HUMAN EVOLUTION

INDEX

SL.NO. CONTENT PG.NO.

1 INTRODUCTION 1
2 HISTORY 2
3 SCIENTISTS INVOLVED 3
4 PLACE AND TIME OF ORIGIN 4
5 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR EVOLUTION 5
6 EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS 6
7 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN APES AND MAN 7
8 DRYOPITHECUS 8
9 RAMAPITHECUS 9
10 AUSTRALOPITHECUS 10
11 HOMO HABILIS 11
12 HOMO ERECTUS 12
13 NEANDERTHALENIS 13
14 CRO MAGNON 14
15 HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS 15
16 FAMILY TREE 16
17 PERIODS OF HUMAN EVOLUTON 17
18 CONCLUSION 18
19 BIBLIOGRAPHY 19

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 INTRODUCTION:

Human evolution is the lengthy process of change by which people originated from
apelike ancestors.

Scientific evidence shows that the physical and behavioral traits shared by all people
originated from apelike ancestors and evolved over a period of approximately six
million years.

human evolution, the process by which human beings developed on Earth from now-
extinct primates. Viewed zoologically, we humans are Homo sapiens, a culture-
bearing upright-walking species that lives on the ground and very likely first evolved
in Africa about 315,000 years ago.

Most scientists currently recognize some 15 to 20 different species of early humans.

Scientists do not all agree, however, about how these species are related or which
ones simply died out.

Many early human species -- certainly the majority of them – left no living
descendants. Scientists also debate over how to identify and classify particular
species of early humans, and about what factors influenced the evolution and
extinction of each species.

Over time, genetic change can alter a species' overall way of life, such as what it
eats, how it grows, and where it can live.
Human evolution took place as new genetic variations in early ancestor populations
favored new abilities to adapt to environmental change and so altered the human
way of life.

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 HISTORY:

Hominins first appeared around 6 million years ago, during the Miocene epoch. The
evolutionary path of humans took place through the Pliocene, Pleistocene, and
Holocene, which began about 12,000 years ago.

Humans are part of the primate order, which diverged from other mammals around
85 million years ago. Humans are most likely descended from Homo
heidelbergensis, a common ancestor shared with Neanderthals.

The fossil record provides evidence of human evolution over millions of

years. Some notable fossils include:

 Ardi: An adult female Ardipithecus ramidus from Aramis, Ethiopia,

who lived 4.4 million years ago

 Little Foot: An adult female Australopithecus Prometheus from South

Africa's Sterkfontein cave system, who lived 3.67 million years ago.

 Lucy: An adult female Australopithecus afarensis from Hadar,

Ethiopia, who lived 3.2 million years ago.

 Jonny's Child: A young male Homo habilis from Olduvai Gorge,

Tanzania, who lived 1.8 million years ago

Humans evolved in Africa from great apes through the lineage of hominins, which
arose 7–5 million years ago. The ability to walk on two legs emerged after the split
from chimpanzees in early hominins, such as Australopithecus, as an adaptation
possibly associated with a shift from forest to savanna habitats.

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 SCIENTISTS INVOVLED

TH HUXLEY made the first attempt to describe man’s origin in his book man’s
place in nature and visualized apes as the closest relatives. Evidence as to Man’s
Place in Nature is an 1863 book by Thomas Henry Huxley, in which he gives
evidence for the evolution of humans and apes from a common ancestor.

Later in 1871, CHARLES DARWIN advocated his ideas about man’s ancestry in
his book the descent of man. However, scientific studies about human evolution
started about one hundred years ago.

Dubois searched at potential sites near rivers and in caves, first on the island of
Sumatra, then on the Indonesian island of Java. The fossils of Java man, the first
known fossil of Homo erectus was discovered by EUGENE DUBOIS, a Dutch
anatomist.

The contributions of RAMOND DART, W.C PEI, LOUIS and MARY LEAKY, their
SON RICHARD and BERNARD NIGENEO etc. have helped in preparing tree of
human evolution.

Alfred Russel Wallace:

Along with Darwin, Wallace is known for providing the theoretical basis for the
study of human evolution.
Mary and Louis Leakey:
These paleoanthropologists studied the fossil record to learn more about human
evolution.

Scientists who studied human skulls:

Scientists have studied the genetics and size of human skulls from around the world
to learn more about human evolution. Their findings suggest that modern humans
originated in Africa and spread out from there.

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 PLACE AND TIME OF ORIGIN:

The evolution of man is considered to be Africa, central Asia, China, Java and India.
According to monophyletic origin, modern man has evolved from single locality in
Africa, but from polyphyletic origin, from different localities of the world.

Man’s origin is considered to be about 15 million years ago from some common
ancestral hominoid stocks.
Homo sapiens, the first modern humans, evolved from their early hominid
predecessors between 200,000 and 300,000 years ago

Early humans migrated out of Africa to Asia between 2 million and 1.8 million years
ago, and to Europe between 1.5 million and 1 million years ago.

Humans arrived in Australia within the past 60,000 years, and in the Americas within
the past 30,000 years. The beginnings of agriculture and the rise of the first
civilizations occurred within the past 12,000 years.

Modern humans evolved from the now extinct Homo erectus. The discovery of
fossils at the 160,000-year-old site of Herto, Ethiopia, and subsequent genetic studies
support the idea that modern humans originated in Africa.

Hominins first appear by around 6 million years ago, in the Miocene epoch, which
ended about 5.3 million years ago. Our evolutionary path takes us through the
Pliocene, the Pleistocene, and finally into the Holocene, starting about 12,000 years
ago.

In the next 1,000 years, the number of languages spoken on the planet are set to
seriously diminish, and all that extra heat and UV radiation could see darker skin
become an evolutionary advantage. And we're all set to get a whole lot taller and
thinner,

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 FACTORS RESPONSIBLE FOR EVOLUTION OF MAN:

The factors are:

 Increased aridity of climate due to continental elevation.

 Dwindling of forests and their replacement by wide stretches of grasslands.

 Reduction of food

 Increased competition for habitat due to loss of tress of trees compelled tree-
dwellers to get down to the ground and developed adaptions for the survival
on land

 Genetic drift: A random change in allele frequency that occurs in all

populations, but is especially noticeable in small populations.

 Mutation: The primary source of genetic variation, which is vital to the

evolutionary process.

 Founder effect: When a small group moves away from its parent population,
it takes only a sample of the parent group's genes with it...

 Cultural factors: These include toolmaking, family and community building,

linguistic and symbolic skills, and the development of the brain.

 Dietary changes: Over the last 10,000 years, dietary changes have played a
role in human evolution.

 Technology: Over the last 10,000 years, technology has played a role in
human evolution.

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 EVOLUTIONARY TRENDS:

Following morphological characters have evolved during evolution of man are:

 Flattening of face
 Formation of chin
 Sparse body hair
 Narrowing of nose
 Bipedalism: The ability to walk on two legs, which evolved over 4 million
years ago.
 Brain size: The brain has increased in size, but the average brain size is now
about 100-150 cubic centimeters smaller than it was when our species first
appeared.
 Teeth and jaw: As humans evolved, they started eating more meat and cooking
food, which led to smaller teeth and jaws.
 Face shape: The face became flatter as humans evolved.
 Cultural diversity: Complex symbolic expression, art, and elaborate cultural
diversity emerged mainly during the past 100,000 years.
 Agriculture and civilization: The beginnings of agriculture and the rise of the
first civilizations occurred within the past 12,000 years.
 Power and precision grip: The evolution of a power and precision grip, which
first occurred in H. erectus.
 Increased height: Humans have increased in height.
 Technical ability: Humans have increased in technical ability.

TAXONOMIC POSITION OF MAN:

Man is a mammal and a member of order primates, suborder Anthropoidea and

family Hominidae. Man is tailless brachiators.

Apes, man and their common ancestors are collectively known as hominoids, while
man and its ancestors are known as hominids.

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 DIFFERENCES BETWEEN APES AND MAN:

Apes:
 Most apes have very prominent brow ridges
 Heavy jaws
 Semi erect posture
 Brain simple and small
 Live mainly on trees
 Thick hair are present on the whole-body surface
 Most apes have a diastema (an open space between upper incisors)

Man:
 The brow ridges in humans are less pronounced
 No heavy jaws
 Completely erect or upright posture
 Brain is complex and highly developed
 Live on land
 Small and scanty body hair
 Humans do not have a diastema

EARLY HUMAN ANCESTORS:

The list of names of early humans:

 Homo habilis
 Neanderthal
 Homo erectus
 Australopithecus
 Homo heidelbergensis
 Homo sapiens
 Paranthropus antiepics

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 1. DRYOPITHECUS:

Dryopithecus is a genus of extinct great apes from the middle–late Miocene

boundary of Europe 12.5 to 11.1 million years ago (mya).

Since its discovery in 1856, the genus has been subject to taxonomic turmoil, with
numerous new species being described from single remains based on minute
differences amongst each other, and the fragmentary nature of the holotype specimen
makes differentiating remains difficult.

There is currently only one uncontested species, the type species D. Fontana, though
there may be more.
The genus is placed into the tribe Dryopithecine, which is either an offshoot of
orangutans, African apes, or is its own separate branch.

They lived in a seasonal, Para tropical climate, and may have built up fat reserves
for winter. They went extinct during a drying and cooling trend in the Late Miocene
which caused the retreat of warm-climate forests

Dryopithecus was a distant Miocene forerunner of gorillas and chimpanzees. A form

close to this branching of the dryopithecine stock is represented by the
genus Ramapithecus, distinguished by its more advanced dentition. The
dryopithecines probably inhabited forested areas.

While their canine teeth were larger than humans', they were not as well developed
as those of modern apes. Their limbs were also relatively short, and their skulls
lacked the substantial brow ridges seen in modern counterparts.

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 2. RAMAPITHECUS:

Fossil remains of animals now assigned to this genus, dated from 12.2 million years
old in the Miocene, have been found since the 19 th century in the Siwalik Hills of
the Indian subcontinent as well as in Kutch. Any one of the species in this genus may
have been the ancestor to the modern orangutans.

Siwalik specimens once assigned to the genus Ramapithecus are now considered by
most researchers to belong to one or more species of Sivapithecus.
Ramapithecus is no longer regarded as a likely ancestor of humans.

Similarities to orangutans in what are chiefly jaw and partial skull fossils are a
concave face with large zygomatic arch bones, narrow setting of eyes from each
other, smoothness of nasal floor, and central incisor enlargement.

In consequence of recent findings and interpretations Ramapithecus has been widely

considered as a candidate for the first hominid. It splits up from the ape line 14
million years ago and marked the remarkable beginning of hominid line.

The main reason for giving Ramapithecus a true hominid status is the similarity of
its teeth with that of the later hominids.

In discussing the status of Ramapithecus, Swartz and Jordan have remarked that
when a creature is called hominid, it doesn’t mean that it is a modern man, but this
term is used for clearly human like forms.

In contrast, the smaller creature, (Ramapithecus) possess smaller dental sexual

dimorphism, smaller canine dimorphism, smaller canine heights and areas, more
omnivorous dentition and equal numbers of males and females, and thus has
attributed that would not deny it a place in a radiation of prehuman form.

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 3. AUSTRALOPITHECUS

Australopithecus fossils become more widely dispersed throughout eastern and

southern Africa (the Chadian A. bahrelghazali indicates the genus was much more
widespread than the fossil record suggests), before eventually becoming pseudo-
extinct 1.9 million years ago (or 1.2 to 0.6 million years ago if Paranthropus is
included).

While none of the groups normally directly assigned to this group survived,
Australopithecus gave rise to living descendants, as the genus Homo emerged from
an Australopithecus species at some time between 3 and 2 million years ago.

The first Australopithecus specimen, the type specimen, was discovered in 1924 in
a lime quarry by workers at Taeng, South Africa.

Paleoanthropologists can tell what Au. afarensis ate from looking at the remains of
their teeth.
Dental microwear studies indicate they ate soft, sugar-rich fruits, but their tooth size
and shape suggest that they could have also eaten hard, brittle foods too – probably
as ‘fallback’ foods during seasons when fruits were not available.

Au. afarensis had mainly a plant-based diet, including leaves, fruit, seeds, roots, nuts,
and insects… and probably the occasional small vertebrates, like lizards.

Au. afarensis had both ape and human characteristics: members of this species had
apelike face proportions (a flat nose, a strongly projecting lower jaw) and braincase
(with a small brain, usually less than 500 cubic centimeters -- about 1/3 the size of a
modern human brain), and long, strong arms with curved fingers adapted for
climbing trees

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 4. HOMO HABILIS

Homo habilis (“handy man”) is an extinct species of archaic human from the Early
Pleistocene of East and South Africa about 2.8 million years ago to 1.65 million
years ago

However, the interpretation of H. habilis as a small-statured human with inefficient

long-distance travel capabilities has been challenged.

H. habilis may have been at least partially arboreal like what is postulated for
australopithecines.

Early hominins are typically reconstructed as having thick hair and marked sexual
dimorphism with males much larger than females, though relative male and female
size is not definitively known.

Another line of evidence for the diet of H. habilis comes from some of the earliest
cut- and percussion-marked bones. Scientists usually associate these traces of
butchery of large animals, direct evidence of meat and marrow eating.

Many scientists think early Homo, including H. habilis, made and used the first
stone tools found in the archaeological record—these also date back to about 2.6
million years ago;

However, this hypothesis is difficult to test because several other species of early
human lived at the same time, and in the same geographic area, as where traces of
the earliest tool use have been found.

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 5. HOMO ERECTUS

Homo erectus meaning “upright man”) is an extinct species of archaic human from
the Pleistocene, with its earliest occurrence about 2 million years ago.

Its specimens are among the first recognizable members of the genus Homo.H.
erectus had a more modern gait and body proportions, and was the first human
species to have exhibited a flat face, prominent nose, and possibly sparse body hair
coverage.

Though the species’ brain size certainly exceeds that of ancestor species, capacity
varied widely depending on the population.

In earlier populations, brain development seemed to cease early in childhood,

suggesting that offspring were largely self-sufficient at birth, thus limiting cognitive
development through life.

The tall bodies and large brains of Homo erectus individuals required a lot of energy
on a regular basis to function. Eating meat and other types of protein that could be
quickly digested made it possible to absorb nutrients with a shorter digestive tract,
making more energy available faster. There is also speculation that honey and
underground tubers may have been significant food sources for Homo erectus.

we see evidence in the archaeological record for the first major innovation in stone
tool technology Known as the Acheulean stone tool industry, it consisted of the
creation of large cutting tools like hand axes and cleavers. Increased reliance on a
broader set of tools may have helped Homo erectus survive during changing
climates.

The earliest evidence of hearths (campfires) occurs during the time range of Homo
erectus. While we have evidence that hearths were used for cooking (and probably
sharing) food, they are likely to have been places for social interaction, and also
used for warmth and to keep away large predators.
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 6. NEANDERTHALENIS

Neanderthal are a hominin species that existed for at least 200,000 years throughout
Europe and western Asia, and disappeared about 27,000 years ago. During this time,
they witnessed some of the coldest climatic conditions ever known in these regions.

Many of their physical features suggest that they were adapted for the cold, such as
their barrel-shaped chests, shorter limbs, and larger brains, all of which suggest a
body shape adapted for retaining heat.

They excelled at hunting animals and making complex stone tools, and their bones
reveal that they were extremely muscular and strong, but led hard lives, suffering
frequent injuries.

There is no doubt that Neanderthals were an intelligent species, successfully adapted

to their environment for over 200 millennia.

The number of plant foods Neanderthals could eat would have dropped significantly
during the winter of colder climates, forcing Neanderthals to exploit other food
options like meat more heavily. There is evidence that Neanderthals were specialized
seasonal hunters, eating animals were available at the time.

Scientists have clear evidence of Neanderthal hunting from uncovering sharp

wooden spears and large numbers of big game animal remains were hunted and
butchered by Neanderthals. There is also evidence from Gibraltar that when they
lived in coastal areas, they exploited marine resources such as mollusks, seals,
dolphins and fish.

Isotopic chemical analyses of Neanderthal bones also tell scientists the average
Neanderthal’s diet consisted of a lot of meat. Scientists have also found plaque on
the remains of molar teeth containing starch grains—concrete evidence that
Neanderthals ate plants.

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 7. CRO MAGNON

Cro-Magnon, population of early Homo sapiens dating from the Upper Paleolithic
Period (c. 40,000 to c. 10,000 years ago) in Europe.

Cro-Magnons were robustly built and powerful and are presumed to have been about
166 to 171 cm (about 5 feet 5 inches to 5 feet 7 inches) tall.

The body was generally heavy and solid, apparently with strong musculature. The
forehead was straight, with slight brow ridges, and the face short and wide.

Cro-Magnons were the first humans (genus Homo) to have a prominent chin. The
brain capacity was about 1,600 cc (100 cubic inches), somewhat larger than the
average for modern humans.

It is thought that Cro-Magnons were probably fairly tall compared with other early
human species.

Cro-Magnons were early H. sapiens, and their survival was no easy matter. We can
tell from the site that the male skeleton was likely about 50 years old at the time of
his death. Researchers can see damage to his bone structure, showing he likely had
a debilitating fungal infection.

Some of the other skeletons had fused spines, indicating that they had endured
“traumatic injury,” and the adult female seemed to have survived a period of time
with a skull fracture. The injuries also show that Cro-Magnons probably cared for
one another, nurturing each other’s injuries so that they could mutually survive

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 8.HOMO SAPIENS SAPIENS

Homo sapiens are species of all the primates on the earth that are highly developed
and well evolved, and humans belong to this category.

The primates in this category are lemurs, lorises, apes, monkeys, to name a few.

Humans fall into the domain Eukarya.

Such entities have DNA as their genetic material, held in the form of chromosomes
seen in the nucleus in the cells of eukaryotic living things.

Homo sapiens can be seen in this domain in the Kingdom Animalia under the
Phylum Chordata, and further under the class Mammalia, categorized under the
order Primates

Humans or modern humans are the most common and widespread species of
primate, and the last surviving species of the genus Homo. They are great apes
characterized by their hairlessness, bipedalism, and high intelligence.

The species that you and all other living human beings on this planet belong to
is Homo sapiens. During a time of dramatic climate change 300,000 years
ago, Homo sapiens evolved in Africa.

Like other early humans that were living at this time, they gathered and hunted food,
and evolved behaviors that helped them respond to the challenges of survival in
unstable environments.

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 FAMILY TREE
7 Stages of Human Evolution:

 Dryopithecus (Dryopithecine)
These are deemed to be the ancestors of both man and apes. They lived in China,
Africa, Europe and India

 Ramapithecus (Syn: Sivapithecus)

Their first remains were discovered from the Shivalik range in Punjab and later in
Africa and Saudi Arabia.

 Australopithecus (Southern Apes)

The fossil of this genus was first discovered in 1924 in South Africa. They lived on
the ground, used stones as weapons and walked erect.

 Homo Habilis (Able Man)

 Homo Erectus (Upright Man)

The first fossil of Homo Erectus was found in Java in 1891. These were named as
Pithecanthropus Erectus.

 Homo Sapiens Neanderthalensis (New Human Species)

The Homo Erectus evolved into Homo Sapiens. During evolution, two sub-species
of Homo Sapiens were identified- Homo sapiens Neanderthal and Homo sapiens
sapiens.

 Homo Sapiens (Wise Men)

The remains of Homo Sapiens were first discovered in Europe and were named Cro-
Magnon. In these, the jaws are quite reduced, the modern man’s chin appeared, and
the skull was rounded.

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 PERIODS OF HUMAN DEVELOPMENT
 Prenatal Development.
The beginning of development, when conception occurs and the mother's health is a
primary concern.

 Infancy and Toddlerhood.

The first two years of life, when major development takes place. Infants rely on
others for their needs and gain control of their bodies.

 Early Childhood.
Also known as the preschool years, this stage follows toddlerhood and precedes
formal schooling. Children learn language, gain independence, and learn about the
physical world.

 Middle Childhood.
This stage spans most of primary school, where children learn academic skills, test
abilities, and refine motor skills.

 Adolescence.
A time of physical growth, sexual maturation, and cognitive change.

 Early Adulthood.
A time for emotional development, where people focus on the future, make choices,
and pursue love and work.

 Middle Adulthood.
The first signs of physical age appear, and people may deal with the stress of aging
parents and older kids.

 Late Adulthood.
A time of old age, when people may face more health concerns and the reality of
mortality.

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CONCLUSION

Modern man were intelligent according to me because they learn to cultivate plants
and domesticate animals of economic importance. They started settling down near
lakes and ocean shores where they could catch fish.

Although modern man is intelligent, I believe that among our ancestors cro magnon
man is the most intelligent one.
He was a cave dweller and a hunter. He had started making clothes out of animal’s
skin he also believed in afterlife because they used to bury their dead with various
artefacts.

They had also learnt to draw and write on walls using various colours and things.

Human evolution is an interesting topic, where we can go back in time searching

about our ancestors and how they survived in this world. I got to learn many things
of evolution that lead to this modern man.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

 https://en.wikipedia.org
 https://www.britannica.com
 http://humanorigins.si.edu

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