A-LEVEL BEHAVIOUR BY KUGONZA H ARTHUR

ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR
Behavior refers to the response an individual animal makes towards a stimulus it
receives, or refers to the way how animals respond to their environment and other
members of the same species. I.e. What an animal does when it is interacting with its
natural environment. The scientific study of animal behavior is called Ethology
Behavioral ecology refers to the investigation of ultimate causes of behaviors, the
evolutionary basis for behaviors as mechanisms that enhance reproductive success.
Proximate cause; is the immediate explanation for an organism’s behavior. The
interactions of an organism with the environment or the particular environmental stimuli
that triggers a behavioral response in an organism.
Ultimate cause: The evolutionary cause of behavior.

Development of behavior
i) Animal Genes:
Every animal has genetic information locked up in it for coding for certain behaviors.
Therefore it is the potentiality of behavior that is inherited. These code anatomical and
biochemical characteristics of any animal. They also lead to the formation of structures
and organs involved in behaviour development ii) Environment:
• A set of genes has to interact with a certain range of environments during the
development of an animal in order to produce the expected behavior
• The interaction with the environment provides the process of growth and development
• Environmental selection favors individuals with certain genes but removes others.
• If surviving individuals in a population are adapted to the environment, their genes will be
retained. If not, the individuals die out and their genes are removed.
• Behavior has therefore evolved under influence of natural selection.
• Each species is adopted to meet different conditions
• Differences in behavior between closely related species must have a survival value e.g.
some animals are social others are not; some are monogamous others are not.
• The process by which animals alter their behavior through learning or hormonal mediated
changes in order to cope with inevitable changes in the environment is referred to as
adaptability of behavior.

Types of behaviors in animals

1. Innate behavior
2. Learned
behavior.

INNATE BEHAVIORS
It is a behavior that appears to be performed in virtually the same way by all the
members of a species. It implies that the animal is genetically programmed with the
response which is automatically triggered off in certain environmental circumstances.
This behavior is said to be stereotyped since when the same response is given to the
same stimulus on different occasions. Innate behaviors include;
 Instincts  Courtship behavior
 Simple reflexes  Aggression

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 Biological rhythms  Social organizations

 Territorial behavior  Social hierarchies
 Matting behavior  Altruism

(i) Instincts: This is a pattern of behavior that is found universally among the members of a
species and occurs without the need for prior learning and experience, and which is
relatively constant.
• Instinctive behavior is a behavior that consists of rigid stereotyped patterns of
movement which are similar in all individuals of one species.
• These are inherited behavioral patterns that occur in response to a particular stimulus
for the first time an individual is exposed to that stimulus.
• A response is said to instinctive as long as there is no learning process identified with
its development but is coordinated by central nervous system.
• The importance of instinctive behavior generally recedes with advancing age in
higher animals. This is because it is biologically important for the young to be protected by
instinctive behavior than older animals which will have had time to learn.
• Instinctive behaviour is also of great advantage in animals with a short life span.
Higher animals however have got a large brain that allows for greater learning and flexibility
in behavior
• The instinctive responses that appear readily in such animals Include: Copulation in
insects, nest building in birds, feeding of the young etc.

(ii) Simple reflexes (reflex actions)

A simple reflex is a quick automatic response to stimulus. A reflex action is behavior in
which a stimulus produces a specific short lived response. Simple reflexes are the simplest
form of innate behavior (….read coordination in animals for more information)

(iii) Orientation
This is a type of behavior that involves the movement of motile organisms in response to
external stimuli. This behavior is critical in maintaining an organism in a favorable
environment. E.g. when wood lice are exposed to light, they quickly scatter and disappear
under any available cover hence repositioning themselves in dark damp favorable
microhabitats.
Types of orientations
• Kinesis is the random movement of an organism in which the rate of movement is
related to the intensity of stimulus, but not to its direction. There are two main types
of; orthokinesis, which involves changes in speed of movement; and klinokinesis,
which involves changes in the rate of turning.
• Taxis is a movement of an organism in response to the direction of stimulus.
Movements towards a stimulus are positive; those away from a stimulus are negative.

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(iv) Biological rhythms

These are cyclical activities that are a basic characteristic of animal life. i.e. regularly
repeated behavioral patterns. These are behaviors or developments that occur as part of a
life cycle. They can occur often, like sleeping every night, or can occur once, like an insect
developing from a larva.
Biological rhythms can be:
 Internal (endogenous) - controlled by the internal biological clock e.g. body
temperature cycle
 External (exogenous) - controlled by synchronizing internal cycles with external
stimuli e.g. Sleep/wakefulness and day/night. Many terrestrial insects appear to be
controlled by exogenous rhythms which are related to periods of darkness and light.
E.g. drosophila emerge from pupa at dawn whereas cockroaches are most active at
the onset of darkness and rest at dawn.
Forms of biological rhythms
Circadian rhythms: endogenously generated rhythms with a period close to 24 hours.
Diurnal rhythms: a circadian rhythm that is synchronized with the day/night cycle.
Ultradian rhythms: biological rhythms (e.g. feeding cycles) with a period much shorter (i.e.
frequency much higher) than that of a circadian rhythm.
Infradian rhythms: biological rhythms with a cycle of more than 24 hours (e.g. the human
menstrual cycle).

(v) Displacement activity:

It is an irrelevant behavioral response an organism sometimes gives when confronted
with two alternative courses of action.
Examples
• If a bird is sitting on its eggs is suddenly confronted by a predator, it may be torn
between fleeing the nest and attacking the predator. So it does neither and instead, it
preens its feathers.
• Two birds fighting may suddenly peck at the ground or get into roosting position. The
two opposing alternatives that the birds have are to fight or escape.
• In sticklebacks, a male may suddenly adopt a vertical position with its head
downwards and start digging the sand in the course of a fight.
• In man stroking of the fore head, scratching behind the ear, biting of finger nails etc.

(vi) Vacuum activity

This is a behavioural sometimes given out by a frustrated animal in absence of a normal
release. It is when motivation builds up, but no right stimulus is provided to cause an
appropriate behavior. In this case a normal response is produced but directed towards
an inappropriate object or situation.
Example
 A cock deprived of a mate displays a courtship dance to an innominate object
such as a bucket.  A bird may go through the motion of building a nest even if no
nesting materials are available.

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(vii) Social behavior

It is a form of behavior that involves interactions between two or more animals of the
same species. It is most clearly seen in animals which organize themselves into social
groups called societies. Advantages of social behavior
• Better protection against predators, due to improved detection and escape
systems
• Better use and defence of limited resources
• Increased feeding efficiency
• Increased reproductive efficiency
• Increased survival of offspring through communal feeding and protection
• Saving of energy by endothermic animals as a result of being together
• Saving of energy by moving fish and birds which can take advantage of vortices
created by others in a group.
Disadvantages
• Increased competition for water, space, food mates and others resources
• Increased susceptibility to diseases and parasites
• Higher risks of being harvested by humans
• Higher risks of predation on young by cannibalistic neighbours.

Forms of social behaviors 1) Territorial behavior (Territoriality)

Territoriality is the defense of an area occupied by relatively exclusively by an animal or a
group of animals.
A territory is an area that an individual defends, usually to the exclusion of other members
of the same species.
Territories are typically used for feeding, mating, rearing young or a combination of these
activities.
It is fixed in location, its size varying with the species, the territory function and the amount of
resource available. Advantages of territoriality  Reduces competition for resources such
as food, space, etc.
 Conserves energy during critical periods
 Prevents over-crowding and exhaustion of food supplies
 Enhance bond pair formation which facilitates reproduction in most animals
 Strengthens and maintain bond pairs by associating the animals within a territory
 Permits improved defense of nests, nestlings and adults
 Guarantees food supply to young ones by keeping off all other animals that would feed
on it.
 Limits mating to fit individuals and hence increase the overall fitness of the population.
 Minimizes epidemics since contact between animals and population density are limited.
Disadvantages of territoriality  Limits the population density that can be attained by
an area  Denies weak individuals chances to mate.
 Encourages inbreeding which may reduce the overall gene strength of genes in the
population

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Examples of territoriality
• In antelopes the most basic form of territoriality is that shown by forest antelopes in
which a pair forms a territory to breed. These forest species do not use vocal and visual
displays but rather live in a world of scent, marking their territories by means of their
prominent scent glands and dung piles.
• .The Agamid lizards have a dominant male with several females and subdominant
males. The dominant male of Agama is very conspicuous with a bright orange head and
a blue tail in contrast to the subdominant ones. Subdominant males resemble the brown
females. It is only this dominant male that defends the territory by displaying its bright
colours.
• The Uganda Kob has a territory system in which a buck occupies an area which supplies
almost all its needs except water. Breeding takes place throughout the year on
permanent mating grounds called Leks. Such grounds are stamping grounds on which
the male defecates, urinates, rolls, guzzles the grounds and rubs his face marking it with
its facial gland. The male normally makes its presence known by a powerful/whistle
which usually results in an answerable chorus from the females. Each ground has its
owner and as a doe passes through these ground patches, the hopeful owner prances
towards her but loses interest as soon as she crosses his limits to the next territory. If
she stays, mating takes place; each consummation being announced by a boastful
whistle to his neighbors. After this, the male may lie down or quit the female instantly, to
try and impress another.
• Many species of weaver birds rest in colonies and the nests are built by the males which
display noisily to the females by hanging beneath their nests and flapping their wings
vigorously. Each male builds several nests and if he succeeds in attracting more than
one female, each female uses a separate nest. The male defends a small volume of air
around his nests including nearby twigs and chases away any other male who attempts
to intrude. However all birds form a colony and mix freely while feeding.

2) Courtship and Mating behavior

Courtship is the heterosexual reproductive communication system which leads to the
consumatory sexual act of mating. It usually occurs into two phases of pair formation and
corpulatory behavior.
Attracting a mate is often a big problem for animals because they have to respond to
hormonal changes within their bodies and changes in the environment.
Many auditory and visual displays have only evolved in order to solve the problem of finding
a mate. This is why animals sing, dance, exude scents, change colour etc.

Functions of Courtship
• Courtship reduces male aggressiveness, suppresses the attack and flight and increases
the sexual tendencies
• Courtship causes synchronization or coordination of the time pattern of mating that
ensures fertilization of eggs.
Reproductive isolation:

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This is the avoidance of mating with members of different species (hybridization).

Interspecific mating would lead to the disturbance of delicately balanced growth patterns.
Intraspecific mating is ensured by each species developing different courting methods.
• It ensures defence to the mates during the mating seasons. (Read about courtship in
sticklebacks).
• It synchronizes breeding with environmental conditions that can favour proper growth of
offspring. For instance, in most species of herbivores reproduction takes place at the
onset of wet seasons to ensure constant supply of food to the young ones.

3) Aggression/Agonistic behavior.
This is a group of behavioral activities including rituals, physical attacks on the organism but
not associated with predation. It is behaviour which is associated with conflict or fighting or
contests involving two individuals. It involves both threatening and submissive behaviors
which determine which competitor gains access to some resource such as food, nesting
sites and mates. Fights rarely end in death but may result in serious injury. They are highly
ritualized and resemble tournaments. This is because killing or seriously injuring the loser
would be disadvantageous because the loser may not necessarily be less healthy or
weaker but may not be mature. Serious fights occur in animals which have weapons that
can inflict motor injury but most of the time the loser is capable of quick flight. Fighting
immediately stops when the loser turns away or surrenders thus assuming a submissive
posture.
Examples
• In wolves, the throat which is the most vulnerable part is exposed to the opponent. This
inhibits further attack.  In birds, some species turn the back of the head to the opponent
and the rival stops fighting.
• In cichlid fish, the fish lie side by side and beat each other by tails. It they cannot decide
who has won, they face each other pull and push by the jaws until the loser folds the
dorsal fin.
• Deers match side by side eye each other on the corner of the head, face each other and
clash the antlers (horns). If one exposes the posterior view, the rival waits until they face
each other again and fight.
Aggression/Fighting serves an important function:
• Spacing out individuals and promoting distribution of a species. Spacing out is achieved
by natural hostility
• In ground breeders e.g. gulls, spacing out is a means of defense against predators
because a great concentration of prey in case eggs or chicks would attract the predators.
Hence territorial fighting keeps individual groups far apart.
• Competition for mates by fighting selects fitter individuals for propagation of the species.
The evolutionally process whereby the displays become modified to form social signals is
called ritualization. Ritualization is the use of displays/symbolic activities so that no
serious harm is done to either combatant.

4) Dominance Hierarchies/Peck Order

A dominance hierarchy is a social ranking of each member in a social group. It refers to
social rankings of each member within a social group according to status.
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It can also be defined as a form of animal social structure in which a linear or nearly linear
ranking exists, with each animal dominant over those below it and submissive to those
above it in the hierarchy. Such a hierarchy is common amongst species of fish, birds like
hens and mammals like baboons, wolves, etc.
If several hens unfamiliar to one another are put together, they respond by pecking each
other. Eventually the group establishes a clear peck order hence a linear dominance
hierarchy. In such a group, one individual is the tyrant and dominates and controls
behaviour of all others by threats.
The next is subordinate only to the tyrant but subdues the rest. The third is subordinate only
to the above two and dominates the rest and so on, down the line to the lowest. In such
cases, learning often reduces the amount of fighting because each individual learns which of
its companions is stronger and thus must be avoided or which members are weaker and can
therefore be intimidated.
Such a continuous order of hierarchy is referred to as peck order or dominant hierarchy
and it reduces the amount of actual fighting. Male individuals who do not learn their place
and avoid their superiors are always at disadvantage because they receive more fights.
E.g. Wolves live in packs and within the pack a dominance hierarchy exists among females.
The top female controls mating of others. When food is abundant, the top female mates and
allows other females to do so. When food is scarce, she allows less mating hence making
more food available for her own young.

Establishment of Dominance Hierarchies

Dominance hierarchies are often established through ritualized displays or mild fighting,
rather than all-out battle. The loser in a battle for dominance typically moves away from a
choice habitat or a disputed mate. Among primates, dominance conflicts frequently involve
no more than the display of enlarged canines, sometimes through yawning. Bears, also, will
roar or wave their open mouths at social inferiors. Behaviors like these do not require
fighting, but do result in the prominent exhibition of potentially formidable fighting weapons.
In other cases, as in elephant seals, there actually can be prolonged, often bloody fighting.
However, once the hierarchy is established, subsequent fighting is less frequent. In many
cases, there is a strong correlation between dominance and large size.
Dominance hierarchies have to be reestablished when certain individuals feel prepared to
move up within the hierarchy, or when new individuals are introduced into an area. During
such time a series of challenges may occur.
This can be a stressful period for all individuals involved.
Advantages of social hierarchies.
• Facilitate the sharing of resources to occur such that fit ones survive
• Increase genetic vigor in the group by ensuring the strongest and genetically fit
individuals have higher reproductive advantage
• Decrease the amount of individual aggression associated with feeding, mate selection
and breeding site selection
• Avoids injuries to stronger animal that may occur if fighting would be necessary to
establish a hierarchy.

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Disadvantages of social hierarchies

• Encourage inbreeding which may lead to expression of undesirable characteristics.
• Increase chances of starvation of weaker individuals since stronger ones feed first
leaving the weaker ones to feed on left overs.
• Increased reproductive disadvantage in subordinates since mating is restricted to tyrants
• higher levels of stress hormones in high ranking individuals lead to high metabolic rates
that demand large amounts of food that may result to quick starvation of the whole group
in case of food shortage.

5) Altruism:
This is a form of social behavior whereby on organism puts itself at a risk or personal
disadvantage for the benefit of the other members of a species. The animal acts in the
interest of others at a cost of one’s self in terms of chances of survival and reproduction.
Examples
(i) Some animals give alarm calls which warn others of the approach of a predator e.g.
ground squirrels. The alarm caller is most likely attacked because when it calls, the
others run into the burrows with it going down last.
(ii) A female baboon protects and cares for its offspring for almost six years
(iii) Female birds protect their nestlings from unfavorable weather conditions such as rain
(iv) Female monkeys care for young ones of others.
Significance of
altruism  Ensures survival and protection of weak and
young ones.
• There is increased chance of survival of young ones.
• It increases allele frequency of a particular organism.
6) Social Organization
Ants, bees and termites are social insects living in colonies and have an organization based
on a caste system. Individuals often assume specialized roles which increases the overall
efficiency of the group. The roles include; food finding, reproduction, offspring rearing and
defence.
Cooperation between members of the society, sharing and division of labour depend on a
stereotyped pattern of behavior and effective means of communication. In insect societies,
differences in body structure and reproductive potentials affect their roles within the society
a feature called polymorphism.
Polymorphism is the existence of organisms of different species in different forms e.g.
termites include the queen, king and workers. In bees, there are; queens, workers and
drones. These forms are known as polymorphs or castes

ANIMAL COMMUNICATION
Communication is the transfer of information from one animal to another. Communication
in animals occurs when one individual uses intentional, specially designed signals or
displays to modify the behaviour of others.
Communication can occur within species (intraspecific) or between species
(interspecific).The former are mostly important in reproductive success while the latter

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mostly includes warning signals. Therefore communication involves passage of information

whose effect may be to:
 encourage approach
 performance of a corporate act
 Prevent attack or induce withdrawal in animals.
There are four different communicative channels:
• Visual
• Auditory/Acoustic
• Olfactory/chemical
• Tactile
Olfactory communication.
This is the use of odors/scents, which are diffused and persistent in space and time.
Unicellular organisms with chemoreceptors can recognize members of their own species
using olfactory means.
Chemical signal are well developed in insects, fishes, salamanders, and mammals. They
often reveal the animals underlying physiological and sexual states.
Chemicals that are synthesized by one organism and that affect the behaviour of another
member of the same species are called pheromones.
Pheromones are secreted by a number of species: Ants during their trailing behaviour,
Silk moth, Female cockroaches, Species that perform territorial marks by urine & dung.
In honey bees, the Queen secretes substances that are quite outstanding in complexity
and playing role in the social organization of the colony. There is an acid called
Ketodecenoic acid from the queen’s mandibular glands and It is spread throughout the
colony by the workers by leaking the Queen’s body and regurgitating the materials back
and forth to one another in a colony. It evokes three separate effects:
 It stops workers from rearing larvae into new
queens  It stops the development of the
ovaries of the workers  It acts as a sex
attractant.
Differences in the chemical structure of pheromones may be directly related to their
function. Pheromones used for marking territories and attracting mates usually last longer
because of their higher molecular weight.
Airborne signals have lower molecular weights and disperse easily.

Visual Communication
This is a directional kind of communication based on sight. It is always associated with
displays which involve facial and ear expressions, hair erections, tail post position and
general body posture. Almost all-animal coloration is protective either by being
concealing or by warning.
For example; most predators watch movements of the prey and the prey that keeps still
until the last moment undoubtedly rely on its color to protect it from being seen.
Visual communication is important to many animals because a large amount of information
can be conveyed in a short time but may have some disadvantages:
• Various objects in the environment may block the line of sight
• Signals may be difficult to see over a long distance
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• Signals not effective at night

• Signals may lead to detection by predators

Vocal/Acoustic/Auditory Communication
Sound allows much information to be communicated in a short time. Acoustic
communication is also exceedingly abundant in nature, likely because sound can be
adapted to a wide variety of environmental conditions and behavioral situations. Sounds
can vary substantially in amplitude, duration, and frequency structure.
There are two categories of sound in animals:
i) Call notes: that are species specific and inherited. (A call notes is a brief sound whose
function is to give warning about the presence of an enemy).
ii) True songs: that are partly inherited and partly learned. (True songs are usually for
attraction and serve an important function in mate selection and bonding between
parents and juveniles).

Tactile Communication
This refers to communication between animals in physical contact with each other. The
antennae of many invertebrates and the touch receptors in the skin of vertebrates
function in tactile communication. Some examples of tactile communication include: 
Birds preening the feathers of other birds and  Grooming in primates.
 Fighting (the last resort of tactile Communication).

Significance of communication signals

Communication signals also play an important role in:
 Conflict resolution, including territory defense. When males are competing for access
to females, the costs of engaging in physical combat can be very high; hence natural
selection has favored the evolution of communication systems that allow males to
honestly assess the fighting ability of their opponents without engaging in combat.
 Communication signals are often critical for allowing animals to accurately identify
their own young.
 Warning systems. Communication signals are warning systems that convey
information about the environment are often critical for allowing animals to relocate
and avoid danger (predation, climatic catastrophes, anthropogenic)
 Maintaining group cohesion. In group-living species that form dominance hierarchies,
communication is critical for maintaining ameliorative relationships between
dominants and subordinates.
 Communication systems also are important for coordinating group movements.
 Reproductive success. Some of the most extravagant communication signals play
important roles in sexual advertisement and mate attraction. Successful reproduction
requires identifying a mate of the appropriate species and sex, as well as assessing
indicators of mate quality.

LEARNED BEHAVIORS
Learning: is the capacity to record specific experiences and modify behavior in the light
of those experiences thus learning is an adaptive change in behavior resulting from past
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experience. Learned behavior is therefore acquired during the life time of an individual
as a result of constant experience.
Learning is characterized by flexibility and the resultant behavior can be modified if the
environment changes. Learning depends on the genetic constitution of an animal. Each
stage of development depends on the proceeding stages and the interaction between
animals with their environment to show the ability of animals to learn. The differences in
behaviour, may reflect differences in sensory and mortal functioning in animals.
Learning allows an animal to respond quickly to changes in the environment. Once an
animal learns something, its behavioral choices increase. Learning in animals is diverse
and ranges from habituation (the simplest form of learning) to insight learning (the most
complex form) that involves cognitive processes.

Types (classes) of learning

(i) Habituation (iv) Imitation
(ii) Imprinting (v) Latent learning
(iii) Associative learning

(i) Habituation: Is the loss of response to a constant stimulus after repeated exposure.
Thus habituation is a form of learning in which repeated exposure to a stimulus results
in decreased responsiveness.
Examples;
• A sudden loud noise causes a horse to bolt on initial exposure, but if it is subjected to
repeated noise, the responsiveness decreases.
• A snail scrolling across the board can be made to withdraw into its shell by hitting the
board firmly, repetition of this action result in a snail ignoring this stimulus.
• Hydra contacts when disturbed by a slight touch; it stops responding however, if
disturbed repeatedly by such a stimulus
• A scarecrow stimulus will usually make birds avoid a tree with ripe fruits for a few days
but they later become habituated to it and they may even land on it on their way to the
fruit tree.
• In species that rely on alarm calls to convey information about predators, in this case
animals stop giving alarm calls when they become familiar with other species in their
environment that turn out not to be predators.
Once habituated to a stimulus, an animal still senses the stimulus, but the animal learns
not to respond to it. It is believed that habituation is occurs as a result of synaptic blocks
somewhere in the reflex arc. In some circumstances, loss of responsiveness to a
stimulus may result from fatigue or sensory adaptation rather than habituation.

Significance of habituation to animals

• It enables animals to avoid wasting time and energy responding harmless stimuli
that do not threaten their survival or and reproduction.
• It allows an animal’s nervous system to focus on stimuli that signal food, mates, or
real danger that may be beneficial to its survival.
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(ii) Imprinting: This is learning that is limited to a specific time period in an animal’s life
and that is generally irreversible or is a form of learning that occurs during a brief,
genetically determined critical period in the lives of animals, usually shortly after
birth. A particular stimulus becomes permanently associated with a particular
response.
One result of imprinting is the formation of a strong bond between two animals, often
between a new offspring and its parent. The limited phase in an animal’s development
when the learning of certain behavior can occur is called sensitive period.
Examples of imprinting.
• Shortly after giving birth, a mother goat is sensitive to the smell of her kid for about an
hour. During this critical period, a few minutes contact with any kind, is sufficient to
accept it as her own.
• Nestling respond to their parents’ calls a few minutes after hatching
• Mother birds and mammals are able to recognize their young ones shortly after birth.

Significance of imprinting
• Allows an animal to learn the characteristics of its parent so that it can recognize its
parents and other members of its species.
• Enables adult animals to recognize their own offspring.
• Allows effective communication between parents and offspring to take place.
• Enables the migratory salmon fish to trace their way back to fresh water streams to
spawn.
• It plays an important role in song development in birds.
(Read about Lorenz Konrad’s study about imprinting in birds.)

(iii) Imitation: this is learning by observing and mimicking the behaviour of others. It
involves copying the behaviour of another individual, usually a member of the same
species.
Examples;
• Nestling learn to fly by mimicking the flight of their parents
• Young predator acquire hunting skills from their parents by imitation.

(iv) Associative learning/conditioning/association

This is a type of learned behavior whereby an animal learns to associate a particular
response with a reward or punishment. [Link] animal learns that a particular stimulus
or response is linked to a reward or punishment.
Forms of associative learning/ condition
(a) Classical conditioning: This a form of learning in which a behaviour that is
normally triggered by a certain stimulus comes to be triggered by a substitute
stimulus which previously had no effect on the behaviour. Therefore, it involves
association between meaningless stimulus (bell) and meaningful stimulus(food)
(Read about Pavlov’s experiment on dogs)

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Features of classical conditioning

• Involves association of two stimulus presented simultaneously
• Reinforced by repetition i.e. it is temporary
• Removal of the cerebral cortex from the animal, causes total loss of response.
For example, Birds learn to avoid certain brightly colored caterpillars that have a noxious
taste. Because birds associate the color pattern with the bad taste, they may also avoid
animals with a similar color pattern.

(b) Trial and error learning (Instrumental/Maze learning) or operant conditioning.

This is a form of associative learning in which an animal learns to associate one of its
own behavioural acts with a positive or negative effect.
An animal’s spontaneous movement may by chance produce a reward and the
animal learns by trial and error to repeat the same behavioral patterns. The reward
may often be pleasure of performing an action more accurately than before. This is
probably the most appropriate category for the learning of new mortar skills e.g.
• Predators quickly learn to avoid certain species of prey with painful experiences
like porcupines  Young mammals and birds perfect their prey catching skills,
• Humans learn to play the piano by a trial and error form of practice.
(Read about B.F Skeena’s experiment)
Characteristics of operant conditioning
• It is improved by repetition
• The associative stimulus follows the action
• It is temporary in nature
• Removal of the cerebral cortex does not result in loss of response.

(c) Latent learning/exploratory learning.

This is a behavioral pattern that arises when an animal stores information while
exploring its environment. It involves making associations without immediate reward.
It allows the animal to learn about its surrounding as it explores and this information
remains latent or hidden until an obvious reinforcement is provided. Knowledge
about an animal’s home area may be important for its survival, perhaps enabling it to
escape from a predator or capture prey.
Example: A bee visiting on particular flower repeatedly, learns to associate the
colour and scent of the flower with its nectar, it also learns the flower’s relative
position to the hive and at what time of day the flower is producing most nectar.
Ecological significance of associative learning.
• Enhances acquisition hunting skills in a variety of predators.
• Enhances mimicry in a variety of animals to avoid predators.
• Allows animals to easily find and select food basing on associations they make in
their environment.  Increase chances of an animal’s survival by avoiding
undesirable stimuli.

(v) Insight learning

In insight learning, the animal uses cognitive or mental processes to associate
experiences and solve problems. This has also been observed in chimpanzees in the
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wild where they use tools to accomplish certain tasks e.g. they used crumpled leaves as
a sponge for drinking water, they also use long stick to fish ants out of their nests and
use stones to crack hard nuts.

(vi) Fixed action patterns

These are behavioral patterns that are resistant to change and may not even be altered
by the learning process. They are controlled by very few neurons in the central nervous
system and are performed perfectly in an identical fashion.
For example, Yawning in primates and the two nesting habits in the parrot family
Agapormis i.e. tucking of building material under the wing and carrying it in the bill.
When few of such species were interbred the highbreeds failed to build nests. Those
which succeeded did it after a very long time and carried the “nesting material in the
beak.
MEMORY
This is the ability to store and recall past experiences.
Types of memory
Short term memory: This lasts for a short time. It is easily disrupted
Long term memory: This lasts for a long time (many years). It is relatively permanent and
resistant to change.

“If you want to change the fruits, you will first have to change the roots. If you want to
change the visible, you must first change the invisible.” (Harv Eker. T. 2005)

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