Multi-polarsystem is the most common throughout history. During the period around World War I it was a
typical world system. It usually reflects various equally powerful states competing for power. It is not
necessary for states to change their relationship with zero-sum game. In such system, it is possible to bring
change without gaining or losing power.
Basic concepts of some key words in IR/System
What is Power?

 Power is the currency of international politics.

 As money is for economics, power is for international relations (politics).

 In the international system, power determines the relative influence of actors and it shapes the structure of
the international system.

 it is the highest political institution

What is Anarchy?

 it refers to a breakdown of law and order,

 It is a situation where there is absence of authority (government) be it in national or international/global

level systems.

 Power is decentralized and there are no shared institutions with the right to enforce common rules.

 World is a world where everyone looks after themselves and no one looks after the system as a whole.
What is Sovereignty?
Sovereignty is another basic concept in international relations and it can be defined as an expression of:
(i) A state’sultimate authority within its territorial entity (internal sovereignty) and,
(ii) The state’s involvement in the international community (external sovereignty).

 In short, sovereignty denotes double claim of states from the international system, i.e., autonomy in
foreign policy and independence/freedom in its domestic affairs

1.7. Theories of International Relations

Theories of International Relations

6| Page
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

Theories of international relations allow us to understand and try to make sense of the world around us
through various lenses, each of which represents a different theoretical perspective
1.7.1. Idealism/Liberalism
 Key actors are states, international institutions, global corporations
 view human beings as naturally good and believe peace and harmony between nations is not only
achievable, but desirable (optimism view )
 the prospects for the elimination of war lay with a preference for democracy over aristocracy, free trade
over autarky, and collective security over the balance of power system’
 liberal internationalism, democracy and free trade, required the establishment of international relations
 Liberals also argue that international law offers a mechanism by which cooperation among states is
made possible
1.7.2. Realism

 realism is real politik or power politics or based on power politics

 realism has been dominant theory of the world politics since the beginning of academic IRs

 realism is the oldest and frequently adopted theory of IRs

 the state as the primary unit of analysis,

 World politics is a self-help system

 For realists :- realism assumes that its key concept of interest defined as power
 ‘International politics, like all politics, is a struggle for power’.
 Human beings as living in an order-less ‘state of nature’ that he perceived as a war of all against all.To
medication this, he proposed that a ‘social contract’ was required between a ruler and the people of a
state to maintain relative order.
 Realists do not typically believe that human beings are inherently good
 Realists believe conflict is unavoidable and perpetual and so war is common and inherent to humankind
 all politics is a struggle for power
 Realists reach an array of accounts that describe IR as a system where war and conflict is common and
periods of peace are merely times when states are preparing for future conflict.
For Both
 Both liberalism and realism consider the state to be the dominant actor in IR
 Within both theories states themselves are typically regarded as possessing ultimate power.
1.7.3. Marxism
Marxism is the ideology that argues the capitalist society is divided in to two contradictory classes

 the business class the bourgeoisie and

 the working class proletariat

The proletariats are at the mercy of the bourgeoisie who control their wages and therefore their standard of
living. Marx hoped for an eventual end to the class society and overthrow of the bourgeoisie by the
proletariat.

7| Page
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 class as divided factors in IRs

 about economic development and human right violation

 Classes are the most important actors of world politics

 States, MNCs, IOs represent the dominant class interest in the world economic system

 Order in world politics has been in economic rather than in military terms

 Division of the world: core, semi-periphery, periphery

 The most important feature of world politics is the degree of economic autonomy

1.7.4. Constructivism

 Constructivism is another theory commonly viewed as a middle ground, but this time between
mainstream theories and the critical theories.

 To explain the core of constructivism is that the essence of international relations exists in the
interactions between people..

 In general For Constructivism

 Core concern is social groups’ shared meanings, identities and images are “how shape world politics”

 Key actors are individuals, nongovernmental organizations, transnational networks

 Central concepts are ideas, shared knowledge, identities, discourses and persuasion leading to new
understandings and normative changes

 Approach to peace is activists who promote progressive ideas and encourage states to adhere to norms
for appropriate behavior

 Global outlook is agnostic: global prospect hinges on the content of prevailing ideas and values

 Human agency has a much greater potential role in world politics (we make and re-make the social
world)

 Anarchy (self-help international system) is what states make of it.

 World politics as something that we can change (vs. neo-realism)

1.7.5. Critical Theories

 Critical approaches refer to a wide range of theories that have been established in response to
mainstream approaches in the field, mainly liberalism and realism. In a nutshell, critical theorists
share one particular trait – they oppose commonly held assumptions in the field of IR that have been
central since its establishment. Thus, altered circumstances call for new approaches that are better
suited to understand, as well as question, the world we find ourselves in.

8| Page
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 Critical theories are valuable because they identify positions that have typically been ignored or
overlooked within IR.

 They also provide a voice to individuals who have frequently been marginalized, particularly women
and those from the Global South.

CHAPTER TWO
2.. Understanding Foreign Policy and Diplomacy in IR
Introduction
2.1. Foreign Policy

 Is the totality of fundamental guidelines, principles, orientations and directions that shape the behaviors of
a government in IRs

 Foreign policy refers to the sets of objectives and instruments that a state adopts to guide its relation with
the outside world.

 FP as one of the major factors to shape, reshape, influence, even determine the fate of IR

 FP of states shape IR(the policy orientation of states against each other, especially FP of great powers
really determine IR, usually health, dependable and trustworthy IR is the outcome health FP of states

 IR is not optional; FP is not optional as well

 FP is sovereign relation among sovereign states of the world.

 FP is the behavior of one state towards other.

 FP is something that a state would like to achieve in its external relation with others.

9| Page
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 Fp is the management of IRs. One of the most important of objectives of FP is the national interest or the
main aim of state is to achieve or promote its national interest.

 FP is the sub-set of IR
National interest
What is national interest?
 By national interest we mean the sum of the goals and objectives of a state’s foreign policy.
 The minimum essential components of the national interest of any state are security, national
development and world order.
 National interest is a key concept in foreign policy.
 The goals and objectives of any state foreign policy constitute national interest as a basis. Accordingly
the objectives of any state’s foreign policy can be broadly classified in to the following,

1. Maintaining the integrity of the state –that is the preservation of its independence. States normally act to
maximize their chances of survival in the world.
2. Providing for national security- this is related with maintaining integrity.
3. Promoting economic interests- They seek fair prices for the commodities they export and import.
4. Protecting national prestige and developing national power-states act so as to gain status and respect by
other states.
5. Maintaining world order- in order to maintain inter-state relationship and promote one’s foreign policy,
state’s actions should conform to certain ethical and moral values acceptable to other state.
2.2. Foreign Policy and Foreign Policy Behaviors
Foreign policy refers to the sets of objectives and instruments that a state adopts to guide its relation with
the outside world. The objectives of foreign policy which a state wants to achieve are in one way or another
related to national interest. So, national interest is often considered as the objectives of foreign policy of a
state. And these objectives can be classified as
 long range,
 middle range and
 Short range.
Such classifications of foreign policy objectives are based on the combination of the three criteria:
(1) The value placed on the objective;
(2) The time element placed on its achievement; and
(3) The kind of demands the objective imposes on other states in international system. Based on these
criteria, the objectives can be also classified as:
(1) Core values and interests - to which states commit their very existence and that must be preserved
or extended at all time;
(2) Middle range goals, which normally impose demands on several others states (commitments to
their achievement are serious and time limit is also attached to them); (3) Universal long range
goals-which seldom have definite time limits.

10 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

In practice, however, leaders rarely place the highest value on long range goals and it’s very much
dependent on the capability and ideology of the state Foreign Policy Behavior: 2.10. Patterns and Trends
Foreign policy
Arnold Wolfers, a famous specialist in the field of International Relations, suggested that all foreign
policy behavior ultimately boils down to three possible patterns:
(1) Self-preservation (maintaining the status quo); e.g. USA
(2) Self-extension (revising the status quo in one’s own favor);e.g.Germany,Brazil, India
(3) Self-abnegation (revising the status quo in some else’s favor). Eg. Developing countries
2.3. Foreign Policy Dimensions
The analysis of foreign policy behavior can also be done along a number of specific dimensions, keeping
in mind that behavior can change over time and with different style of leaderships and circumstances.
These dimensions include alignment, scope and modus operandi.
1. Alignment: -A country’s alignment behavior can vary from time to time during its history in response to
changing circumstances and policy decisions. Yet one can identify the alignment tendencies such as
alliance, neutrality and non-alignment
2. Scope: -. Some countries have extensive, far-reaching international contacts, while other countries
have more limited activities abroad. Some actors act in Global terms, others as Regional terms, and
those that follow policy of Isolationism.
3. Mode of Operation/ “Modus Opernadi’:- Some countries often rely on multilateral institutions to
address different issues. Still others very much rely on unilateral means.
2.4. DETERMINANTS OF FOREIGN POLICY
The development of FP is influenced by domestic considerations, the policies or behavior of other states or
plans to advance specific geopolitical designs.
1. Historical Influence
 The foreign policy of a country is to a large extent the legacy of its history.
 Each country possesses an individuality of its own, which is the outcome of its historical and geographical
configuration.
 The cultural and historical traditions go a long way in molding the foreign policy of a state
 To a large extent the approach of a nation to the foreign problems is determined by its traditional values
and beliefs which have emerged on a period of history.
2. Size and Geography
 The geopolitical location of a state is one of the external determinants on its foreign policy. It matters
where on the globe a country is located
 It matters whether the country has natural frontiers: that is whether it is protected by oceans, high
mountains, or deserts.
 It matters who one's neighbors are and whether a given country is territorially large, populous, rich, and
well-governed.
3. Natural Resources
 The natural resources apart from minerals, gas and water resources also include the food grain.

11 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 During the present century, food has tended to be an important factor in the determination of a country’s
foreign policy. In the post World War II, Oil diplomacy in the Middle East has greatly determined
foreign policy not only of the states of the region, but also of the entire world
4. Economic Development

 One of the middle range objectives of the foreign policy of a state is to expand, diversify and strengthen its
economic relations with the external world.
5. Industrial Development
 The industrial development of a state also plays an important role in determining its foreign policy.
 This is evident from the fact that industrially developed countries like USA, Russia, Japan, Germany,
France and England are able to exercise great influence in the international affairs.
6. Military Power
 A state possessing sufficient military strength has greater initiative and bargaining power in the
international arena.
 The case of Israel can be quoted as an example. Unlike geographical and natural resources, the military
capacity is not a static factor.
7. Population
 The strength of a nation depends upon the quality and quantity of its human factor.
 Qualitatively, the population should be healthy, educated and prosperous.
 If the resources of a country are not sufficient to meet the requirements of the large population, the latter
may pose a serious challenge to the very existence of the state.
8. Quality of Diplomacy
 History of inter-state relations is full of examples where the countries succeeded in attaining their
objectives through wise diplomacy

2.5. Instruments (tools) of foreign policy

The relation of any two states with in any situation may range from total agreement to total hostility. Whether
they are in state of peace or war, states try to achieve their objective by influencing each other using
different mechanisms. The different techniques they use are the following:
1- Diplomacy
 Diplomacy is one of a number of instruments employed in order to make that attitude persuasive. It
involves negotiations which is carried out through a body of professions delegated by states (acts on
behave of the state) E.g. Ambassadors, Ministries/Foreign Ministers
 Diplomacy is conduct of relations between sovereign states through the medium of officials based at
home or abroad.
 Diplomacy is a tactic to minimize cost in the attempt to get something significant from other states or
parties- “taking-giving”
 Diplomacy is considered to be the main elements of FP. it is defined as the art or practice of conducting
international relations.
 Rules of Effective Diplomacy

12 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

The following are some of the basic rules that diplomats have employed with greater effectiveness over
the years:
Be realistic: It is important to have goals that much your ability to achieve them
Be careful about what you say: The experienced diplomats plans out and weighs words carefully.
Seek common ground: Dispute begins negotiations; finds common ground ends them successfully.
Almost any negotiation will involve some concession, so it is important to maintain a degree of flexibility.
Understand the other side: There are several aspects to understanding the other side. One is to appreciate
an opponent’s perspective even if you do not agree with it.
Be patient: it is also important to bide your time. Being overly anxious can lead to concessions that are
unwise and may convey weakness to an opponent.
Leave avenues of retreat open: it is axiomatic that even a rat will fight if trapped in a corner.
The same is often true for countries. Call it honor, saving face, or prestige; it is important to leave
yourself and your opponent an “out”.
In general, states make considerable use of what are known to be “carrot and stick” approaches when
they rely on such diplomatic tactics such as threats, punishment, promise, and rewards.
 Threats and punishment represent the stick approach, the former involving some hypothetical action
and the latter area action.
 The other two tactics (promise and reward) represent the carrot approach. These also involve
hypothetical and real action.

Functions of diplomacy/diplomats
A. Interest representation: represents the sending state interests in the receiving state.
B. Public Relations: As the legal and symbolic representative of his country a diplomat is engaged in
continuous efforts to create and propagate goodwill in favor of his own state and its policies.
C. Interest protection: of the sending state’s interest and its nationals (their interests) in the receiving state,
within the limits permitted by international law.
D. Negotiation: with the government of receiving state. Some important factors might determine the success
of negotiation that includes; negotiating ability, degree of experience, stamina (determination), honesty,
knowledge of the counterparts culture, technical expertise to deal with legal, political and moral aspects of
the negotiation and necessary degree of power to decide.
E. Information gathering: gathering of information from the host state, ascertaining and analyzing for
policies and policy adjustment and political reporting to the sending state is an important function of
foreign policy.
F. Reporting: Gathering of information and its reporting to the home government are, therefore, most
important functions of diplomats.
G. Crisis management: is related to handling conflicts between the concerned states since diplomats are in
the front line for conflict management and resolution, communication conveying and clarifying of
messages between governments.

13 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

H. Promoting and cultivating friendly relations: states usually interact in multitude of areas and sectors.
As a result diplomats nurture a gesture of good interaction in the fields of politics, economics, military,
culture, science, technology and others.
2- Economic Instruments of Foreign Policy
Just as modern states are politically and technologically interdependent, so do they rely up on each other
for resources and commodities that enable them to develop and sustain viable economies. There hardly exists
a state that is self-sufficient. There is a considerable degree of dependence up on trade among states. But
the degree of dependence and interdependence varies across states. Some states are strong and capable as
compared to other states.

 States often uses their economic muscle to influence the behavior (action, perception and role) of
others. Economic instruments can be used to achieve the foreign policy of objective of a state. States
may reward or punish states through the manipulation of economic policies. Some of these economic
instruments are: tariffs, quotas, boycotts, embargos, and aid.
3- Military instrument States also use military means as instrument of Foreign policy; especially as a
last resort when other means fail. These include black propaganda, covert intelligence activities
and open warfare. In another words, war as instrument of foreign policy of states also persists as
witnessed so farcourier
D. Propaganda
Propaganda and culture- Propaganda is systematic attempt to affect the minds, emotions, and actions of a
given group for public purposes. Propaganda has been used for many purposes by countries as an
instrument of foreign policy, among others these includes;
 Encouragement of internal opposition to unfriendly regimes
 Undermining the morale of the other side's armed forces
 To indirectly influence the target government to take a friendly and positive attitude towards one's own
purpose.

3. Ethiopia and International Relations

However, Ethiopia’s engagement in the world affairs in the conventional sense of ‘international relations’ is
fairly more recent.
For example, Bahru Zewde acknowledges Zar’aYa’eqb’s contribution in forging closer links with Europe
as culminated in the Ethio-Portuguese alliance of the 16th century. Whatever the case, Ethiopia remains
largely connected to the external world and the connections were both cooperative and conflictual within
different contexts. Yet, it is still largely marginalized in the increasingly globalizing world; while
historically it also played key roles in African and international institutions development and diplomacy.
Largely, this is connected to the dilemma of maintaining autonomy and meaningful engagements at both
domestic and international stages.

14 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

3. Overview of Ethiopia’s foreign policy and Diplomacy in the modern history

3.1Foreign Policy during Tewodros II (1855-1868)

 The idea of modern state started with Tewodros II

 He wanted to create a united Ethiopia, but only partially succeeded

 He introduce the idea of modernity and modern army at the time

 Throughout his reign Tewodros II tried to develop a dynamic FP that reached out beyond the Horn region.

 He sought the western Christian world to recognize his country and help him to modernize their country.

 E.g. western Christian nations especially to Britain, France and Russia to assist him in whatever ways
possible in his fight against the Turks, Egyptians and Islam world.

 The Emperor attempted to establish his diplomatic relations to fight his immediate enemies claiming
Christianity as instrument of FP.

 However, the emperor’s passionate demand for modern technology and skilled man power from
Britain was not concluded to his satisfaction as the latter sent religious missionaries. Tewodros took
desperate measures by taking hostage of several British missionaries including the consul which was
responded with the British Millitary Expedition (Keller). Tewodros’s Troops were easily defeated and the
King did not surrender but tragically committed suicide.
3.2. Foreign Policy during Yohannes IV (1872-1889

 Yohannes IV succeeded Tewodros II. Like his predecessor, Yohannes considered Islam as a threat to
the territorial integrity of the polity.

 Egypt tried to put a serious security threat in its continued attempt to invade the country under many
pretexts, yet its motive was to control the source of Blue Nile. These, however, were not successful as
Egypt faced subsequent defeat both in 1875 and 1876 at the Battle of Gundet and Gura respectively
(Keller).

 In addition to Muslim threat, the emperor saw European expansionism as greater threat to the survival
of the country.

 However, the emperor died fighting with the ―"Mahadists" i.ehis FP is challenges from external
because of during African scramble by Egypt, Italy and Sudan.
3.3. Foreign Policy during Menelik II (1889-93)
Following the death of Yohannes, Menlik II of Showa has assumed to the throne. Menelik came to power
against internal Power/ Force(Yoh, IV, AbisheGarba, TekleHaymanot, the Southern People and made
relations with Italy.

 Until 1889 their relation was cordinal/peaceful or before the death of yohannesIv Italy had good
diplomatic relation withmenelik with the objectives of the weakening his enemy in the north (Yoh. IV)

15 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 In 1889 the treaty of Wuchale was signed between Menelik and Italy art.17 put Ethiopia under the
control of Italy and Art 3 Menelik recognized Italy colonization Eritrea .

 Refused from Menelik led to abrogation of Treaty in 1893 battle of Adwa in 1896 that Italy was
defeated and the real FP was started.
Foreign Policy during Emperor Haile Selassie I (1916-1974)

Menelik died in 1913 and it was not until 1930 that the next strong emperor Haile Selassie I, assumed the
throne. He was dedicated to the creation of a stronger, centralized and bureaucratic empire with
unquestioned respect by the international community.
Emperor Haile Selassie I facilitated Ethiopia some achievements. E.g.

 Membership in league of Nations in 1923

 Founder members of OAU/AU

 Formulation of constitution in 1931 written constitution and revised in 1955

 Establishment of parliament

 Assistance from outsider from Britain military, economic and technical aids, and from USA technical
assistance and Ethiopian soldiers trained in USA.
3.4. Foreign Policy during the Military Government (1974—1991)
 The military regime that took control of state power in 1974 adopted a foreign policy largely oriented
to socialist ideology.
 The primary objectives of the foreign policy were survival of the regime and maintaining the
territorial integrity of the country.
 The major strategy to achieve the stated objectives heavily focused on building the military
capability of the country.
Why the regime did not have the necessary economic and military capabilities to achieve its objectives?

 The country was very much dependent on economic and military aid on the others.

 Internally Eritrean Liberation Front (ELF) launched military attack on the Ethiopian Army.

 Many external actors were involved in sponsoring the rebel group, including; Saudi Arabia, Egypt,
Sudan, Somalia and later USA itself.
3.5. The Foreign Policy of Ethiopia in the Post 1991
With EPRDF’s ascent to power the country adopted a new foreign policy orientation and objectives.

 In the post 1991 period, Ethiopia’s foreign policy is driven primarily by the quest to ensure national
interest and security.

 one of the goals of the foreign policy is to ensure the survival of the multi- national state.

16 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 National interest of the country is understood in terms of realizing the real interest of the people mainly
democracy and development.

 It refers to the primary interest of the people to live freely from poverty, disease and ignorance.

 In this regard, foreign policy has been considered as an instrument to solve the domestic problems of the
country, including; lack of good governance, instability and lack of economic development.
Some achievements of the Ethiopian now days

 Economic diplomacy through inviting foreign investment, seeking markets for exportable
commodities, seeking aid and confessional loans too.

 Building up the military capacity of the country- to address both internal and external challenges.

17 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

Chapter-Three
3. International Political Economy/ Global Political Economy
1. Meaning and Nature of International Political Economy (IPE)

 “is the study of the tension between the market and the state.

 IPE is adopted because a market economy cannot exist and operate without some kind of political order
(the state).

 Generally, it analysis of the relationship between economics and politics i.e. Resource and
power/market or state.
2. Theoretical perspectives of International Political Economy
There are three major theory of International Political economy/GPE: liberalism, Marxism, and
nationalism (mercantilism).
a. Mercantilism/nationalism: is a theoretical and ideological perspective which protects a strong and
continual role of the state in the economy – both in domestic and international trade, investment and
finance.
 Mercantilism emphasizes the importance of balance-of-payment surpluses in trade with other countries
and to this end it often promotes an extreme policy of autarky to promote national economic self-
sufficiency.
 Mercantilists, states should also play a disciplinary role in the economy to ensure adequate levels of
competition.
b. Liberalism:
 It protect the idea of free market system (i.e free trade/trade liberalization and free financial and
Foreign Direct Investment (FDI) flows).
 Accordingly, removing impediments (barriers) to the free flow of goods and services among countries is
the foundational value and principle of liberalism.
 The consensus among advocates of free trade is that it reduces prices, raises the standard of living for
more people, makes a wider variety of products available, and contributes to improvements in the
quality of goods and services.
 If countries focused on what they do best and freely trade their goods with each other, all of them would
benefit. The concept that captures this idea is also known as comparative advantage
c. Marxism: In fact, according to advocates of Marxism just the opposite is the case. Global and national
income inequality, for example, remains extreme: the richest 20 percent of the world’s population
controlled 83 percent of the world’s income, while the poorest 20 percent controlled just 1.0 percent;
Exploitation of labor shows no sign of decrease; the problem of child labor and even child slave labor has
become endemic and so on and so forth.
 Marxists then tell us that all of these crises are cut from the same cloth.

18 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 In particular, they all reflect the inherent instability and instability of a global capitalist system that has
become increasingly dependent on financial speculation for profit making. Some actors are always making
huge sums of money from the speculative bubbles that finance capitalism produces, and this is creating the
illusion that everything is working well.
Contemporary Theories of International Political Economy
There are three IPE contemporary theories/approaches
1. Hegemonic Stability Theory (HST):i
 Is a hybrid theory containing elements of mercantilism, liberalism, and even Marxism.
 The basic argument of HST is simple: the root cause of the economic troubles like Great Depression of
the 1920s and 1930s was the absence of a benevolent hegemony—that is, a dominant state willing and
able to takeresponsibility (in the sense of acting as an international lender of last resort as well as a
consumer of last resort) for the smooth operation of the International (economic) system as a whole.
 Central Idea:-The stability of the International System requires a single dominant state to articulate and
enforce the rules of interaction among the most important members of the system.
E.g. During the Great depression -old hegemon -Great Britain, had lost the capacity to stabilize the
international system, while the new (latent) hegemon-the United States, did not yet understand the need to
take on that role—or the benefits of doing so-hence global economic instability.
2. Structuralism:
 Is a amendment of the Marxist perspective and starts analysis from a practical analysis of the specific
structural problems of the international liberal capitalist economic system whose main feature is centre-
periphery (dependency) relationship between the Global North and the Global South which
permanently resulted in an “unequal (trade and investment) exchange.”
 It advocates for a new pattern of development based on industrialization via import substitution based on
protectionist policies.
3.Developmental State Approach: Realizing the failure of neo-liberal development theory (in the 1980’s)
in solving economic problems in developing countries, developmental state development paradigm as an
alternative development paradigm.
 The term developmental state thus refers to a state that intervenes and guides the direction and speed of
economic development.
Some of the core features of developmental state include;

 Strong interventionism: Intervention here does not imply heavy use of public ownership enterprise or
resources but state’s willingness and ability to use a set of instruments such as tax credits, subsidies,
import controls, export promotion, and targeted and direct financial and credit policies instruments that
belong to the realm of industrial, trade, and financial policy.

 Existence of bureaucratic tackle to efficiently and effectively implement the planned process of
development.
3. Core Issues, Governing institutions and Governance of International Political Economy
A. International Trade and the WTO

19 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 The World Trade Organization (WTO) is an international organization which sets the rules for global
trade.
 This organization was set up in 1995 as the successor to the General Agreement on Trade and Tariffs
(GATT) created after the Second World War. It has about 150 members.
 All decisions are taken commonly but the major economic powers such as the US, EU and Japan has
managed to use the WTO to frame rules of trade to advance their own interests.
 The developing countries often complain of non-transparent procedures and being pushed around by big
powers.

“How is international/global trade governed?” One most common answer is the idea that Global/Regional
Free Trade Agreements govern it-i.e institutions like World Trade Organization (WTO) and North American
Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA) or similar other organizations. How does this work? In the case of NAFTA-
a trade agreement among the U.S., Canada, and Mexico- for example, “free trade” was initially meant a lesser
degree of governmental constraints in cross-border trade, but not an elimination of government action.

B. International Investment and the WB

 The World Bank was created immediately after the Second World War in 1945.
 Its activities are focused on the developing countries.
 It works for human development (education, health), agriculture and rural development(irrigation,
rural services),environmental protection (pollution reduction, establishing and enforcing regulations),
infrastructure (roads, urban regeneration, and electricity) and governance (anti-corruption, development
of legal institutions).
 It provides loans and grants to the member-countries. In this way, it exercises massive influence on the
economic policies of developing countries. It is often criticized for setting the economic agenda of the
poorer nations, attaching harsh conditions to its loans and forcing free market reforms.
 The impact of the WB on the development of developing countries has been at best controversial and at
worst negative.
 This has largely to do with the ‘one size fits all’ types of excessive and hard to implement policy
prescriptions (mostly of the neo-liberal versions) of the bank to developing countries and the hard
aid/loan conditionality it often puts for policy conformance. That is also why the bank’s relationship
with the governments of the developing countries who seriously want to defend their policy freedom has
often been not smooth.
C. International Finance and the IMF
 The International Monetary Fund (IMF) is an international organization that oversees those financial
institutions and regulations that act at the international level.
 The IMF has 184 member countries, but they do not enjoy an equal say.
 The top ten countries have 55 per cent of the votes. They are the G-8 members (the US, Japan, Germany,
France, the UK, Italy, Canada and Russia), Saudi Arabia and China. The US alone has 17.4 per cent
voting rights.
 The global financial system is divided into two separate, but tightly inter-related systems: a monetary
system and a credit system.

20 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 The international monetary system can be defined as the relationship between and among national
currencies. More concretely, it revolves around the question of how the exchange rate among different
national currencies is determined.
 The credit system, on the other hand, refers to the framework of rules, agreements, institutions, and
practices that facilitate the transnational flow of financial capital for the purposes of investment and trade
financing.
Chapter Four
4`. Globalization and Regionalism
Globalization is often understood as a phenomena, or a process characterized by increasing
interconnectedness or interdependence. In short, it is a supra regional process bringing the world into one
global village.
 Thus, Globalization: the process of increasing interconnectedness between societies such the events in
one part of the world more and more have effects on peoples and societies far away.
 Extensively, intensively, deeply, speeding up; the world seems to be ‘shrinking’
 The economy, politics, and technology have been the driving forces of globalization. Regionalism, on
the other hand, is considered as a way of dealing with politico-economic, social, military and security
issues affecting states in common.
The Globalization Perspectives/Debates
Globalization is a challenging issue in international relations. There has been intense debate as to the
direction, nature and effect of globalization on states. In this regard, there are three perspectives: the
hyper-globalists, the skeptics, and transformationalists.
The Hyper-globalists

 It is a new era in human history that sates out-of-date (obsolete) to regulate their economy and boundary.

 It privileges (right) the economic over the political, the market over the state, and predicts the decline
of states i.e Economy is means to end.

 De-nationalization/ de-territorialization of economies through the establishment of transitional

networks of production, trade and finance due non-state actors like MNCs.

 modernization replacing the traditional culture having an motivation towards creating a new global
order marked by uniform cultural values or way of life i.e. Cultural imperialism
The skeptics (disbeliever)

 The skeptics rejected the view of super- globalist as a myth, imperfect and politically immature

 States are central actors and agents of globalization playing central role in shaping and regulating the
economic activities including the Trans-boundary flows of ideas, goods and peoples.

 undermine the view that the world is interconnected and moving into a "one village"

 Globalization is not more than regionalization because financial and trading blocs Western countries,
North America, in Asia and Africa like NAFTA, ASEAN,EU, COMESA...

21 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 Globalization brings nothing new; rather it is just the crystallization the already existing realities of the
world which has been marked by the North-South gap reflected in terms of the deeply rooted patterns
of in equality and hierarchy.
The Transformationalist

 globalization is a critical driving force behind the rapid social, political and economic changes which
are reshaping.

 globalization is reconstituting or reengineering the power, function and the authority of the state,
Even though the state has ultimate legal power to control events inside its boundary,

 It can’t command sole control over trans-boundary issues, actors, resource movement societies and
international politics.

 It argues new sovereignty regime is displacing traditional conception of state power as an absolute,
indivisible, territorially exclusive power

 Globalization is transforming or reconstituting the power and authority of national governments, they
however reject both the hyper globalist view of the end of the sovereign state as well as the Skeptics’
claim that nothing much has changed.

 The power of national government is necessarily diminished but on the contrary it is being redefined,
reconstituted and restructured in response to the growing complexity of process of governance in a
more interconnected world.
Globalization and Its Impacts on Africa, Ethiopia in a Globalized World
Positive opportunities of globalization. It has also benefited from the
1. Technological and knowledge transfer,
2. Free movement of ideas, people and finance.
The other side of the globalization coin shows negative impacts on Ethiopia.
1. The expansion of information communication opened the historically closed doors of Ethiopia to
newreligious and secularvalues that affected the religiosity and socialsolidarity of its people. This is
reflected in the rise of religious radicalism of every sort and posture. Socio-cultural impact of western
values is amply observed in urban centres.
2. Furthermore, the globalization dynamics contributed to the rise radical nationalism and ethnicity
3. The occurrence of human trafficking and migration is partly attributable to the beginning of globalization.
To sum up, Ethiopia has benefited less from globalizationthan its negativeinfluences.
Pros and Cons of Globalization/ Merits and demerits.
Among the leading merits of globalization are:-

 Expansion of democratic culture, human right and the protection of historically minority and subaltern
groups.

 Innovation in science, medicine, and technology and information communication has enabled the
improvement of quality of life.

22 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 free movement of good, service, people, ideas, expertise, knowledge and technology across national
borders strengthened international interdependence

 Contributed to the birth of a new sense of global society and the perspective of global citizenship that
contradicts the classical idea of citizenship limited national borders and defined by nationalism and
patriotism.
Demerits globalization:-

 Risks, threats and vulnerabilities like global terrorism, religious fundamentalism, proliferation of Small
Arms and Light Weapons (SALWs), arms and human trafficking.

 contributed to the rise of radical nationalism and ethnicity, etc `

5.2. Defining Regionalism and Regional Integration
 Region can be defined as a limited number of states linked together by a geographical relationship and
by a degree of mutual interdependence (Nye, 1968).
 Regionalism is political or economic processes of cooperation among states and other actor’s in
particular geographic regions
 Is cooperation (either formal or informal) among governments, non-governmental organizations, or the
private sectors in three or more countries for mutual gains.
 Regionalization can be considered as the growth of societal integration within a given region
 Regionalism refers to governments and peoples of two or more states to establish voluntary associations
and to pool together resources (material and nonmaterial) in order to create common functional and
institutional arrangements.
 Furthermore, regionalism can be best described as a process occurring in a given geographical region
comes to share certain fundamental values and norms.
The Old Regionalism
For many scholars, regionalism, as a voluntary and all-inclusive process, is predominantly a post-World
War II phe­nomenon. It emerged in Western Europe in the late-1940s, subsequently spreading to the
developing world. Old regionalism lost much of its dynamism in Europe in the early 1970s and gradually,
also in the developing world. As will become evident below, it is relevant to try separating the European-
centered debate from the debate in the developing world.
New Regionalism
The prospects of the fall of the Berlin Wall together with the 1985 White Paper on the internal market and
the Single European Act resulted in a new dynamic process of European integration. This was also the
start of what has often been referred to as ‘newregion­alism’ on a global scale. The new regionalism referred
to a number of new trends and developments, regional trade agreements, and less protectionist type of
regionalism, an anti-hegemonic type of regionalism which emerged from within the regions themselves
instead of being controlled by the superpowers, the rise of a more multi-dimensional and pluralistic type of
regionalism, which was not primarily centered around trading schemes or security cooperation and with a
more varied institutional design, and the increasing importance of a range of busi­ness and civil society actors
in regionalization.

23 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

Major Theories of Regional Integrations

Functionalism

 Functionalist viewed regionalism as a functional response by states to the problems that derived from
regional interdependence.

 It was seen as the most effective means of solving common problems.

 Regionalism has started from technical and non-controversial issues and has spilled over into the realm
of high politics and redefinition of group identity around the regional unit (Hurrell 1995).

 According to functionalism, the task of policy makers is to encourage the states to peacefully work
together.

 The like-minded states would spread the web of international activities and agencies in which and through
which the interests and life of all states would be gradually integrated from one activity to others
(Mitrany 1946).

 Regional organization was then built up to cope with one common problem and spill over to other
problems and areas of cooperation, which will deepen integration among member states.

 Therefore, 'spillover' is the key explanation of _functionalist regionalism

 Accordingly, the functionalist and neo-functionalist approaches believe that cooperation across
national borders particularly in the economic field spreadsout to other sectors. This spillover effect
leads finally to the formation of supranational institutions and to the diminishing role of the nation-
state
Neo-functionalism
Neo-functionalists, defined integration as a process:
'Political integration is persuaded to shift their loyalties, expectations and political activities towards a new
centre, whose institutions possess or demand influence over the pre-existing national states.
The end result of the process of political integration is a new political community, put on top over the pre-
existing ones.'(Haas 1968, 16).
According to Lindenberg, the following preconditions for the success of an integration process. These
conditions included according to him:

 Central institutions and central policies

 Their tasks and capacity to implement those tasks should go well beyond the mandate of normal
international institutions;

 There should be some link between the interests of member states and the process of integration.
(Lindberg 1963, 7-13).

24 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 An important concept is spill over, originally coined by Haas, mediator to the process of integration
from the political sphere into other aspects of life
Inter-governmentalism
 It approaches the question of the state in an integration process from the perspective of traditional
international relations.
 It thus considers the state mainly as an actor in the international system and the integration process to be
a process in that system.
 According to Moravcsik integration can be considered as part of the rational choice of state actors.
 These rationalist frameworks disaggregate the process of integration into three stages: national
preference formation, interstate bargaining and institutional choice.
 In the first stage, the degree of integration depends on the interests of influential domestic constituents
exercising pressure over their governments.
 intergovernmentalism, there is no sharing of sovereignty and each member state effectively retains a
veto on the application of regional agreements.
 Intergovernmentalism requires close coordination of national policies, and intergovernmental bodies
typically have a secretariat that has no independent power.
 Most integration bodies in developing countries are intergovernmental.
 A weakness of intergovernmental bodies is the lack of enforcement mechanisms to ensure that states
abide by the common rules.
Supra-nationalism
 Then, once supranational institutions are created, international interdependence grows, and interest
groups or political party leaders can shift their loyalties away from nationalinstitutions by choosing to
follow their interests through newly established internationalinstitutions.
 Supranationalism implies that member states agree to exercise some of their sovereignty jointly.
 Law passed at the regional level in those areas where the region is granted competence overcome over
national legislation and is binding directly on member states and citizens of those states (the principle
of direct effect).
 Supranationalism can be seen as a stepping stone to a federal political structure or confederation
 A key issue with supranational arrangements is ensuring the democratic participation of stake-holders,
the transparency of supranational decision-making and the accountability of regional institutions.
The Relations between Regionalization and Globalization
There are three possible options regarding the mutual relations between regionalization and globalization,
especially in the economic dimension:
1. regionalization as a component of globalization (convergent trends);
 Regionalism is emerging today as a potent force in the processes of globalization.
 According to this view, by helping national economies to become more competitive in the world market,
regional integration will lead to multilateral cooperation on a global scale, the adoption of liberal
premises about cooperation, and the opening of the local economies.
 Therefore, globalization may be expressed through regionalization
2. regionalization as a challenge or response to globalization (divergent trends);

25 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 The motivation toward regionalization might stem in this case from a reaction and challenge to the
unstructured, undemocratic, and inevitable economic rules of globalization.
3. Regionalization and globalization as parallel processes (overlapping trends) (Mittelman 1996a).
 Rather than reacting to each other, a third possibility is that regionalization and globalization might act
as parallel or overlapping processes in the two issue-areas of economics and security.
Regionalization, Globalization and the State
Bringing the forces of nationalism and the possible role(s) of the nation-state into the equation creates the
following possible linkages:
1. Nation-states oppose globalization (divergent trends);
2. Nationalism and the formation of new states are encouraged by the forces of globalization (convergent
trends);
3. Nation-states oppose the forces of regionalization (divergent trends);
4. Nationalism and the nation-states can be strengthened through regionalism (convergent trends);
5. Regionalization coexists with nationalism and with globalization (overlapping trends);
6. Nation-states mediate between trends of regionalization and globalization (overlapping trends)
7. Nation-states oppose globalization through regionalization (divergent trends).

Chapter Five
Major Contemporary Global Issues
Introduction
One of the most important dynamics of the 21st century is the shift in focus from International Relations to
Global relations and issues.
1. Global Security Issues

In the security arena, there are two main issues and challenges facing the emerging new world order. These
are: terrorism and nuclear proliferation. Let us see below what these security issues entail.
Global Terrorism
The question: ‘who gets to define terrorism and why?’ often complicates the task of defining terrorism.
Indeed, the saying ’some one’s terrorist is another’s freedom fighter’ is often presented as a justification
for the general acceptance of war as a legitimate instrument of even governments
Terrorism is defined by many as a global security problem characterized by the use of violence in the form
of hostage taking, bombing, hijacking and other indiscriminate attacks on civilian targets. In this sense,
the world is thus today experiencing four different types of terrorist organizations namely:

1. left wing terrorists. (by ideology Marxist,fascist,or anarchist, example Red army in Germany Red
Bridges in Italy, Nazism Germany, The shining path in Peru , Islamic Jihad in EGYPT )
2. Right wing terrorists. (extremist conservative, Far Right Military in the USA )
3. Ethno-nationalists/separatist terrorists. (Basques in Spain, Irish Catholics in Northern Ireland,
Tamils in SriLinka, Sikhs in India, and Chechen in Russia.
4. religious terrorists.(Hizbolla, Alshebab, Bokoharam, Taliban,Hamas)

26 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

Global communication and transport physical technologies helped the terrorists develop capacity to
conduct attacks across the globe
Factors Conducive to Terrorism: Terrorism might have many causes. Yet, the followings are among the
most widely perceived ones:

 socio-economic cause (poverty in the sense of economic and political isolation, feelings of
hopelessness, violations of human rights, and the lack of democracy provides a fertile breeding
ground for terrorism);

 Political cause (legitimate grievances and the failure of governments to adequately address these
problems often provoke terrorism.

 Moreover, the lack of democracy, and widespread and systematic violations of human rights
contributes to the rise of terrorism) and psychological cause (humiliation is another factor
conducive to the use of terrorism).
Types of Terrorism
The following five are the most commonly observed types of terrorism.
Domestic terrorism: occurs within the borders of a particular country and is associated with extremist
groups.Example Revolutionary OklahomaCity federal office building bombing in 1995.
Nationalist terrorism: is closely associated with struggles for political autonomy and independence. Eg.
Basques in Spain, Irish Catholics in Northern Ireland, Tamils inSriLinka, Sikhs in India, and Chechen in
Russia.
Religious terrorism: grows out of extreme fundamentalist religious groups that believe that God is on their
side and that their violence is divinely inspired and approved.
Example Bokoharam, Muslimsmagreb, ISIS, Alshebab, Hamas, Hezbollah, Taliban, AL Qaeda, Islamic
Jihad,
State terrorism: is a cold, calculated, efficient, and extremely destructive form of terrorism, partly because of
the overwhelming power at the removal of governments.
Example Germany Hitler.
Global terrorism: is partly an outgrowth of the forces of globalization, which enable the different kinds of
terrorism to spread worldwide. Example AlQaeda.
Nuclear Weapons and Their Proliferations
In the post-cold war period there is greater concern about nuclear proliferation – that is, the spread of
nuclear weapons themselves and the technology and knowledge required to build them. Put differently,
the end of the cold war has not diminished the significance attached to nuclear weapons, as many had hoped.
Indeed, the incentives for states to acquire nuclearweapons would appear to have increased in the post-cold
war period.
Reasons for the Proliferation of Weapons
There are strategic, economic, and political motivations for weapons proliferation. These include:
Super-power Rivalry during the Cold War: Geopolitical considerations influenced the United States and
the Soviet Union to transfer weapons to their respective allies. For example, both the North Atlantic Treaty

27 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

Organization (NATO) and the Warsaw Pact justified the proliferation of weapons in terms of collective self-
defense.
Military Burden Sharing: Reluctant to engage in direct military confrontation, both superpowers provided
weapons, technical assistance, and arms production technologies to their allies so that they could defend
themselves. An example of this was the Nixon Doctrine, which supported weapons transfers to Japan, South
Korea, Taiwan, and other Asian countries.
Regional Balance of Power: Arms sales are often defended on the grounds that such transfers contribute to
regional stability and diminish the likelihood of war.
Political, Military, and Economic Influence: Given the dependence of the United States on petroleum
supplies from the Middle East in general and Saudi Arabia in particular, arms transfers are instrumental not
only in bolstering these countries’ security but also in enabling the United States to gain and maintain access
to these countries’ political, military, and economic elites.
Economies of Scale: Many countries export weapons to obtain resources to finance the development and
production of more advanced weapons.
Self-Reliance: Many countries develop their own weapons to preserve or enhance their independence.
Economic Factors: Much of the global weapons trade is motivated by financial considerations.
Ethnic Conflicts: Ethnic conflicts generate demand for weapons transfers.
Authoritarian Regimes: Governments that rule without the consent of the people generally rely on military
force to exercise control.
2. Global Environmental Issues
The environment is gradually becoming one of the most pressing issues of twenty-first century.One of
the most pressing contemporary global issue related to the environment, i.e., climate change and global
warming
It has been recognized that many, if not all, problems of environmental degradation are trans-boundary in
nature and therefore need an international solution. National policy measures essentially cannot cope with
international environmental problems because the source of pollution or the impact of pollution may not be
within a particular state’s jurisdiction.
Climate change and Global warming
Climate change poses numerous and harsh challenges for sustainable development and its effects are be felt in
all regions of the globe, although the intensity of exposure varies. Degree of vulnerability varies even more
with developing countries and the poor which have contributed the least to global warming but are suffering
the most.
3. Global Socio-economic Issues
Global Inequality and Poverty
The existence of inequality is not automatically a major problem, especially when the economy is growing
and there are many opportunities for upward mobility
The last two decades of the twentieth century and the first decade of this century were characterized by a
widening gap between rich and poor and the proliferation of millionaires and billionaires
It strengthens inequality-perpetuating institutions in three ways:

28 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

Inequalitydiscourages the political participation of poorpeople, which, in turn, diminishes their access to
education, healthcare, and other services that contribute to economic growth and development.
Inequality often prevents the building and proper functioning of impartial institutions and observance of
the rule of law.
Inequality enables the wealthy to refuse to compromisepolitically or economically, which further
weakenspoorsocieties in a global society that requires relatively fast responses to economic
developments.
Migration and refugee problems
International migration and refugee (including asylum seekers and Internally Displace Peoples) have
become more prominent on the international agenda in recent years both because of their increasing scale and
growing impact on international affairs.
Several factors account for these developments.
1. First, the numberofstates in the international system has graduallyincreased since the end of the First
World War.
2. There has also been a rapidincrease in the world’spopulation, and it continues to grow.
3. the revolution in communications and transportation has made people aware of conditions and
opportunities in other parts of the world, as well as making travel to those areas easier
4. The confusion and uncertainty of the unsettled and unstable world place an important role in
motivatingpeople to search abroadforabetterlife.
Thus migration and refugee contributes to, illuminates and reinforces the interdependent nature of
world politics
1. Global Cultural Issues
Cultural Imperialism

 Cultural imperialism is the result of cultural globalization- a process whereby information,

commodities and images that have been produced in one part of the world enter into a global flow that
tends to ‘flatten out’ cultural differences between nations, regions and individuals. This has sometimes
been portrayed as a process of ‘McDonaldization’. McDonaldization is the process whereby global
commodities and commercial and marketing practices associated with the fast-food industry have come to
dominate more and more economic sectors.

 Cultural globalization is fuelled by the so-called information revolution, the spread of satellite
communication, telecommunications networks, information technology and internet and global media
corporations.

 In this view, globalization is linked to homogenization as cultural diversity are destroyed in a world in
which we all watch the same television programmes, buy the same commodities, eat the same food,
support the same sports stars and etc
Cultural (civilizational) clash and identity conflicts

 Culture and nationalism have generally been closely intertwined

29 | P a g e
 Made with Xodo PDF Reader and Editor

 That all societies, directly or indirectly, promote their values as positive and desirable while,
simultaneously, devaluing those of other societies, ethnocentrism as a behavior is likely to develop.

 That is to say that each society may view itself as the center of the world and perceive and interpret other
societies within its peculiar frame of reference, and invariably judges them to be inferior.

 "The Clash of Civilizations?" Huntington writes: "...The fundamental source of conflict in this new
world will not be primarily ideological or primarily economic. The real divisions among humankind
and the dominating source of conflict will be cultural. Nationstateswill remain the mostpowerfulactors
in worldaffairs, but the principal conflicts of global politics will occur between nations and groups of
different civilizations. The clash of civilizations will dominate global politics." (Huntington, 1993)

 For Huntington, civilizations will be the dividing lines in future globalpolitics and it is the clash of these
civilizations that would primarily define the feature of 21st century global order.

 And, Huntington argues that there are eight major civilizations in this game namely: Western, Confucian,
Japanese, Islamic, Hindu, Slavic-Orthodox, Latin American, and African.

 The clash-of-civilizations theory thus stresses that there exists and will continue to exist conflict instead of
cooperation among civilizations.

30 | P a g e