X CHEMISTRY, BSS PREPARED BY THEJASHWINI

CHAPTER 1
PERIODIC PROPERTIES
Periodic properties - The properties that reappear at regular intervals is called
periodic properties.

Periodicity of elements - The recurrence of similar properties of elements at

certain regular intervals when they are arranged in increasing order of atomic
numbers.

Atomic size - Atomic size is measured in terms of atomic radius. Atomic radius
is the distance between the centre of the nucleus of an atom and its outermost
shell.
The element which has largest atomic size - Caesium

Ionisation potential / Ionisation energy - The energy required to remove most

loosely bound electron from the valence shell of an isolated gaseous atom.
The element which has highest ionization potential - Helium

Electron affinity - The amount of energy released when an electron is added to

an isolated gaseous atom to form negative ion.
The element which has highest electron affinity - Chlorine
The group which has zero electron affinity - Group 18

Electronegativity – The tendency of an atom in a molecule to attract the shared

pair of electron towards itself.
The most electronegative element in the periodic table - Fluorine
The group which has highest electronegativity - Group 17

Trend of Properties Across period and Down the Group

Property Down the group Across the period
Atomic size Increases Decreases
Ionisation potential Decreases Increases
Electron affinity Decreases Increases
Electronegativity Decreases Increases
Metallic character Increases Decreases
Non metallic character Decreases Increases

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Give reason:
1. Atomic size decreases across a period - Across a period atomic number
increases, nuclear charge increases while the number of shells remain the
same. Due to this increased nuclear charge, the electrons of all the shells are
pulled close to the nucleus there by bringing the outermost shell closer to the
nucleus.

2. Atomic size increases down the group - Down the group there is addition
of new shells. Although nuclear charge increases its effect in negligible
compared to the dominating effect of new shell of electrons.

3. Ionisation potential increases across the period - Across a period atomic

radius decreases consequently more and more energy is required to remove
the electron.

4. Ionisation potential decreases down the group - Down the group size of
an atom increases, so lesser energy is required to remove valence electron.

5. Electron affinity increases across a period - Across a period atomic size

decreases and nuclear charge increases. This increases the attraction by the
nucleus for electron.

6. Electron affinity decreases down the group -Down the group atomic size
and nuclear charge increases but the effect of increase in atomic size is much
more pronounced than the nuclear charge. Thus attraction of nucleus for
electron decreases.

7. Electronegativity increases across a period - Across the period the number

of valence electron increases, the elements tend to gain electrons readily to
attain nearest noble gas configuration.

8. Electronegativity decreases down the group - Down the group atomic size
increases, electropositivity and metallic nature of element increases.

9. Metallic character decrease and non metallic character increases across

a period - Across the period ionisation potential increases and atomic radius
decreases.

10. Metallic character increases and non metallic character decreases down
the group - Down the group ionisation potential decreases and atomic radius
increases.

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X CHEMISTRY, BSS PREPARED BY THEJASHWINI

CHAPTER 2
CHEMICAL BONDING
Chemical bond – The force which holds two or more atoms together in a
molecule.

Electrovalent or ionic bond – The chemical bond formed between two atoms
by transfer of one or more electrons from the atom of metallic element to an
atom of non-metallic element.

Covalent bond – The bond formed due to mutual sharing of electrons between
the given pair of atoms of non-metallic elements.
• Single covalent bond – The bond formed by sharing only one pair of
electron between two atoms.
• Double covalent bond – The bond formed by sharing two pairs of electrons
between two atoms.
• Triple covalent bond – The bond formed by sharing three pairs of electrons
between two atoms.

Coordinate bond or Dative bond – A bond formed by sharing of electrons

between two atoms in which both electrons of the shared pair are contributed by
one of the atoms.

Lone pair of electrons – A pair of electrons present in an atom which is not

shared with any other atom.

Non polar covalent compound – Covalent compounds are non-polar when

shared pair of electrons are equally distributed between the two atoms. No
charge separation takes place. The molecule is symmetrical.

Polar covalent compound – Covalent compounds are polar when shared pair
of electrons are not at equal distance between the two atoms. Charge separation
takes place.

Give examples of:

1. Electrovalent compounds: NaCl, MgO, CaO, MgCl2, CaCl2
2. Covalent molecules: H2, O2, Cl2, N2
3. Covalent compounds: H2O, NH3, HCl, CH4, CCl4
4. Polar covalent compounds: H2O, NH3
5. Compounds containing both electrovalent and covalent bond - NaOH,
CaCO3
6. Compounds containing covalent and coordinate bond - CO, HNO3

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7. Compounds containing all the three bonds - Ionic, covalent and

coordinate bond - NH4Cl, K4[Fe(CN)6]

Draw electron dot structure / Lewis dot structure to show the formation of
following compounds:

Electrovalent compounds
1. Sodium chloride [NaCl]

2. Magnesium chloride [MgCl2]

3. Calcium Oxide [CaO]

Covalent molecules and compounds

1. Hydrogen molecule [H2 – Non polar]

2. Chlorine molecule [Cl2 – Non polar]

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3. Oxygen molecule [O2 - Non polar]

4. Nitrogen molecule [N2 – Non polar]

5. Water molecule [H2O – Polar]

6. Ammonia molecule [NH3 – Polar]

7. Methane molecule [CH4 – Non polar]

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8. Carbon tetrachloride [CCl4 – Non polar]

Compounds with coordinate bond

1. Ammonium ion - NH4+

2. Hydronium ion - H3O+

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Difference between Ionic compounds and covalent compounds

Property Ionic compound Covalent compound
1. State Crystalline solids Gases, Liquids, or soft
Reason – Ions are closely solids
packed with strong electrostatic Reason – Molecules have
force of attraction weak forces between them
2. Constituent Ions Molecule
units
3. Melting and High melting and boiling Low melting and boiling
Boiling point point
point Reason – There exist strong Reason – Weak Vander Waals
electrostatic force of attraction force between molecules, so less
between ions so large amount of energy is required to break the
energy is required to break the bond
bond
4. Do not conduct electricity Non-conductors of
Conduction in solid state electricity in solid, molten
of Reason – Electrostatic force of or aqueous state
electricity attraction keeps the ions in fixed Reason – Due to the absence
position of free ions
Good conductors of
electricity in molten or
fused state
Reason – The force is
weakened, hence ions are free to
conduct electricity

5. Conduction Good conductors of heat Bad or non conductors of

of heat heat
6. Electrolysis Can be electrolysed in molten Cannot be electrolysed in
state / aq. Solution state. normal state. In solution
state, polar covalent
compounds undergo
electrolysis
7. Solubility Soluble in water and Insoluble in water, soluble
insoluble in organic in organic solvents
solvents Reason – Organic solvents eg:
Reason – Water has a high benzene, alcohol, dissolve
dielectric constant i.e capacity to nonpolar covalent compounds
weaken the force of attraction, [like dissolves like]. Water
thus resulting in free ions. cannot dissolve non polar
Organic solvents have low covalent compounds, but
dielectric constants and do not dissolves polar covalent
cause dissolution compounds

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8. Reactions Undergo high speed ionic Undergo -slow speed

reactions molecular reactions
Reason: Free ions easily formed Reason – Covalent molecules
in solution, rapidly regroup in are first broken and new bonds
solution are slowly formed
9. Dissociation Undergoes electrolytic Undergoes ionisation – in
dissociation on passage of solution state on passage of
electric current. Process electric current. Process
involves separation of ions involves formation of ions
already present in ionic from molecules which are
compound not in ionic state

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CHAPTER 3A
ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS
Acid: An acid is a compound which when dissolved in water yields hydronium
ions [H3O]+ as the only positively charged ions

Basicity of Acid: The number of hydronium ions[H3O]+ that can be produced

by the ionization of one molecule of an acid in aqueous solution.
(or) The number of hydrogen ions[H+] which can be produced per molecule of
the acid in [Link]

Base: A base is a compound which reacts with hydronium ions of an acid to

give salt and water only.
Bases are oxides or hydroxides of a metal [including ammonium hydroxide]

Acidity of Base: The number of hydroxyl ions [OH]- which can be produced per
molecule of the base in aqueous solution.

Salt: A salt is a compound formed by partial or complete replacement of the

replaceable [ionizable] hydrogen ion of an acid by metallic ion or ammonium
ion [basic radical]

Normal Salt: The salts formed by complete replacement of the replaceable

hydrogen ion of an acid molecule by basic radical [metallic or ammonium ion].

Acid Salt: The salts formed by partial replacement of replaceable hydrogen ion
of an acid molecule by a basic radical [metallic or ammonium ion].
Eg: NaHCO3, NaHSO3, NaHSO4, Na2HPO4, NaH2PO4

Basic Salt: The salts formed by partial replacement of hydroxyl radicals of a

diacidic or triacidic base with an acid radical.
Eg : Cu[OH]NO3, [Pb(OH)Cl], [Mg(OH)Cl]

Deliquescence – Water soluble salts which on exposure to the atmosphere –

absorb moisture from atmosphere, dissolve in the same and change into a
solution. The phenomenon is called deliquescence and the salts deliquescent
salts.
Eg: FeCl3, CaCl2, MgCl2, ZnCl2, Fe(NO3)3, Cu(NO3)2
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Efflorescence – Crystalline hydrated salts which on exposure to the

atmosphere lose their water of crystallization partly or completely and change
into a powder. The phenomenon is called efflorescence and the salts
efflorescent salts
Eg: CuSO4.5H2O, MgSO4.7H2O, Na2SO4.10H2O, Na2CO3.10H2O

pH Scale: It is the scale which shows the relative strength of acids and alkalis.

pH: It is define as negative logarithm to the base10 of hydrogen ion

concentration.

Name the methods of preparation of salts and give examples

Preparation of Soluble salts

Method Examples
Direct FeCl3, AlCl3
Combination/Synthesis
Simple Displacement FeSO4, ZnSO4, ZnCl2, FeCl2
Neutralisation of insoluble CuSO4, ZnSO4, Cu(NO3)2, Pb(NO3)2,CuCl2
base
Neutralisation of alkali / Sodium salts, Potassium salts, Ammonium
soluble base -Titration salts [NaCl, KCl, NH4Cl, NaNO3, KNO3,
NH4NO3, Na2SO4, K2SO4, (NH4)2SO4]
Decomposition by acid NaHSO4
Action of dilute acids on CuCl2, Pb(NO3)2, Zn(NO3)2, Na2SO4, NH4Cl
carbonates/ bicarbonates

Preparation of insoluble salts

Direct Combination/Synthesis ZnS, PbS, FeS

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Double decomposition/Precipitation PbSO4,PbCl2, PbCO3, CaCO3, ZnS,

PbS, CaSO4, AgCl, PbSO3,CuSO3
Preparation of insoluble salts from PbCl2 from PbO/PbCO3, PbSO4 from
another insoluble salts – 2 step PbCO3
reactions

Some methods of preparation of salts and balanced chemical equations:

1. Direct combination/Synthesis
2Fe +3Cl2 2FeCl3
2Al+ 3Cl2 2AlCl3
Fe + S FeS
Zn + S ZnS
Pb + S PbS

2. Displacement
Fe + H2SO4 FeSO4 + H2
Fe + 2HCl FeCl2 + H2
Zn + H2SO4 ZnSO4 + H2
Mg + 2HCl MgCl2 + H2

3. Double decomposition – Precipitation

Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaCl 2NaNO3 + PbCl2
CaCl2 + Na2CO3 2NaCl + CaCO3
ZnSO4 + (NH4)2CO3 (NH4)2SO4 + ZnCO3
Zn(NO3)2 + Na2CO3 2NaNO3 + ZnCO3
Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 2NaNO3 + PbSO4

4. Neutralization of insoluble base

CuO + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O
PbO + 2HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + H2O
Cu(OH)2 + H2SO4 CuSO4 + 2H2O
Pb(OH)2 + 2HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + 2H2O

5. Neutralization of soluble salts – Titration

NaOH + HCl NaCl + H2O
NaOH + HNO3 NaNO3 + H2O
NH4OH + HCl NH4Cl + H2O
2NH4OH + H2SO4 (NH4)2SO4 + 2H2O

6. Action of acids on carbonates / bicarbonates

CuCO3 + H2SO4 CuSO4 + H2O + CO2
CuCO3 + 2HCl CuCl2 + H2O + CO2

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PbCO3 + 2HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2

ZnCO3 + 2HNO3 Zn(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2
Na2CO3 + H2SO4 Na2SO4 + H2O +CO2
(NH4)2CO3 + 2HCl 2NH4Cl + H2O + CO2
2KHCO3 + H2SO4 K2SO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2

7. Preparation of insoluble salt from another insoluble salt – 2 step

reactions
i. Preparation of PbCl2 from PbO
PbO + 2HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + H2O
Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaCl 2NaNO3 + PbCl2

ii. Preparation of PbSO4 from PbCO3

PbCO3 + 2HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2
Pb(NO3)2 + Na2SO4 2NaNO3 + PbSO4

iii. Preparation of PbCl2 from PbCO3

PbCO3 + 2HNO3 Pb(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2
Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaCl 2NaNO3 + PbCl2

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CHAPTER 3B
ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY

Action of sodium hydroxide on salt solutions

Salt Ion Observation/Effect of NaOH Reaction Name of
In little In excess the
precipitate
Ca(NO3)2 Ca2+ White Insoluble in excess of Ca(NO3)2 + 2NaOH Calcium(II)
White precipitate NaOH →Ca(OH)2 + 2NaNO3 hydroxide
FeSO4 Fe2+ Dirty green Insoluble in excess of FeSO4 + 2NaOH → Iron(II)
Green precipitate NaOH Fe(OH)2 + Na2SO4 hydroxide
FeCl3 Fe3+ Reddish Insoluble in excess of FeCl3 + 3NaOH → Iron(III)
Brown brown NaOH Fe(OH)3 + 3NaCl hydroxide
precipitate
CuSO4 Cu2+ Pale blue Insoluble in excess of CuSO4 + 2NaOH → Copper(II)
Blue precipitate NaOH Cu(OH)2 + Na2SO4 hydroxide
ZnSO4 Zn2+ Gelatinous Precipitate dissolves in ZnSO4 + 2NaOH → Zinc(II)
White white excess to form a clear Zn(OH)2 + Na2SO4 hydroxide
precipitate solution
Pb(NO3)2 Pb2+ Chalky Precipitate dissolves in Pb(NO3)2 + 2NaOH Lead(II)
White white excess to form a clear → Pb(OH)2+2NaNO3 hydroxide
precipitate solution

Action of Ammonium hydroxide on salt solutions

Salt Ion Observation/Effect of NH4OH Reaction Name of
In little In excess the
precipitate
Ca(NO3)2 Ca2+ No -
White precipitatio
n
FeSO4 Fe2+ Dirty green Insoluble in excess of FeSO4 + 2NH4OH → Iron(II)
Green precipitate NH4OH Fe(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 hydroxide
FeCl3 Fe3+ Reddish Insoluble in excess of FeCl3 + 3NH4OH → Iron(III)
Brown brown NH4OH Fe(OH)3 + 3NH4Cl hydroxide
precipitate
CuSO4 Cu2+ Pale blue Precipitate dissolves in CuSO4 + 2NH4OH → Copper(II)
Blue precipitate excess to form a deep Cu(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 hydroxide
blue/inky blue solution
ZnSO4 Zn2+ Gelatinous Precipitate dissolves in ZnSO4 + 2NH4OH → Zinc(II)
White white excess to form a Zn(OH)2 + (NH4)2SO4 hydroxide
precipitate clear/colourless
solution
Pb(NO3)2 Pb2+ Chalky Insoluble in excess of Pb(NO3)2 + 2NH4OH Lead(II)
White white NH4OH → Pb(OH)2 + hydroxide
precipitate 2NH4NO3

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Balanced equations to show action of alkalis on metals, amphoteric oxides /

hydroxides:
Certain metals like Zn, Al, Pb react with conc. Caustic alkalis [NaOH, KOH] to
give the corresponding soluble salt and liberate hydrogen
Metal + Alkali → Salt + Hydrogen
[hot conc.]
1. Zn + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2
2. Zn + 2KOH → K2ZnO2 + H2
3. Pb + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + H2
4. Pb + 2KOH → K2PbO2 + H2
5. 2Al + 2NaOH + 2H2O → 2NaAlO2 + 3H2
6. 2Al + 2KOH + 2H2O → 2KAlO2 + 3H2

Amphoteric oxides and hydroxides like ZnO, PbO, Al2O3, Zn(OH)2, Pb(OH)2
and Al(OH)3 react with both acids and alkalis to give salt and water
Amphoteric + Alkali → Salt + Water
oxide/ Hydroxide [hot conc.]
1. ZnO + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + H2O
2. ZnO + 2KOH → K2ZnO2 + H2O
3. Zn(OH)2 + 2NaOH → Na2ZnO2 + 2H2O
4. Zn(OH)2 + 2KOH → K2ZnO2 + 2H2O
5. PbO + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + H2O
6. PbO + 2KOH → K2PbO2 + H2O
7. Pb(OH)2 + 2NaOH → Na2PbO2 + 2H2O
8. Pb(OH)2 + 2KOH → K2PbO2 + 2H2O
9. Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O
10. Al(OH)3 + NaOH → NaAlO2 + 2H2O
11. Al2O3 + 2KOH → 2KAlO2 + H2O
12. Al(OH)3 + KOH → KAlO2 + 2H2O

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CHAPTER 4
MOLE CONCEPT AND STOICHIOMETRY
Gay-Lussac’s law of combining volumes - states that when gases react, they
do so in volumes which bear a simple ratio to one another, and to the volume of
the gaseous product, provided that all the volumes are measured at the same
temperature and pressure.
Example: H2(g) + Cl2(g) ⎯⎯⎯→ 2HCl(g) 1 vol. 1 vol. 2 vols.
The ratio of reacting gases and products is [Link], which is a simple ratio.

Avogadro's law - states that "equal volumes of all gases under similar
conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of
molecules."

Relative atomic mass of an element is the number of times one atom of the
element is heavier than 1/12th the mass of an atom of carbon-12.
RAM = Mass of one atom of the element
1/12 mass of one atom of carbon [C 12]

Gram atomic mass

The relative atomic mass of an element expressed in grams is known as gram
atomic mass
Gram atoms = Mass in grams of element
Relative atomic mass (Atomic weight)

Atomic mass unit (a.m.u)

Atomic mass unit is defined as 1/12th the mass of a carbon atom [C12]

Relative molecular mass

Relative molecular mass of an element/compound is the number of times one
molecule of the substance is heavier than 1/12th the mass of an atom of carbon
[C12]
RMM = Mass of 1 molecule of a substance
(1/12) Mass of one atom of carbon [C12]

Gram molecular mass

The relative molecular mass of a substance expressed in grams is known as
gram molecular mass or gram molecule of that element

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Gram molecule = Mass in grams of substance

Relative molecular mass ( Molecular weight)
Mole

➢ A Mole is the amount of pure substance containing the same number of

chemical units as there are atoms in exactly 12 grams of carbon-12.
➢ A mole is a basic unit of amount of substance or a number just as dozen or
gross.
➢ A mole is a collection of particles [basic units- atoms, molecules, ions] or
the amount of substance containing particles equal to 6.023 x 10 23 i.e
Avogadro’s number.

Avogadro’s number
Avogadro's number is defined as the number of atoms present in 12 g (gram
atomic mass) of C-12 isotope, i.e. 6.022 x1023 atoms.

Vapour density
Vapour density is the ratio of the mass of a certain volume of gas or vapour to
the mass of the same volume of hydrogen
[Volumes measured under same conditions of temperature and pressure]
Vapour density = Mass of Certain volume of gas or vapour
Mass of Same volume of hydrogen

Relation between relative molecular mass and vapour density.

Relative molecular mass is twice its vapour density
Relative molecular mass = 2 x Vapour density
i.e RMM = 2 x V.D

Molar volume - Volume occupied by 1g. molecular weight of a gas

Molar volume = Gram molecular mass (GMM)
Mass per litre of gas at STP

Percentage composition of mass =

Weight of the element in one molecule of substance × 100
Gram molecular weight

Empirical formula is the formula of a compound which shows the simplest

whole number ratio between the atoms of the elements in the compound
eg: empirical formula of glucose (C6H12O6) = CH2O

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Molecular Formula - The formula which gives the exact number of different
atoms present in one molecule of compound.

Molecular Formula = n × Empirical Formula

n = Molecular formula weight (Molecular weight)

Empirical formula weight

Mole concept

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CHAPTER 5
ELECTROLYSIS

Electrolysis - The process of decomposition of the chemical substance in its

aqueous or molten[fused] state by passage of electric current is called as
electrolysis.

Electrolyte - The chemical compound which allows the passage of electric

current in its aqueous state or molten state.

Non-Electrolyte - The chemical compound which does not allow the passage of
electric current in its aqueous state or molten state.

Strong Electrolyte - The electrolytes which dissociates completely in aqueous

solution or molten state and allow large amount of electric current to pass
through them.

Weak Electrolyte - The electrolytes which dissociate partially in aqueous or

molten state and allows small amount of electric current to pass through them.

Examples of strong electrolytes, weak electrolytes and nonelectrolytes

Strong electrolytes Weak electrolytes Non-electrolytes
Hydrochloric acid Acetic acid Pure distilled water
Nitric acid Formic acid Alcohol
Sulphuric acid Carbonic acid Kerosene
Potassium hydroxide[solution] Oxalic acid Carbon disulphide
Sodium hydroxide[solution] Calcium hydroxide Carbon tetrachloride
Lithium hydroxide[solution] Ammonium hydroxide Sucrose
Lead bromide[molten] Sodium carbonate Glucose
Copper chloride[aq.] Potassium bicarbonate Sugar solution
Silver nitrate[aq.] Lead acetate Urea
Copper sulphate[aq.] Sodium formate

Electrode - The conducting rod of a metal or graphite through which electric

current enters and leaves the electrolyte.

Cathode - The electrode which is connected to the negative terminal of battery.

The current leaves the electrolyte through cathode. It is a reducing electrode.

Anode - The electrode which is connected to the positive terminal of battery.

The current enters the electrolyte through anode. It is an oxidising electrode.

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Cation – Cations are positively charged ions. They migrate towards cathode
during electrolysis. They accept or gain electrons from cathode and get reduced
to neutral atom.

Anion – Anions are negatively charged ions. They migrate towards anode
during electrolysis. They donate or lose electrons to anode and get oxidized to
neutral atom.

Electrochemical Series - The series in which metals or non- metals are

arranged in decreasing order of their tendency to lose or gain electrons.

Electrochemical Series
Metallic ions / Cations Non metallic ions / Anions
K1+ SO4-2
Ca2+ NO3-1
Na1+ Cl-1
Increasing ease of Reduction

Mg2+ Cations are Br-1 Increasing ease of Oxidation

Anions are
3+ -1
Al discharged at I
discharged at
Zn2+ OH-1
cathode by gain
Fe2+ anode by loss
Pb2+ of electron
of electrons
[H1+]
Cu2+
Hg2+
Ag1+

Factors affecting selective discharge:

Selective discharge depends on:
1. Position of ions in the electrochemical series – Lower the position of ion in
the electrochemical series greater is the tendency to be discharged at the
respective electrode.
2. Concentration of ions in the electrolyte – Higher the concentration greater
is the probability of it being discharged at the respective electrode.
3. Nature of electrode – Inert electrodes like graphite, Iron and platinum do not

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take part. Active electrodes like copper, nickel and silver take part in
electrolytic reaction.

Electrorefining – The process by which metal containing impurities are

purified electrolytically to give a pure metal.

Electro refining of Copper:

1. Name the electrolyte – Copper sulphate solution
2. Cathode used – Pure thin strip of copper
3. Anode used – Impure block of copper
4. Dissociation – CuSO4 → Cu2+ + SO42-
H2O → H1+ + OH1-
5. Reaction at Cathode – Cu2+ + 2e- →Cu
5. Reaction at Anode – Cu – 2e- →Cu2

Electrometallurgy – The process of extraction of metals by electrolysis.

Electrolytic Dissociation and Ionisation

Electrolytic dissociation Ionisation
• Electrolytic dissociation is a process • Ionisation is a process which
which takes place in electrovalent takes place in covalent
compounds compounds
• It involves separation of ions which • It involves formation of
are already present in ionic charged ions from the
compound molecules which are not in
• PbBr2 2+
Pb + 2Br 1- ionic state
• HCl H+ + Cl-

Metallic conduction and Electrolytic conduction

Metallic conduction Electrolytic conduction
The flow of electricity is due to flow The flow of electricity is due to
of electrons ions
Metals both in solid and liquid state Electrolytes are good conductors
are good conductors of electricity only in aqueous solution or in
molten state
No change of form or in composition New products are formed at the
occurs during conduction of electricity. electrodes. This involves a
This is only physical change chemical change
For example – Cu and Al wire For example - Aqueous solution
of CuSO4

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Electrolysis of Molten lead bromide, Acidulated water

Electrolyte Molten Lead Acidulated water

Bromide
Nature of Electrode
Cathode Graphite[inert] Platinum foil [inert]
Anode Graphite[inert] Platinum foil [inert]
Dissociation PbBr2 → Pb + 2Br H2O →H1+ + OH1–
2+ 1-

H2SO4 →2H1+ + SO42-

Reaction at Cathode Pb2+ + 2e- → Pb H+ + 1e- → H x 4
2H + 2H → 2H2
Product formed at cathode Lead metal Hydrogen gas [2 vol]
Observation at cathode Silvery grey metal Colourless, odourless
gets deposited gas which burns with pop
sound is evolved
1- -
Reaction at Anode Br - e →Br OH1- - e- → OH x 4
Br + Br →Br2 4OH → 2H2O + O2
Product formed at Anode Bromine vapours Oxygen [1 vol]
Observation at anode Reddish brown Colourless, odourless gas
vapours which rekindles burning
are evolved splinter is evolved

Electrolysis of Aqueous copper sulphate

Electrolyte Aqueous copper sulphate Aqueous copper sulphate

Nature of Electrode
Cathode Copper [active] Platinum or carbon [inert]
Anode Copper [active] Platinum or carbon [inert]
Dissociation CuSO4 → Cu2+ +SO42- CuSO4 → Cu2+ +SO42-
H2O → H1+ + OH1- H2O → H1+ + OH1-
Reaction at Cathode Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu Cu2+ + 2e- → Cu
Product formed at cathode Copper metal Copper metal
Observation at cathode A pink metal gets A pink metal gets
deposited deposited
Reaction at Anode Cu – 2e- → Cu2+ OH1- - 1e- → OH x 4
4OH → 2H2O + O2
Product formed at Anode Copper ions / Cu2+ions Oxygen gas
Observation at anode Mass of anode decreases / Colourless, odourless gas
anode decreases in size which rekindles burning
splinter is evolved

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Give reason for the following:

1. Electrolysis of Molten Lead bromide is a redox reaction
Lead ions gain electrons and get reduced to neutral lead atoms.
Bromide ions lose electrons to anode and get oxidized to neutral atoms.
Oxidation and reduction take place simultaneously, hence it is redox reaction.

2. Crucible is made of silica in electrolysis of molten lead bromide

Silica is non-reactive, withstands high temperature and is almost
nonconductor of electricity.

3. In electrolysis of molten lead bromide crucible is heated slowly form

outside
Solid lead bromide is nonconductor of electricity since its ions are not free
but held together by an electrostatic force of attraction.
The ions become free when lead bromide is in the fused or molten state.
Hence The crucible is heated to maintain lead bromide in molten state.

4. Graphite anode is preferred to other inert electrodes such as platinum in

electrolysis of molten lead bromide
Since graphite is unaffected by the reactive bromine vapours

5. Water is acidified for electrolysis

Pure water is a nonelectrolyte, it consists almost entirely of molecules. It can
be electrolytically decomposed by adding traces of dil sulphuric acid. The H +
ions and SO42- ions help in dissociating water into H+ and OH- ions.

7. The electrolyte aqueous copper[II]sulphate may be acidified with traces

of dilute sulphuric acid during its electrolysis using copper electrodes
Acidification of electrolyte with traces of dilute sulphuric acid enhances the
conductivity and may prevent hydrolysis of the electrolyte.

7. Blue colour of the copper sulphate solution remains unchanged during

electrolysis of aq. copper sulphate solution using Copper electrodes
For every copper ion [Cu2+] discharged at the cathode as neutral copper atom
– a copper ion [Cu2+] is added to the solution at the anode. Hence the total
number of Cu2+ ions remain the same. Therefore, the blue colour of CuSO4
which is due to presence of Cu2+ ions does not fade.

8. Blue colour of the copper sulphate solution fades during electrolysis of

aq. copper sulphate solution using Platinum electrodes.
If platinum anode is used the blue colour of copper sulphate solution fades
since the blue Cu2+ ions which are discharged at the cathode are not replaced
at the anode.

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9. During electroplating, the article to be plated is always placed at the

Cathode.
During Electrolytic reaction the metal is always deposited at the cathode.

[Link] metal to be plated on the article is always made the anode. It has to
be replaced periodically.
The metal anode continuously dissolves as ions in solution and is hence
replaced periodically.

11. During electroplating a direct current should be used not Alternating

current.
Alternating current causes discharge and ionization to alternate at the
cathode thus giving no effective coating

12. A low current for a longer time should be used for electroplating.
Higher current causes uneven deposition of metal. Low current for a longer
time initiates a smooth, firm, uniform and long lasting deposition

13. For electroplating an article with silver, Silver nitrate is not used as an
electrolyte.
Silver nitrate is a strong electrolyte. It decomposes rapidly and provides
large number of ions. The discharge and subsequent deposition of silver will
be rapid. Hence coating will not be smooth and uniform.

14. Sodium argentocyanide is preferred to silver nitrate.

Sodium argentocyanide is a complex salt. Migration of Ag1+ ions is slow
compared to that from AgNO3. Hence even deposition of the metal silver is
obtained on the article.

Electroplating - The deposition of thin but firm coating of superior metal (Ag,
Ni, Cr, Au) on the surface of inferior metal (Cu, Fe, Zn) is called as
electroplating.

Reasons for electroplating.

• Prevent corrosion or rusting of the base metal
• Electroplating makes the article attractive and gives it an expensive
appearance.

Conditions for electroplating

• The article to be electroplated is always placed at the cathode

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• The metal to be plated on the article is always made the anode. It has to
replaced periodically
• The electrolyte must contain ions of the metal used for plating on the article
• A low current and for a longer time should be used

Electroplating an article with Nickel and Silver

Electroplating Nickel Silver
with
Electrolyte Aqueous nickel Sodium argento cyanide solution
sulphate solution [complex salt]
Nature of
Electrode Cleaned article to be Cleaned article to be electroplated
Cathode electroplated
Plate or block of nickel Plate or block of silver metal
Anode metal [active]
Dissociation NiSO4 → Ni2+ + SO42- Na[Ag(CN)2] → Na1+ + Ag1+ + 2CN1-
H2O →H1+ + OH1- H2O →H1+ + OH1-
Reaction at Ni2+ +2e- → Ni Ag1+ + 1e- → Ag
Cathode
Reaction at Ni – 2e- → Ni2+ Ag – 1e- → Ag1+
Anode

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CHAPTER 6

METALLURGY
Metallurgy: The large-scale processes involved in the extraction of pure metals
from their respective ores is called metallurgy.

Mineral: The naturally occurring compounds of metals found in nature

associated with their earthly impurities are called minerals.

Ore: The naturally occurring minerals from which metals can be extracted
profitably and conveniently are called ores.

Matrix/ Gangue: The rocky impurities like silica, mud, lime stone, rock, etc.
associated with the ore is called matrix or gangue.

Flux: The substance added to the ore to get rid of the matrix resulting in the
formation of a fusible compound slag.

Slag: Slag is the fusible compound formed by combination of flux and gangue

Refining: It is the process by which impure metals are purified electrolytically

to obtain a highly pure metal.

Pulverisation: The process of crushing the ore into a fine powder is called
pulverisation.

Concentration of ore / ore dressing: The process of removing gangue, the

rocky impurities like SiO2 present in the ore.
Ores of Aluminium
Common name of the ore Chemical name Formula
1. Bauxite [main ore] Hydrated aluminium oxide Al2O3.2H2O
2. Cryolite Sodium aluminium fluoride Na3AlF6
3. Corundum Aluminium oxide Al2O3

Ores of Zinc
Common name of the ore Chemical name Formula
Zinc blende Zinc sulphide ZnS
Calamine Zinc carbonate ZnCO3
Zincite Zinc oxide ZnO

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Ores of Iron
Common name of the ore Chemical name Formula
Haematite [main ore] Iron[III]oxide Fe2O3
Magnetite Tri iron tetroxide Fe3O4
Iron pyrites Iron disulphide FeS2
Spathic iron ore Iron[II]carbonate FeCO3

the main processes involved during metallurgy in the extraction of pure

metal from an impure ore
Steps Process Method used Examples Principle
Step - 1 Concentration 1. Gravity separation /Oxide ores like Difference in densities
of ore Hydrolytic method SnO2, Fe3O4 of gangue and ore
2. Froth flotation Sulphide ores like Preferential wetting of
method Zinc blend and the ore with pine oil
Galena and gangue by water
3. Magnetic separation Magnetic Either the ore or
ore/gangue gangue should be
magnetic
4. Chemical method / Bauxite The ore should be
leaching soluble in a suitable
reagent
Step – 2 Conversion of 1. Calcination Oxide ores,
concentrated Carbonate ores __
ore to its oxide and hydrated ores
2. Roasting Sulphide ores __
Step – 3 Reduction of 1. Electrolysis Oxides of K, Na, __
metal oxide to Ca, Mg, Al
metals 2. Reducing agents
*Carbon (coke) only Zinc oxide
*Carbon/ carbon Oxides of Fe, Pb,
monoxide / hydrogen Cu __
Step – 4 Refining of 1. Distillation Volatile metals
impure metal like Hg and Zn __
2. Liquation Lead and tin
which have low
melting point
3. Oxidation Iron which
contains volatile __
impurities like
phosphorous and
sulphur
4. Electrorefining Cu, Al, Zn, Pb __

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3. Differentiate between calcination and roasting

Calcination Roasting
1. Calcination is the process in which a 1. Roasting is a process in which
concentrated ore is heated strongly in the the concentrated ore is heated
absence of air strongly in the presence of air
2. Carbonate and hydrated ores are calcined 2. Sulphide ores are roasted
3. Moisture, Organic impurities are removed 3. The volatile impurities of P,As
and S are removed as their
oxides(SO2, P2O5, As2O3)
4. Ore becomes porous 4. Ore becomes porous

Extraction of Aluminium
Step – 1 - Concentration of ore / Dressing of ore
➢ Principal ore or main ore – Bauxite/ Hydrated aluminium oxide /Al2O3.2H2O
➢ Process used - Baeyer’s process
➢ Method used - Chemical method
➢ Chemical used - Con. Solution of sodium hydroxide
➢ Conversion - Conversion of Impure bauxite [Al2O3.2H2O] to pure alumina
[Al2O3].
➢ Reaction
Al2O3.2H2O + 2NaOH 2NaAlO2 + 3H2O
[Impure bauxite] [Conc. Soln.] [Sodium aluminate]

50-60°C
NaAlO2 + 2H2O NaOH + Al(OH)3
[Sodium aluminate] [Aluminium hydroxide]

1100°C
2Al(OH)3 Al2O3 + 3H2O
[Aluminium hydroxide] [pure alumina]

Step – 2: Conversion of concentrated ore to oxide

Step not necessary in metallurgy of aluminium as the ore is already in oxide form
Step – 3 : Reduction of metallic oxide to its metal [impure]
➢ Process used - Hall Heroult’s process

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➢ Method used – Electrolysis

➢ Conversion – Pure alumina [Al2O3] to pure aluminium[Al]
➢ Constituents of electrolyte - Fused alumina [Al2O3], Cryolite [Na3AlF6] and
Fluorspar [CaF2]
➢ Electrodes - Cathode – Carbon lining [gas carbon] of the cell
Anode – Thick carbon rods [graphite]
➢ Ionization reaction - Na3AlF6 ↔3Na1+ + Al3+ + 6F1-
CaF2 ↔ Ca2+ + 2F1-
Al2O3 ↔ 2Al3+ + 3O2-
➢ Electrode reaction
At cathode – 2Al3+ + 6e- 2Al [aluminium metal]
At anode – 3O2- - 6e- 3[O]
3[O] + 3[O] 3O2 [Oxygen gas]
➢ Product formed
At cathode – Pure aluminium metal
At anode - Oxygen gas
Step – 4: Refining of aluminium
➢ Process used - Hoope’s process
➢ Electrodes used
Cathode – pure molten Al with carbon electrodes
Anode – Impure Al at the bottom with carbon lining
➢ Electrolyte - Mixture of cryolite, BaF2, AlF, CaF2
➢ Reaction
At cathode – Al3+ + 3e- Al
At anode – Al – 3e- Al3+

Significance of
Sodium hydroxide - used in purification of Bauxite because Bauxite being
amphoteric reacts with the base and forms sodium aluminate and water whereas
the impurities remain unaffected.
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Cryolite and fluorspar - Cryolite lowers lowers the fusion temperature of the
mixture from 2050°C to 950°C.
It increases the conductivity of the electrolyte.
Addition of Cryolite and Fluorspar enhances the mobility of the fused mixture
by acting as a solvent for electrolytic mixture.

Powdered Coke - A layer of powdered coke sprinkled over the electrolytic

mixture prevents the burning of the carbon anode
Prevents heat loss by radiation.

Alloy: Alloy is the homogeneous mixture of two or more metals or of one or

more metals with certain non-metallic elements

Name of Principal / Composition Properties Uses

alloy Main metal
Stainless Iron Fe, Ni, Cr, C Lustrous, hard, Cutlery, surgical
steel corrosion instruments, utensils
resistant
Duralumin Al, Mg, Mn, Cu Very light, Body of aircrafts, light
Aluminium
stronger than Al tools, cooker
Magnalium Al, Mg Light, hard, Aircrafts, scientific tools
tough, corrosion
resistant
Brass Cu, Zn Hard, lustrous, Electrical fitting,
Copper and malleable, decorative articles.
zinc ductile, easily
cast.
Bronze Cu, Zn, Sn Hard, attractive, Statues, Medals, coins
takes up polish,
brittle
Solder/fuse Lead Pb, Sn Low melting Electrical fuse, soldering
metal point, high purposes
tensile strength

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CHAPTER 7A
STUDY OF COMPOUNDS – HYDROGEN CHLORIDE
A solution of hydrogen chloride gas was named ‘Muriatic acid’
Laboratory preparation of Hydrogen Chloride

Reactants Solid sodium chloride and Concentrated sulphuric acid

Balanced equation NaCl + con. H2SO4 < 200°C NaHSO4 + HCl
Temperature Should be less than 200°C
Drying agent Concentrated sulphuric acid
Collection by upward displacement of air
Identification Dense white fumes are produced when a glass rod dipped
in ammonia solution is brought near the mouth of gas jar
containing hydrogen chloride.
Precautions ➢ The lower end of thistle funnel should dip below the
acid to prevent hydrogen chloride from escaping
through thistle funnel
➢ The reaction mixture is initially heated very slowly to
control the evolution of HCl gas.

Give reason for the following:

a. Sodium chloride is preferred in the laboratory preparation of HCl gas
Sodium chloride is cheap and easily available.
b. Conc. H2SO4 is used as reactant
It is non-volatile and has high boiling point
c. Concentrated nitric acid cannot be used for preparing HCl

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It is volatile and may volatize out along with the hydrogen chloride.
d. Temperature should be below 200°C
At higher temperature i.e., above 200°C:
➢ The glass apparatus may tend to crack
➢ Sodium sulphate, forms a hard crust, sticks to the glass and is difficult to
remove.
➢ Fuel is wasted.
e. Conc. Sulphuric acid is used as drying agent
It does not react with HCl, it only removes moisture from it.

f. Quick lime [CaO] and phosphorous pentaoxide [P2O5] are not used as
drying agents
They react with hydrogen chloride.
g. Hydrogen chloride is collected by upward displacement of air
It is heavier than air
h. HCl is not collected over water
It is highly soluble in water.
Physical properties of hydrogen chloride
➢ Solubility – Highly soluble in water
Note: HCl gas fumes in moist air due to its high solubility forms a mist of
droplets of HCl acid.
➢ Fountain Experiment demonstrate the high solubility of hydrogen chloride
gas in water
Preparation of Hydrochloric acid in the laboratory
➢ Hydrochloric acid is prepared by dissolving hydrogen chloride gas in water
using a special inverted funnel arrangement.

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➢ Direct absorption of HCl gas in water using delivery tube causes back
suction as the rate of absorption of HCl is faster than the rate of than the rate
of production.
➢ Advantages of inverted funnel arrangement
Prevents back suction of water in the reaction flask
Provides large surface area for absorption of Hydrogen chloride gas
➢ Dilute hydrochloric acid cannot be concentrated by distilling or boiling
the dilute acid
Because it forms azeotropic mixture or constant boiling mixture.
Chemical properties of Hydrochloric acid
Substance Reaction Gas evolved
Magnesium Mg + 2HCl →MgCl2 + H2 Hydrogen
Zinc Zn + 2HCl →ZnCl2 + H2 Hydrogen
Iron Fe + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2 Hydrogen
Copper oxide CuO + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O -
Ammonium hydroxide NH4OH + HCl → NH4Cl + H2O -
Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + CO2 Carbon dioxide
Copper carbonate CuCO3 + 2HCl → CuCl2 + H2O + CO2 Carbon dioxide
Sodium hydrogen NaHCO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + CO2 Carbon dioxide
carbonate
Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2CO2 Carbon dioxide
Sodium sulphite Na2SO3 + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2O + SO2 Sulphur dioxide
Sodium bisulphite NaHSO3 + HCl → NaCl + H2O + SO2 Sulphur dioxide
Iron sulphide FeS + 2HCl → FeCl2 + H2S Hydrogen
sulphide
Sodium sulphide Na2S + 2HCl → 2NaCl + H2S Hydrogen
sulphide
Silver nitrate AgNO3 + HCl → AgCl + HNO3 -
Lead nitrate Pb(NO3)2 + 2HCl → PbCl2 + 2HNO3 -

Test for hydrochloric acid

➢ Dense white fumes are formed when a glass rod dipped in ammonia solution
is brought near the vapours of hydrochloric acid.
➢ A curdy white precipitate of silver chloride is formed when silver nitrate

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➢ solution is added to dilute hydrochloric acid. The white precipitate is soluble

in NH4OH and insoluble in dilute HNO3 and cold water.

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CHAPTER -7 B
STUDY OF COMPOUNDS – AMMONIA
Ammonia was initially called ‘Alkaline air’ since it was basic in nature.
Laboratory preparation of Ammonia

Reactants Ammonium chloride [Sal ammoniac -NH4Cl] and Calcium

hydroxide [Slaked lime – Ca(OH)2]
Balanced equation 2NH4Cl + Ca(OH)2 → CaCl2 + 2H2O + 2NH3
Drying agent Quick lime [CaO]
Collection By downward displacement of air.
Identification Dense white fumes are formed when a glass rod dipped in
[Link] is brought near the gas jar containing ammonia
gas.
Precautions ➢ The reactants should be finely powered to initiate
maximum surface area
➢ Slaked lime used should be in a higher ratio.
➢ The round bottom flask is kept in an inclined position.
➢ NH4NO3 is not used as reactant since it is explosive and
decomposes forming nitrous oxide and water vapour.

Give reason:
a. A higher ratio by weight of the alkali [calcium hydroxide] is used.
It may counteract the loss by sublimation of ammonium chloride on heating
in the solid state.
b. Calcium hydroxide is used
Since it is cheap and unlike other caustic alkalis is not deliquescent.

c. Round bottom flask is kept in an inclined position

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So that water vapour formed may not trickle back and crack the hot flask.
d. Quick lime is used as drying agent
Quicklime being basic in nature does not react with basic ammonia.
e. Concentrated sulphuric acid is not used as drying agent.
Concentrated sulphuric acid being acidic reacts with basic ammonia
2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4

f. P2O5 and fused CaCl2 are not used as drying agents

They react chemically with ammonia.
6NH3 + P2O5 + 3H2O → 2(NH4)3PO4
8NH3 + CaCl2 → CaCl2.8NH3 [addition product]

g. Ammonia gas is collected by the downward displacement of air.

Since it is lighter than air.
h. Ammonia gas is not collected over water.
Since it is highly soluble in water.

i. The reactants are finely ground.

To provide maximum surface area for reaction.

j. NH4NO3 is not used in the laboratory preparation.

Ammonium nitrate is explosive and on reacting with alkali do not produce
ammonia as it decomposes on heating forming nitrous oxide and water
vapour.
NH4NO3 → N2O + 2H2O

k. NH4NO2 is not used in the laboratory preparation.

Ammonium nitrite does not produce ammonia as it decomposes on heating.
NH4NO2 → N2 + 2H2O

Laboratory of ammonia from metal nitrides and warm water.

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Balanced equation Mg3N2 + 6H2O → 3Mg(OH)2 + 2NH3

AlN + 3H2O → Al(OH)3 + NH3
Ca3N2 + 6H2O → 3Ca(OH)2 + 2NH3
Drying agent Quick lime[calcium oxide] because it is basic in nature.
Collection Downward displacement of air because it is less denser than
air.
Identification ➢ Dip the glass rod in Conc. HCl and bring it near the
mouth of the gas jar, dense white fumes of ammonium
chloride is formed.
Precautions ➢ The lower end of thistle funnel should dip below the
warm water in the flask

Manufacture of Ammonia
Name of the Haber’s Process
Process
Reactants Hydrogen (From Bosch Process), Nitrogen (By liquefaction
of air) in the ratio 1:3 by volume
Reaction 450 - 500°C, 200 to 900 atm
N2 + 3H2 2NH3 + ∆
Fe, Mo

Conditions Temperature: 450 - 500°C

Pressure: 200 – 900 atm
Catalyst: Finely divided iron
Promotor: Molybdenum
Recovery of Liquefaction - Ammonia is easily liquefiable at -33°C
Ammonia from nitrogen and hydrogen will not liquefy at this temperature
unreacted Nitrogen By dissolving in water – Ammonia is highly soluble in
and Hydrogen water but nitrogen and hydrogen are almost insoluble in
water.

Physical properties of ammonia

➢ Solubility: Highly soluble in water
Fountain Experiment demonstrate the high solubility of ammonia gas in
water and also with the change in colour of litmus solution (Red litmus
turning Blue) indicates the gas is alkaline/Basic in nature

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Chemical properties of ammonia

Equation Observation
Oxidation of ammonia
Burning of 4NH3 + 3O2 → 2N2 + 6H2O Ammonia burns with a green or
ammonia in yellowish green flame in the
oxygen atmosphere of excess of oxygen
Catalytic A colourless gas [NO] is formed
oxidation of which on oxidation turns reddish
Pt
ammonia 4NH3 + 5O2 800°C
→ 4NO + 6H2O brown.
The platinum catalyst continues
to glow even after heating is
discontinued.
Basic nature of ammonia
Reaction of NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
ammonia gas NH3 + HNO3 → NH4NO3
With acids 2NH3 + H2SO4 → (NH4)2SO4
Ammonia as reducing agent / Reducing property
With CuO 2NH3 + 3CuO → 3Cu +3H2O + N2 Black copper oxide changes to
pink metal copper.
With PbO 2NH3 + 3PbO → 3Pb + 3H2O + N2 Buff yellow lead[II]oxide
changes to silvery grey metal
lead.
With chlorine 8NH3 + 3Cl2 → 6NH4Cl + N2 Dense white fumes are formed.
[Ammonia in
excess]
With chlorine in NH3 + 3Cl2 → 3HCl + NCl3 Yellow oily explosive liquid
excess nitrogen trichloride is produced.

Basic nature of ammonia gas

➢ Dry ammonia gas or ammonia in the liquefied form is neutral to dry litmus.
➢ An aqueous solution of ammonia gas is basic in nature.
➢ Liquor ammonia: An aqueous solution of ammonia in water is called
liquor ammonia or liquor ammonia fortis
NH3 + H2O →NH4OH
➢ Preparation: By dissolving ammonia gas in water using a funnel arrangement
is similar to the preparation of hydrochloric acid from HCl gas.
➢ Basic nature of ammonia: The aqueous solution of ammonia[[NH4OH] is
alkaline and acts as a weak base, since it undergoes partial dissociation in
aqueous solution to give hydroxyl ions[OH-ions] in low concentration.
➢ NH4OH →NH4 + + OH-

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➢ The aqueous solution of ammonia turns red litmus blue and phenolphthalein
solution pink

Tests for ammonia

➢ Ammonia gives dense white fumes when a glass rod dipped in [Link] is
brought near ammonia.
NH3 + HCl → NH4Cl
➢ When ammonia is passed through copper sulphate solution a pale blue
precipitate is formed which dissolves in excess to form deep blue solution.
CuSO4 + 2NH4OH → (NH4)2SO4 + Cu(OH)2
Cu(OH)2 + 4NH4OH → [Cu(NH3)4](OH)2 + 4H2O
➢ Colourless Nesseler’s reagent [K2HgI4]– potassium mercuric iodide] turns –
pale brown on passage of excess of ammonia a brown precipitate is obtained

Uses of ammonia
➢ Ammonia is used in the manufacture of fertilizers like urea [[Link].NH2]
and ammonium sulphate [(NH4)2SO4], Ammonium nitrate [NH4NO3],
Calcium ammonium nitrate, Di – ammonium hydrogen phosphate.
➢ Liquor ammonia emulsifies fat, grease:
hence it is used for removing oil or grease stains from clothes
It is also used for cleaning window panes and porcelain articles.
➢ Liquid ammonia is used as refrigerant in ice plants since
1. It is highly volatile
2. Has a high latent heat of evaporation.
3. Easily liquefies under pressure at low temperatures.
➢ Ammonia is used in the manufacture of explosives [Ammonium nitrate].

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CHAPTER -7 C
STUDY OF COMPOUNDS – NITRIC ACID

Nitric acid was initially called ‘Aqua fortis’ means strong water as a result of its
corrosive action on many metals

Laboratory preparation of nitric acid

Reactants Potassium nitrate [nitre] or Sodium nitrate [chile salt petre]

And conc. Sulphuric acid
Balanced NaNO3 + H2SO4 < 200°C NaHSO4 + HNO3
equation Chile salt Conc. Sodium bisulphate Nitric acid [vapours]
petre
<200°C
KNO3 + H2SO4 KHSO4 + HNO3
Nitre conc. Potassium bisulphate Nitric acid vapours

Condition Temperature of the reaction should be less than 200°C

Collection Nitric acid vapours are condensed and collected in water cooled
receiver
Identification Add copper turnings to the vapours and heat, reddish brown gas is
liberated which turns acidified ferrous sulphate solution brown.
Precautions Complete apparatus is made of glass
Conc. HCl is not used in place of conc. H2SO4 as a reactant
The reaction temperature is properly maintained and controlled

Give reason
i. Concentrated sulphuric acid is used

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Since it is a strong, non-volatile acid and capable of displacing the more

volatile nitric acid from KNO3 or NaNO3 on heating the reaction mixture

ii. Concentrated hydrochloric acid is not used

HCl being volatile itself it is not used to displace another volatile acid

iii. An all glass apparatus is used

Since the vapours of nitric acid being highly corrosive –attack rubber,
cork, etc.

iv. The temperature of the reaction should be less than or around 200°C.
High temperatures above 200°C may cause
➢ Formation of a hard residual crust of Na2SO4 or K2SO4 which being a
poor conductor of heat, sticks to the glass and cannot be easily
removed from the apparatus
2NaNO3 + Conc H2SO4 above 200°C Na2SO4 + 2HNO3

2KNO3 + Conc H2SO4 above 200°C K2SO4 + 2HNO3

➢ Damage to the glass apparatus
➢ Further decomposition of nitric acid

v. Pure nitric acid is colourless while nitric acid obtained in the

laboratory is slightly yellowish brown
Nitric acid decomposes and results in the formation of reddish brown
nitrogen dioxide which remains dissolved in the acid, thereby imparting
yellowish brown colour to it.
4HNO3 4NO2 + 2H2O + O2
The yellow brown tinge in the acid can be removed by
a. Bubbling of air or carbon dioxide
- which drives out the reddish brown nitrogen dioxide gas from the
warm acid and further oxidises nitrogen dioxide to nitric acid
b. Dilution with water
- Causes dissolution of nitrogen dioxide gas which is soluble in water.

Manufacture of Nitric acid

Name of the Process Ostwald’s Process

Reactants Ammonia and air in the ratio 1:10
Catalyst Platinum

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Step I
[Catalytic chamber – Catalytic oxidation of ammonia to
nitric oxide]
4NH 3 + 5O2 Pt / 700 - 800°C 4NO + 6 H2O

Reactions [3 steps] Step II

[Oxidation chamber – Oxidation of nitric oxide (NO) to
nitrogen dioxide(NO2)]
2NO + O2 50°C 2NO2
Step III
[Absorption tower – Nitrogen dioxide to nitric acid]
4NO2 + 2H2O + O2 4HNO3

Nitric acid affect our skin if it falls on it

Nitric acid has an extremely corrosive action on the skin and causes painful
blisters
It combines with the protein of the skin forming a yellow compound
xanthoproteic acid and hence stains the skin yellow

Chemical properties of nitric acid

➢ Stability of nitric acid
a. Pure nitric acid is colourless and unstable and decomposes slightly even at
ordinary temperature and in the presence of sunlight.
b. Nitric acid decomposes to give reddish brown nitrogen dioxide gas which
dissolves in the acid thus imparting a slightly yellowish brown colour.
At higher temperature or after prolonged period of time the decomposition is
complete and the acid turns a darker yellowish brown colour
4HNO3 Δ 2H2O + 4NO2 + O2 [Decomposition of nitric acid]
Thus conc. Nitric acid kept in plain glass bottle turns yellow

➢ Acidic nature of dilute nitric acid

Dilute nitric acid is strongly acidic and behaves a typical acid in its reaction
with bases, carbonates/ bicarbonates, sulphites/ bisulphites.
NaOH + HNO3[dil] → NaNO3 + H2O
Fe(OH)3 + 3HNO3 → Fe(NO3)3 + 3H2O
CaCO3 + 2HNO3 → Ca(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2
CuCO3 + 2HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 + H2O + CO2

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NOTE: Dilute nitric acid is generally considered a typical acid except for its
reaction with metals, since it generally does not liberate hydrogen on reaction
with metals.

➢ Nitric acid[dilute and concentrated] - as a oxidizing agent

The oxidizing property of nitric acid is based on the fact that when nitric acid
undergoes decomposition it yields nascent oxygen.
Conc HNO3 Δ H2O + NO2 + [O]
Dilute HNO3 Δ H2O + NO + [O]

Equations:
Action on non- metals
Non- metal Nitric acid Oxidised Gas Water
[hot, conc] product liberated
[Oxidizing agent]
C 4HNO3 → CO2 4NO2 2H2O
Carbon

S 6HNO3 → H2SO4 6NO2 2H2O

Sulphur [Volatile acid] [Non- volatile
[yellow acid]
non- metal]

• The gas liberated: Nitrogen dioxide

• Observation: Reddish brown gas is liberated which turns acidified ferrous
sulphate solution brown.
• Note: Sulphur is non- metal, reacts with hot, concentrated nitric acid to
form its own acid as one of the products. Thus, volatile nitric acid can be
used in the preparation of non- volatile sulphuric acid.

• Action on metal
Metal Nitric acid Oxidised Gas liberated Water
[Oxidising product
agent]

Cu 4 HNO3 → Cu(NO3)2 2NO2 2H2O

Pink metal Hot, Conc Blue Reddish brown
solution gas

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3Cu 8 HNO3 → 3Cu(NO3)2 2NO 4H2O

Pink metal Dilute Blue Colourless,
solution nitric oxide gas

Note:
Pure conc. Nitric acid or fuming nitric acid renders iron and aluminium
passive due to formation of a thin oxide coating on the surface of the metal
which prevents further reaction.

1. TEST FOR NITRIC ACID AND NITRATES

1. On heating conc. nitric acid with copper - reddish brown vapours are
formed which turns acidified ferrous sulphate solution brown
4HNO3 Δ 2H2O + 4NO2 + O2
2. Brown ring test
Procedure:
(i) Add freshly prepared saturated solution of iron (II)sulphate to the aq.
solution of nitric acid.
(ii) Now add conc. Sulphuric acid carefully from the sides of the test tube,
so that it should not fall drop wise in the test tube.
(iii) Cool the test tube in water.
(iv) A brown ring appears at the junction of the two liquids.

Ion tested Nitrate ions

Compound formed in the Nitroso iron [II] sulphate [[Link]]
brown ring
Freshly prepared ferrous Iron [II] sulphate on exposure to the atmosphere is
sulphate is preferred oxidised to Iron [III] Sulphate

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2. Effect of heat on nitrates

Alkali metal nitrates → Metal nitrites + Oxygen
[K, Na]
2KNO3 →2KNO2 + O2
Heavy Metal Nitrates → Metal oxide + Oxygen + Nitrogen dioxide
[Ca, Zn, Pb, Cu]
2Pb(NO3)2 →2PbO + O2 + 4NO2
White Buff yellow Reddish
brown
2Cu(NO3)2 → 2CuO + O2 + 4NO2
Blue Black Reddish
brown
Thus calcium, zinc, lead and copper nitrates on heating evolve- reddish
brown nitrogen dioxide gas]
Silver / Mercuric nitrate → Metal + Oxygen + Nitrogen dioxide
[Ag/ Hg[II]]
Ammonium nitrate → Nitrous oxide [laughing gas] + Steam
NH4NO3 → N2O + 2H2O

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CHAPTER -7 D
STUDY OF COMPOUNDS – SULPHURIC ACID

Sulphuric acid was initially called as ‘Oil of vitriol’ as it was obtained

as an oily viscous liquid by heating crystals of green vitriol[FeSO4.7H2O].

Manufacture of Sulphuric acid

Name the process Contact process
Step I
Sulphur or Pyrite Burners - Production of
sulphur dioxide by burning sulphur or iron pyrite
S + O2 → SO2
4FeS2 + 11O2 → 2Fe2O3 + 8SO2

Step II – Contact tower

Reactions [3 steps] Catalytic oxidation of sulphur dioxide to sulphur
trioxide
V2O5
2SO2 + O2 2SO3 +Δ
450°C -500°C
1-2 atm
Step III - Absorption tower
Absorption of sulphur trioxide in 98% sulphuric
acid to give oleum or pyrosulphuric acid [H2S2O7]

SO3 + H2SO4 → H2S2O7

Physical properties of sulphuric acid

➢ Nature: Dense, oily, hygroscopic liquid
Note: Being hygroscopic sulphuric acid absorbs moisture from the
atmosphere and hence concentrated sulphuric acid is kept in the air tight
bottles.
Concentrated sulphuric acid is highly corrosive in nature and chars the skin
black

Chemical properties of Sulphuric acid

:
Acidic property of dilute sulphuric acid of dilute sulphuric acid
Reaction with metals, metal oxides and hydroxides, metal carbonates and
bicarbonates, metal sulphite and bisulphites, metal sulphides.
i) Reaction with metals

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Metal + Acid (Dilute) → Metal Sulphate + Hydrogen

Zn + dil.H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2
Fe + dil.H2SO4 → FeSO4 + H2

ii) Reaction with metallic oxide

Metal Oxide + Acid (Dilute) → Metal Sulphate + Water
Na2O + dil.H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O
MgO + dil.H2SO4 → MgSO4 + H2O
ZnO + dil.H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2O
CuO + dil.H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O

iii) Reaction with metallic hydroxides

Metallic + Sulphuric → Metal + Water
Hydroxide Acid ( Dilute) Sulphate
2NaOH + dil.H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O
Zn(OH)2 + dil.H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + 2H2O

iv) Reaction with metallic carbonates/bicarbonates

Metallic carbonate/ + Sulphuric → Metal + Water + Carbon
Bicarbonate Acid (Dilute) Sulphate dioxide
Na2CO3 + dil.H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O + CO2
CuCO3 + dil.H2SO4 → CuSO4 + H2O + CO2
2KHCO3 + dil.H2SO4 → K2SO4 + 2H2O + 2CO2

v) Reaction with metallic sulphides

Metallic + Sulphuric → Metal + Hydrogen Sulphide
Sulphide Acid (Dilute) Sulphate
Na2S + dil.H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H 2S
ZnS + dil.H2SO4 → ZnSO4 + H2S
FeS + dil.H2SO4 → FeSO4 + H2S

vi) Reaction with metallic sulphites and bisulphites

Metallic Sulphites / + Sulphuric → Metal + water + Sulphur
Bisulphites Acid (Dilute) Sulphate dioxide
Na2SO3 + dil.H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + H2O + SO2
2NaHSO3 + dil.H2SO4 → Na2SO4 + 2H2O+ 2SO2

Conc. Sulphuric acid as an Oxidising Agent

The oxidising property is due to the fact that H2SO4 on thermal decomposition
yields nascent oxygen
C + conc.2H2SO4→ CO2 + 2SO2 + 2H2O
S + conc.2H2SO4 →3SO2 + 2H2O

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Conc. Sulphuric acid as Dehydrating agent

Concentrated sulphuric acid has strong affinity for water which accounts for its
dehydrating character
CuSO4 . 5H2O Conc. H2SO4 CuSO4 + 5H2O
Blue coloured hydrated White powdery mass
Copper sulphate anhydrous copper sulphate
Observation: Blue crystalline salt turns white

All carbohydrates such as sugar, glucose and cellulose (paper, wood cotton)
reacts immediately to give a black spongy mass of carbon. Steam is given off.
They are said to be charred
C6H12O6 Conc. H2SO4 6C + 6H2O
White crystalline Black porous mass of carbon
C12H22O11 Conc. H2SO4 12C + 11H2O
Cane sugar/ sucrose sugar charcoal
Observation: Black spongy mass of carbon is formed/ sugar gets charred

Conc. Sulphuric acid as least volatile / Non-volatile acid:-

In comparison with hydrochloric acid and nitric acid sulphuric acid has higher
boiling point hence it acts a non volatile or less volatile acid

On heating with salts of more volatile acids- concentrated sulphuric acid

displaces the volatile acids from their salts. So concentrated sulphuric acid is
used in the preparation of hydrogen chloride and nitric acid.
KNO3 + conc.H2SO4 <200°C KHSO4 + HNO3
NaNO3 + conc.H2SO4 <200°C NaHSO4 + HNO3
NaCl + conc.H2SO4 <200°C NaHSO4 + HCl
KCl + conc.H2SO4 <200°C KHSO4 + HCl

Test for dilute sulphuric acid

1. Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with barium chloride solution
to give white precipitate which is insoluble in all acids
BaCl2 + dil.H2SO4 → 2HCl + BaSO4↓

2. Dilute sulphuric acid reacts with lead nitrate solution to give white precipitate
which is insoluble in all acids
Pb(NO3)2 + dil.H2SO4 → 2HNO3 + PbSO4↓

Test for concentrated sulphuric acid

1. Cu + conc.2H2SO4 → CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2
Test for SO2- acidified K2Cr2O7 - solution orange to green
2. NaCl + conc.H2SO4 <200°C NaHSO4 + HCl
Test for HCl – dense white fumes with rod dipped in NH3 solution

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CHAPTER - 8
ORGANIC CHEMISTRY

Organic chemistry is a branch of chemistry which deals with study of

compounds of carbon except Oxides of carbon, carbides, carbonates and
bicarbonates

Unique nature of carbon atom

a) Tetravalency
b) Catenation
c) Isomerism

Catenation
The tendency of an element to form chains of identical atoms/
The property of elements by virtue of which atoms of the element can link to
each other in the form of chains of identical atoms
Catenation is maximum in carbon

Hydrocarbons - are the organic compounds containing carbon and hydrogen

only.
Hydrocarbons can be broadly classified in two categories,
Saturated and Unsaturated compounds.
Saturated hydrocarbons - Hydrocarbons containing carbon atoms joined by
single covalent bond
e.g Alkanes: C2H6 [ethane]
Unsaturated hydrocarbons - Hydrocarbons containing carbon atoms joined by
double or triple covalent bonds
e.g: Alkenes: C2H4 [ethene]
Alkynes: C2H2 [ethyne]

Homologous Series
Series of organic compounds, where the successive members follow a regular
structural patterns, successive compounds differing by a ‘CH2’ group.
Each member of a homologous series is called a homologue.
e.g

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General characteristics of members of homologous series

ALL MEMBERS SHOW OR HAVE

Composition Same – elements and functional group

General Same – general molecular formula

formula
Chemical Similar – chemical properties [same functional
properties group in each member]
Molecular Increase – in molecular weight – down a series.
weight [[Link] of two adjacent members differs by ‘14’
CH2 = 12 + 2 = 14 ]
Physical Increase – in physical properties – down a series
properties [gradual gradation seen in [Link] e.g. b.p, solubility]

Significance of homologous series

Helps in systematic study of organic compounds
Predicts the properties and nature of other members of the series – if the same is
known of the first few members.

Alkyl group
All groups derived from parent alkane – by loss of ‘H’ atom
Parent alkane Methane CH4 Ethane C2H6 Propane C3H8 Butane C4H10
Alkyl group Methyl CH3 EthylC2H5 Propyl C3H7 Butyl C4H9

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Functional group
An atom, radical, or bond which defines the structure of organic compounds and
confers characteristic properties to it.
Class Functional Structure Secondary
group suffix
Alcohols -OH - -ol

Aldehydes -CHO -al

Carboxylic -COOH -oic acid

acids

Isomers - Isomers are organic compounds having same molecular formula but
differing in molecular arrangement or in structural formula
Isomerism - is the phenomenon in which organic compounds (more than one
compounds) have the same molecular formula but different structural formula
or molecular arrangement
Types of isomerism.
There are two primary types of isomerism,
1. Structural Isomerism and
2. Stereoisomerism.

Structural Isomerism is of two types:

1. Chain isomerism - Due to difference in arrangement of carbon atoms in the
chain
2. Position isomerism - Due to difference in position of functional group

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Eg of chain isomerism
Isomers of butane

Isomers of pentane

Eg of position isomerism

Nomenclature implies assigning proper name to a particular compound on the

basis of certain standard rules to make their study systematic.
The two basic systems employed for naming of the organic compounds are The
Trivial system and
The IUPAC system

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Write the IUPAC name for the following:

1. Methane

2. Ethane

3. Propane

4. Butane

5. Pentane

6. Ethene

7. Propene

8. But-1-ene / 1-Butene

9. But-2-ene / 2-butene

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10. Pent-1-ene / 1-pentene

11. Pent-2-ene / 2-Pentene

12. Ethyne

13. Propyne

14. But-1-yne

15. But-2-yne /2-butyne

16. 2-methyl propane

17. 2-methyl butane

18. 2,2-dimethyl propane

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19. 2-bromo propane

20. 2-bromo-2-methyl propane

21. 2-methyl but-1-ene

22. 2-methyl but-2-ene

23. 3-methyl but-1-yne

24. Methanol

25. Ethanol

26. Propan-1-ol / 1-propanol

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27. Propan-2-ol / 2-propanol

28. Butan-1-ol / 1-butanol

29. Butan-2-ol / 2-butanol

30. 2-methylpropan-2-ol

31. 2-methyl butan-2-ol

32. 3-methyl butan-2-ol

33. Methanal

34. Ethanal

35. Propanal

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36. 2,2-dimethyl propan-1-al

37. Methanoic acid

38. Ethanoic acid

39. Propanoic acid

40. Chloro methane

41. Dichloromethane

42. Trichloromethane

43. Tetrachloromethane

44. 1,2-dichloroethane

45. 1,2- dibromoethane

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46. 1,2-dichloroethene

47. 1,1,2,2-tetrabromoethane

48. 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane

49. 2,3-dimethyl butane

50. 2-chloro propan-1-al

ALKANES
Known as Paraffins[latin: parum=little; affinis=affinity]
Alkanes are relatively unreactive or less reactive under
ordinary conditions, hence they are known as paraffins.
Nature Saturated hydrocarbon containing a carbon carbon
single bond. All the four valencies are satisfied by
forming single covalent bonds
Aliphatic hydrocarbon as they are open chain
compounds
Bond Single covalent bond
General formula CnH2n+2
Molecular CH4 C2H6
formula
Structural
formula

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Condensed - CH3- CH3

formula
IUPAC name Methane Ethane
Reactivity Alkanes are relatively chemically inert as they contain
C-C and C-H single bonds
Reactions Undergo Substitution reactions

Methane is also one of the gases which contributes towards green house effect
Molecular formula of Common name / IUPAC name
alkanes
CH4 Methane
C2H6 Ethane
C3H8 Propane
C4H10 Butane
C5H12 Pentane

Preparation of Methane and Ethane

[Link]
CaO
CH3-COONa + NaOH CH4 + Na2CO3
Δ
Sodium acetate/ soda lime Methane
Sodium ethanoate

CaO
[Link] + NaOH C2H6 + Na2CO3
Δ
Sodium propionate sodalime Ethane
The above reactions are of decarboxylation
Decarboxylation – Elimination of a molecule of CO2 from a carboxylic acid
In the above reaction CO2 is eliminated as a carbonate

General methods of preparation – from alkyl halides

Zn/Cu couple
CH3I + 2[H] CH4 + HI
Methyl iodide/ Nascent hydrogen alcohol Methane
Iodomethane

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C2H5Br + 2[H] Zn/Cu couple C2H6 + HBr

Ethyl bromide/ Nascent hydrogen alcohol Ethane
Bromo ethane

2CH3I + 2Na ether C2H6 + 2NaI

Methyl iodide Sodium Ethane

Chemical properties of methane

Substitution reactions of methane
Substitution Reaction :- The reaction in which one or more than one hydrogen
atom of alkane gets replaced or substituted by an atom or group of atom is
known as Substitution Reaction

CH4 + Cl2 UV light or Δ CH3Cl + HCl

Methane Monochloromethane [Methyl chloride]
CH3Cl + Cl2 CH2Cl2 + HCl
Monochloromethane Dichloromethane [Methylene dichloride]
CH2Cl2 + Cl2 CHCl3 + HCl
Dichloromethane Trichloromethane [Chloroform]
CHCl3 + Cl2 CCl4 + HCl
Trichloromethane Tetrachloromethane [Carbontetrachloride]
[or]
CH4 + 4Cl2 Diffused sunlight /UV light or Δ CCl4 + 4HCl

Substitution reactions of ethane

UV light or Δ
C2H6 + Cl2 C2H5Cl + HCl
Ethane Monochloroethane
C2H5Cl + Cl2 C2H4Cl2 + HCl
Monochloroethane Dichloroethane
C2H4Cl2 + Cl2 C2H3Cl3 + HCl
Dichloroethane Trichloroethane
C2H3Cl3 + Cl2 C2H2Cl4 + HCl
Trichloroethane Tetrachloroethane
C2H2Cl4 + Cl2 C2HCl5 + HCl
Tetrachloroethane Pentachloroethane
C2HCl5 + Cl2 C2Cl6 + HCl
Pentachloroethane Hexachloroethane
Complete oxidation or combustion in excess of air
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Methane or ethane burns with blue non-luminous, non smokyflame

CH4 + 2O2[excess] → CO2 + 2H2O + ∆
2C2H6 + 7O2 [excess] → 4CO2 + 6H2O + ∆

Incomplete oxidation or combustion – in insufficient air

CH4 + 3O2 [limited] → 2CO + 4H2O + ∆
2C2H6 + 5O2 [limited] → 4CO + 6H2O + ∆

Uses of Methane and Ethane

➢ As an illuminant and domestic fuel in the form of natural gas or gobar gas as
they have calorific value. They are easily combustible and the reaction is
exothermic.
➢ In the manufacture of chemicals
• Chloroform – as anaesthesia
• Carbon black – A black pigment in shoe polish, printers ink
• Formaldehyde – An antiseptic, preservative for biological specimens
• Methanol – Anti-freeze for automobiles
• Ethanol – a low freezing liquid in thermometers

ALKENES
Known as Olefins[latin: oleum = iol, ficare=to make]. They have
tendency to form – oily products on treatment with
halogens
Nature Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a carbon –
carbon double bond in their molecule. Valencies of at
least two carbon atoms are not fully satisfied by
hydrogen atoms and are deficient in hydrogen as
compared to alkanes.
Aliphatic hydrocarbon as they are open chain
compounds
Bond Double covalent bond
General formula CnH2n
Molecular C2H4
formula
Structural
formula

Condensed H2C=CH2
formula

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IUPAC name Ethene

Common name Ethylene
Reactivity Alkenes are more reactive than alkanes due to the
presence of carbon – carbon double bond
Reactions Undergo addition reaction

Molecular formula Common name IUPAC name

C2H4 Ethylene Ethene
C3H6 Propylene Propene
1-butylene 1-butene
C4H8
2-butylene 2-butene

Preparation of Ethene [Ethylene]

[Link]
From ethyl alcohol – by dehydration

C2H5Br H2C=CH2
Ethanol/ Ethyl alcohol Ethene/ Ethylene

Dehyration – involves elimination of elements of water from alcohol

From Bromoethane[Ethyl bromide] by Dehydrohalogenation

C2H5Br H2C=CH2
Bromoethane/ Ethyl bromide Ethene/ Ethylene
Dehydrohalogenation – involves elimination of hydrogen halide

General Method
Cracking or dehydrogenation
H3C – CH3 500°C H2C = CH2 + H2
SiO2-Al2O3
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Ethane Ethene/Ethylene

Chemical properties of Ethene

Addition reaction – A reaction in which molecules of the attacking reagent add
across the double bond or triple bond of an unsaturated compound to yield a
saturated compound

 Reaction with hydrogen/ Catalytic Hydrogenation

Ethene reacts with hydrogen in the presence of a finely divided nickel
catalyst at a temperature of about 3000C Ethane is produced.
H2C = CH2 + H2 Ni, 300°C
Ethene

• Reaction with halogen/ Halogenation

H2C = CH2 + Cl2 CCl4 inert solvent
Ethene

1,2 – dichloroethane
[ethyle dichloride]
CCl4 inert solvent

Ethene 1,2 – dibromoethane

Observation – Brown colour of bromine is discharged- serves as test for
unsaturation
C2H4 + I2 CCl4 C2H4I2
Ethene 1,2, di iodoethane
Uses – Ethene[Ethylene]
➢ Production of oxy-ethylene torch – for welding purposes and cutting metals
➢ Ripening of green fruits – Artificial ripening and preservation of fruits.
➢ Catalytic hydrogenation – used in hardening of oils
➢ Manufacture of:
• Synthetic chemical – ethylene glycol [anti-freeze], diethyl ether [solvent],
ethylene oxide [ fumigant], mustard gas [chemical warfare]
• Polymers – Polyetylene, polyvinyl chloride[P.V.C] – used in packaging ,
insulators, containers, rain coat.
ALKYNES

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Known as Acetylene series the first and most important member of

the series of the hydrocarbon is acetylene and hence the
series is also reffered as ‘acetylene series’
Nature Unsaturated hydrocarbons containing a carbon –
carbon triple bond in their molecule.
Aliphatic hydrocarbon as they are open chain
compounds
Bond Triple covalent bond
General formula CnH2n-2
Molecular C2H2
formula
Structural
formula
Condensed HC=CH
formula
IUPAC name Ethyne
Common name Acetylene
Reactivity Alkynes are more reactive than alkenes due to the
presence of carbon – carbon triple bond
Reactions Undergo addition reaction

Molecular formula Common name IUPAC name

C2H2 Acetylene Ethyne
C3H4 Methyl acetylene Propyne
Ethyl acetylene 1-butyne
C4H6
Dimethyl acetylene 2-butyne

Lab. Preparation of Ethyne [Acetylene]

Ethyne

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By Dehydrohalogenation reaction

Chemical properties of Ethyne

 Reaction with hydrogen / Catalytic hydrogenation
Ethyne reacts with hydrogen in the presence of a finely divided nickel
catalyst at a temperature of about 300°C Ethane is produced.

• Reaction with halogen / Halogenation

Observation – Brown colour of bromine is discharged- serves as test for

unsaturation

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HC≡CH + I2 CCl4 CHI = CHI

Ethyne acetylene di iodide
Uses of Ethyne [Acetylene]
➢ Production of oxy-acetylene torch- for welding and cutting metals
➢ Ripening of fruits – Artificial ripening and preservation of fruits
➢ Manufacture of organic compounds – Acetic acid, Acetaldehyde, acetylene
dichloride, ethyl alcohol[drugs, antiseptic], oxalic acid [for removing ink
stains]
➢ Manufacture of synthetic products – Polymers [polyvinylacetate], Synthetic
rubber and fibres

ALCOHOLS
Alcohols are hydroxy derivatives of alkanes, obtained by replacement of
one, two or three hydrogen atoms of alkanes by corresponding number of
hydroxyl[OH] groups
Functional group of alcohols – Hydroxyl group
General formula – R-OH
General molecular formula – CnH2n+1OH
Molecular formula Common name IUPAC name
CH3OH Methyl alcohol Methanol
C2H5OH Ethyl alcohol Ethanol
n-propyl alcohol Propan-1-ol
C3H7OH
Iso-propyl alcohol Propan –2-ol

Preparation of Ethanol
Lab preparation by Hydrolysis of Alkyl halides

Chloroethane/ethyl chloride Ethanol/ Ethyl alcohol

Bromoethane / ethyl bromide

Ethanol/ Ethyl alcohol

Hydration of Ethene

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Chemical properties of Ethanol

With Sodium [test for alcohol]

Sodium ethoxide
With Acetic acid – Esterification / Test for Alcohols and carboxylic acids
Esterification Reaction: The reaction in which carboxylic acid reacts with
alcohol in presence of concentrated sulphuric acid to produce fruity smelling
substance ester is known as esterification reaction.

With Sulphuric acid

Conc. H2SO4[excess]
C2H5OH H2C = CH2 + H2O
170°C

Conc. H2SO4
2C2H5OH C2H5-O- C2H5 + H2O
140°C
[excess] diethyl ether
Spurious alcohol / illicit alcohol – undistilled alcohol with large amount of
methanol and which is fatal for human consumption
Methylated spirit or alcohol – Ethyl alcohol containing about 5% methyl
alcohol
Denatured alcohol – Ethyl alcohol containing pyridine or copper sulphate
Uses of Ethanol
➢ As a solvent for gums and resins
➢ In thermometer and spirit levels – low freezing liquid
➢ In the manufacture of chemicals – acetaldehyde[dyes], acetic acid
[manufacture of vinegar], Chloroform[antiseptic], Diethyl ether [anaesthetic]

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CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
Carboxylic acids are organic compounds containing carboxylic group ie
O
- C – OH

Representation of carboxylic acids: R-COOH [R is ether – H or alkyl ]

Functional group of carboxylic acid -COOH
Molecular formula Common name IUPAC name
HCOOH Formic acid Methanoic acid
CH3COOH Acetic acid Ethanoic acid
C2H5COOH Propionic acid Propanoic acid
Butyric acid Butanoic acid
C3H7COOH
Iso butyric acid 2-methyl propanoic acid

Glacial Acetic acid:-Acetic acid on cooling below16.5°C crystallises out

forming a crystalline mass resembling ice due to which pure acetic acid is called
as Glacial Acetic acid.
Chemical properties of Acetic acid
With litmus – Aqueous solution of acid turns blue litmus red
With alkalis

Sodium acetate

Calcium acetate

Ammonium acetate
With alcohol - Esterification / Test for Alcohols and carboxylic acids

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X CHEMISTRY, BSS PREPARED BY THEJASHWINI

Uses of Acetic acid

➢ In manufacture of important organic compounds – vinyl acetate [used in
resins], Acetic anhydride [used in asprin], Cellulose acetate [ used in
synthetic fibres] various dyes, perfumes and medicines
➢ In the food industry – as vinegar for preserving and flavouring food
➢ As a solvent – It dissolves phosphorus, sulphur and iodine
➢ As a laboratory reagent - used for preparing acetone, ester
➢ As a coagulant – for coagulating rubber.

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