OPEN ELECTIVE ASSIGNMENT

Enhancing Psychological health

UNIT 1

TOPIC : GENDER AND LEADERSHIP

SUBMITTED BY: ISHA SHUKLA (M22LS30)
M.Sc (Life sciences)
THE RESEARCH ARTICLE IS ATTACHED BELOW

SUMMARY

The African Journal of Gender and Women Studies published a research paper by
Molla Hosseini Ali that explores the role of gender differences in leadership style
selec?on and its impact on organiza?onal crisis-preparedness or crisis-proneness.

The study aimed to inves?gate the rela?onship between gender differences and
leadership style selec?on in managers of governmental organiza?ons in Kerman City.

The survey begins by acknowledging that gender differences have been a topic of
interest for humans since the beginning of ?me. The author notes that one of the
first ques?ons humans asked themselves was about the meaning of gender
differences and the necessity of humans being created in two or more sexes. The
study then delves into the concept of leadership and how it is influenced by gender
differences.

The study found that there is a significant rela?onship between the sex of managers
and the type of leadership style they adopt. The study iden?fied two types of
leadership styles: task-oriented and rela?onship-oriented. Task-oriented leadership
is characterized by a focus on achieving goals and objec?ves, while rela?onship-
oriented leadership is characterized by a focus on building rela?onships and
promo?ng teamwork.
It found that male managers tend to adopt a task-oriented leadership style, while
female managers tend to adopt a rela?onship-oriented leadership style.

The study also found that the type of leadership style adopted by managers affects
their aOtude towards crisis management. It iden?fies two types of aOtudes towards
crisis management: crisis-preparedness and crisis-proneness. Crisis-preparedness
refers to the ability of an organiza?on to an?cipate and respond to crises effec?vely,
while crisis-proneness refers to the tendency of an organiza?on to be vulnerable to
crises.

The study found that managers who adopt a task-oriented leadership style tend to
have a crisis-prone aOtude towards crisis management. This is because task-oriented
leaders tend to focus on achieving goals and objec?ves, which can lead to neglec?ng
the importance of building rela?onships and promo?ng teamwork. On the other
hand, managers who adopt a rela?onship-oriented leadership style tend to have a
crisis-prepared aOtude towards crisis management. This is because rela?onship-
oriented leaders tend to focus on building rela?onships and promo?ng teamwork,
which can lead to beQer communica?on and collabora?on during a crisis.

The survey concludes by highligh?ng the importance of considering gender

differences in leadership style selec?on for effec?ve crisis management in
organiza?ons. The study recommends that organiza?ons should strive to achieve a
balance between task-oriented and rela?onship-oriented leadership styles to ensure
effec?ve crisis management. The study also recommends that organiza?ons should
provide training and development opportuni?es for managers to improve their crisis
management skills.

In conclusion, the study by Molla Hosseini Ali provides valuable insights into the
rela?onship between gender.
 In tern a tio n a l
Sch o la rs
Jo u rn a ls

African Journal of Gender and Women Studies ISSN 2516-9831 Vol. 4 (8), pp. 001-006, August, 2019. Available
online at www.internationalscholarsjournals.org © International Scholars Journals
Author(s) retain the copyright of this article.

Full Length Research Paper

A survey on the role of gender differences in leadership

style selection and its leading to organizational crisis-
preparedness or crisis-proneness
MollaHosseini Ali
Associate Professor, Department of Management, Bahonar University of Kerman, Iran.
Email: [email protected] Tel: +989133993911
Accepted 18 January, 2019

One of the topics that has engaged the human mind all the time, is a major difference created among human beings
in terms of gender. Perhaps one of the first questions a human being asked himself/herself has been that what these
differences mean, and what has been the necessity of human beings being created in two or according to a more
contemporary narrative in more than two sexes. Men and women, from a long time ago have recognized the world
very differently compared to each other, and sometimes the distance between the two sexes has been so much that
they have been referred to as two different planets. This article is written to understand this point whether the
gender difference Have any effects on selecting a certain leadership style by managers or not? And whether this
selection by managers leads to the crisis preparedness or crisis proneness in the complex under their order or not?
This point can be useful to all those organizations, in some way, facing this question of what kind of management
and which style of leadership to use for the success of their organization. This research is considered as an applied
theoretical study .In this study, in order to find an answer to our question, a questionnaire has been designed and
distributed among the managers of governmental Organizations in Kerman City. The sample size was extracted
according to Cochrane formula and a final number of 180 questionnaires were determined. The results of this
research indicate the fact that there exists a significant relationship between in Kerman city's governmental
organizations managers' sex and the type of their leadership style and consequently their attitude toward the crisis.
On the other hand, the managers' type of attitude toward crisis, may lead to crisis preparedness or crisis proneness
within the organizational framework of their complex. This study confirms the fact that gender is an influencing
factor in incidence or absence of crises and organizational crises in particular.

Key words: crisis, leadership style, gender, crisis preparedness, crisis proneness

INTRODUCTION

Webster dictionary defines “crisis” like this: Crisis is “a to face the crisis. He believes a crisis is not necessarily
sudden change, for better or worse, in the course of a bad and puts a positive spin on the situation (Woodyard,
disease; an unstable or crucial time or state of affairs in 1998; 6). According to Mitroff and his colleagues, a crisis
which a decisive change is impending; a situation that is a disruption that physically affects a system as a whole
has reached a critical phase” (Woodyard, 1998; 5) and threatens its basic assumptions (Barnett and Perth,
Umansky while confirming Webster definition describes 2000; 75). Crisis is a situation that has reached severe
crisis as a serious and disturbing problem that has its hardship or a dangerous point (Yazdanpanah, 2005; 1).
own nature (Woodyard, 1998; 5). For centuries, the McCarthy also believes that the crisis is a situation that
Chinese have accepted that there are positive aspects in requires immediate response and allocation of full
all crises. Their symbol for the term crisis is “wei-ji”, a resources. (McCarthy, 2002; 58). Organizational crisis
combination of two words: danger and opportunity. can be defined as human events with high frequency and
(Woodyard, 1998; 6). Stephen Fink, a management results that can profoundly delay the continuity of
expert, uses the cultural view of Chinese and organizational operations. (Wang, 2009; 446) Shakib and
unpredictable nature of crisis to developing an approach Mousavi believe that crises are events that occur
suddenly caused by natural events and human actions Hersey Defined leadership as the impact on people in
which impose damages to a collection or human society their tasks willingly have described. (Alvani, 1386; 141-
and resolving it needs necessary, urgent and 142) Reza Azad in his own book defines leadership like
extraordinary actions and operations. (Center for Studies this "Organizational Leadership is the approach of
and Rural and Urban Specialized Services, 1385; 4), and Handling affairs and Comes from the attitude of
from another perspective, Abbasi provide the definition of Managers to organization and human resources.
crisis as this: crisis is an event, incident or a course which Leadership is a set of values and principles that
cut the system off its regular functions, meaning that it managers believe and Act. leadership, is the Core and
interrupts the regular movement of an organization, a constructer of organizational culture. (Azad 1379; 42) As
collection, a city or the like or causes delay in noted in the definition of leadership, the most important
implementation trend of activities, missions, goals of the thing in leadership is direction to influence members of
system. (Hussain Abbasi, 2009; 29) the organization. Leadership requires influence and
influence people, and the director The role of the leader
who can people under their supervision is penetrating
Review of Literature and effective subordination and in other words to accept
his power and influence. Issue of influence and power
Leadership sources from power and influence stems from their
relationship (Alvani, 1386; 141-142) It seems that almost
Leadership is defined as the ability to influence others to all experts defines leadership as the process of
achieve organizational goals. In this regard, the individual influencing a person or group of individuals on other
can be leaders of the two main styles of behavior, groups. disagreement among scientists about
orientation to the task (task orientation) and the tendency management leadership is due to two major factors: First,
to mutual relations between people (relationship should leadership be a non-mandatory Process?
orientation) . Fiedler suggests that in terms of Secondly, whether the management and leadership is
performance, leadership style must be in compliance with different and what is difference? Leadership and
the requirements of situation. He encounter influence as influence Process doesn’t Have any work to do with
the essential element of leadership .That is, leadership is organizational hierarchy, and perhaps most important
a relationship in which one tries to conduct a joint task to differences between leadership and management also
influence the others. The important point is that effective comes at this point. (Moghimi, 1377; 275-276)
leadership depends on the good that is in due time and
take the appropriate location (Mitchell, 1377; 450-470)
Stogdill opinion of management theorists and led to
almost the number of people commenting about Leadership styles
leadership have definitions for it. (Moghimi, 1377; 275)
Drucker pointed out that managers are Most Important One of the important concepts in this research is
and rare resources of each type of enterprise. According scrutinize and formed an important element of this study
to Teri, leadership is the Art of influencing people to is the concept of leadership style. Qolipour about this
induce them to attempt to achieve the desired goals of term, believes that the concept of leadership style is a
group. Massarik and Tannenbaum and Wechsler defined key leadership behavior. Behavior and practice leader at
leadership as "using the process in relation to situational work, he goes back to leadership style. Leadership style
influence among the people and giving it to the is that patterns of stability while working with individuals,
destination or specific purposes. Koontz and O’Donnell" are seen by others. These patterns cause a person to act
Leadership is influencing people to go along them to in similar circumstances the same habits and patterns,
achieve a common purpose. "Tribute to the other writers and by others to be predictable. If you change the style
to turn many management writers agree that leadership is for sustainability Leadership is not impossible, is very
the following process to influence individual or group difficult and depends on the situation (Qoli Pour, 1380;
activities in order to attempt to achieve the specified goal 77). Moghimi quoted Hrsy and Blanchard about it states
position. (Hersey and Blanchard, 1378; 98) that "leadership style is to permanent and continuous
Ivancevich Believe that leadership consists of patterns of behavior when people Working with and
communication between a group of people known in through others, used and must be understood by the
which a person strives to others given the goal to lead. In people "(Moghimi, 1377; 276), doctor Rezayian also to
another definition from Hamption with emphasis on the define leadership style influence factors into the definition
relationships between individuals to influence subordinate and states that leadership style is a way the leader of her
leadership through communicating with them in achieving influence for purposes uses. And yet the influence of two
the goals of the organization is expressed. Blanchard and factors knows: power, status and power of personal posts
(Rezayian, 1385; 222) about the influence of these two people’s characters are sex-based, but also values,
factors was previously presented materials. norms, and social institutions and organizations are the
In this study the concept for the difference between same (Riemann, 2001; 7).
men and women is used to investigate accountability
crisis, controversy and crisis in their respective
organizations will be discussed. Crisis prepared and crisis prone organizations
Leadership task - circuit includes features such as
guided slave, slave to specify the role and function, Organizations can be placed in a spectrum in terms of
coordination, problem solving, critical working poor, and being crisis preparedness and crisis proneness. One
pressures on the slave for doing better work. This task ultimate of this range holds the crisis-prone organizations
behavior - based on efficient utilization of human and which have high vulnerability towards crisis and the other
material resources to achieve target organization are ultimate holds the crisis-prepared organizations which are
useful. Against the leadership relationship - including the ready to deal with crises. Crisis-prone organizations are
circuit characteristics such as Supporting behavior, those are inactive and surrendered against crisis and
friendly behavior, slave address, in consultation with the have no mechanism to deal with crisis actively. Contrarily
slave leader as a representative desires slave and slave although crisis prepared organizations cannot be said
identification and cooperation is appreciated. This that are completely immune against crisis, they use all
behavior relationship - based on creating and maintaining their power and capabilities to feel for crisis before it
a good relationship with the slave are useful. occurred and to deal with it effectively but they try to
Many writers in this field to classify different types of prevent crises from occurring and If crises occur they
leadership styles that can be used by managers are paid. control them in a correct manner (Alvani, 1996; 58).
Richardson (1995) assumes that the leaders prone to
crisis tend to put on display a higher degree of single-
Differences between sex and gender sided management visionary. Therefore, over-biased
behavior patterns are dangerous and disproportionately
Theoretically sex and gender are two different concepts. emphasizes a single extravagance or wastage (to be very
sex is referring to biological aspect (male sex vs. female competitive, being very technical, etc.), they are more
sex), while gender is a social and cultural phenomenon. prone to failures and crises and Miller’s simple theory
More particularly it must be said that gender refers to reasons that those organizations that are prone to failure
social structure behaviors related to Masculinity and develop and expand a single strength or application
femininity. (Yi Wu - Ming, 2009; 1990) Encyclopedia of during the vision of most of others. Thus those
Wikipedia describe the concepts like this "Sex and organizations which are very simple are integrated and
gender are not synonymous. While the "woman" and change a formula for success into a path toward failure.
"man" is referring to sex, "femininity" and "manhood" is Term preparedness for crises usually assign to all
referring to gender. Men, women, and female, male are measures that enables all governments, organizations,
words that determine sexual identity and are determined communities and people to respond quickly and efficiently
by biology. However, gender distinctions of male and while facing a crisis in times of crisis. Help ensure
female are based on the meaning of social structure for appropriate situations, factors and resources in the
sex. places affected, damage to the eyes and help reduce the
Riemann in confirming this opinion believes that gender negative effects resulting from the crisis is the purpose of
is defined in contrast to sex. Gender is concerned to this phase. Eliminating vulnerable to the destructive
social roles and interactions between men and women effects of the minimum reached before the clump is
while sex refers more to biological differences. Male and entered, the crisis can be decreased (Rajabi and others,
female roles and relationships between men and women 1388; 12).
are not immutable, but because they are founded by the
society, they are subject to change permanently and are
made by ethnicity, class, age and other factors (Riemann, Women vs Men: review of gender differences in
2001; 6). leadership and management
Men and women have two different areas for action,
different capabilities for selection, different rights and Research shows that techniques and methods of male
different power of decision-making. These action areas and female leadership can be effective means of both
are appointed by dominance of male and female cultural methods has its own audience, but when we them
values and norms. Passive victims are not sex prisoners, together to treat compared to the way we understand
they are capable of changing [giving shape to] many of leadership organization for women points for more.
those values, norms and social structures that limit their Now the question is whether men and women lead
independence of action; so we should note that not only differently? The question that Stephen Robbins in his
book and discussed it in this field and comment that participation in decision-making process are final.
many articles in this area have been developed, there are (Tabarsa and Jamali Nazari, 1387; 23-24).
two studies examining this outcome has been At this time, expanding the presence of women in
determined. First, similarities leadership style of women managerial and executive roles in organizations, many
and men is much more than the differences. And second, studies to evaluate the leadership abilities of women, as
that the differences seem that women are more well as possible differences in leadership styles of men
democratic in their leadership style, while men generally and women have paid. There is a problem which is that
tend to have Commands and orders. Research indicates despite the high participation rate of women in labor and
that the leadership style of men and women as natural it increases day by day, their presence in the category of
and innate are different. Basically, women are using top management is very limited. In an infinite time ago
democratic leadership style. Slave encourage them to that exist, this indicates that rates are high-ranking office
participate in power sharing are necessary information for organizational Posts by women will grow slowly.
them and they are trying to encourage them to attach (Sohrabi, 1385; 2) Women in management posts with
themselves to become more value. They tend to their some sub employees have fixed the constant and certain
Charisma in leadership style, expertise and contact with things were done and were rarely posts that have high
others to use. But men often tend to issuing the risks and heavy risks to be able thereby to have dignity
command and control are intense affairs. (Robbins, 1378; and with the use of slave elite teams creative and
688) Most authors believe that the leadership style of innovative to create. (Ott and Shafritz, 2000; 887).
tool, task circuit Men are lightly and autocratic style of
leadership and in circuit relation, a charismatic and In a meta-analysis reviews research to determine the
democratic is lightly feminine. Of this group of writers, the role of gender differences in leadership style, it was found
need to maintain masculine style and performance tasks that although men and women seems to be a different
while working emphasizes, feminine style is based on leadership styles, but generally return to select men and
relationships between individual insists. Women mainly women in leadership positions with common interests and
democratic and participatory style of management both have similar efficacy. However, although in this
interest are. Their willingness to trust their employees to context there is no practical significant difference but
vote and have opinions, they can participate in decisions significant differences in the dimensions of leadership
are. Rvznr the decentralization and devolution of decision there. Eagly and Karaoe’s meta-analysis and the role of
making and power in organizations, which are conducted gender differences in leadership styles and task oriented
by women is higher (Rosener, 1990; 22). Although a interaction axis identified. Men often as task-centered
considerable volume of literature on management and leaders who control and direct leadership style shows
entrepreneurship This trend emphasizes that women are were identified. However, another meta-analysis that
more feminine style, by Hofstede inconsistent evidence found that managers men to work in competitive
was presented in 1976 indicated that this was mainly that environments, the implementation roles filled with claims,
men prefer a consultative style and researcher in 2002 demands they impose on others and being more
received another director - the owners of women, trends prominent in the group, are more motivated. these
are more autocratic style. However, it seems that the fact differences as well as differences in leadership
that women should work and family responsibilities effectiveness has also been raised. This means that the
combined with their own incentives to their successful ratio of men to women in that role more masculine terms
separation of different men. They accept the are defined, are more effective. (Anderson and others,
responsibilities that may be more balance between work 2006; 556-557)
life and Personal Life, show less interest. Therefore the Eagly and Karau’s meta-analysis also claims women
use of participatory styles are styles that closer orbit with tend to lead to social, interpersonal relations in order to
the commitment of human resources management release a good spirit between people to facilitate, to be
system are, therefore, expect that it goes in the known. Then another meta-analysis claims that women
management of human resources management helpers with less masculine terms are defined, are more
organizations, women are largely committed circuit, effective.
control circuit. These findings compatible with the role of theory in
which people are expected to activities that are
coordinated with their gender roles, more motivated, they
Decision Making are compliant. (Anderson and others, 2006; 556-557)
Findings of a research shows that senior managers of
According to studies by Verhol and colleagues, The level organizations believes that women than male managers
employees to participate in decisions are influenced by are More transformational. Based on the observations of
gender are also directors. Men after receiving comments this study, globally as well as their female managers than
the proposed staff, their final decision they take. Versus male managers to assess more transformational.
expected, women showed more interest in staff Transformational leadership with an emphasis on
intuition, individuality development, and grant the power the last few years, but different aspects of this factor has
to challenge traditional assumptions] in relation to not been explained correctly in the context of
leadership [More routine model has become the leading management activities.
organizations. (Carls, 1998; 887) As it was mentioned in the previous sections we are
Kotiranta and colleagues in their research work as an searching for reaching and understanding this point
organization that can identify and remove obstacles from whether the gender differences create a significant
the advancement of women to achieve proper difference in the type of managers’ leadership style and
management, to acquire additional interests. The relevant consequently in their attitude toward areas of crisis and
conclusion is Wrong that the man to be leaders rather crisis management or not. Regarding the question again,
than women leaders was used because the average the hypotheses of this research are reconsidered here:
coherence between the positive leadership and Our first hypothesis is that sex is linked with the type of
profitability in the organization of women there. Generally, leadership style used by managers. This means those
all mechanisms should focus on multiple networks - and women that are in managerial roles in organizations,
most difficult - that encourages men and women compared to men, usually pay more attention and
prevented from climbing the ladder executive importance to their below staff, their emotions and feeling
management to be placed. (Kotiranta and others, 2007; as well as their opinions and creativity. In the opposite
1) side the men who play the role of the manager, for the
choice of their leadership style generally pay attention to
some other factors. These factors can be considered as
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY what is important is just doing what is asked of employees
and increasing productivity without embracing the spirit of
Tools used and procedure decentralization from legal authority of the manager. Our
evidences show that this hypothesis is true in the
For this research, two questionnaires are used. First a government section organizations in the city of Kerman.
questionnaire is used to determine the managers' attitudes toward
crisis. This questionnaire involves both general research questions These findings indicate the correlation between these two
such as age, sex, education and management experiences and a factors clearly. (r = 0.289), (sig = 0), means that male
dozen of questions about their attitudes toward crisis. These twelve managers in the city of Kerman to the general trend was
questions are obtained from two sources. Some of these questions autocratic leadership style and management, while women
has been chosen from the extraordinary work of Manonegrin and generally tend to use the style was more democratic.
Sheaffer (2004) and some other questions has come from the
paper of Ph.d Seyed Mehdi Alvani (1996). The extent of Cronbach’s Our second hypothesis is based on the assumption that
Alpha for the first questionnaire, shows the number 0.084, a gender is in relation with managers’ attitudes towards
number that indicates the amount of desirability of its validity. The crisis. This is important, as it was already referred to,
second questionnaire, doesn’t involves any other general since it is one of the most important factors that makes
questionser. The questionnaire also has a dozen of questions that organizations prone to crisis or the contrary; prepared for
measure the leadership style and the type of their decision-making
crisis, this is kind of attitude itself towards the area of crisis.
in terms of practical conditions. The questions of this questionnaire
also are extracted from fundamental work of Manonegrin and This hypothesis also, as it was referred to in the previous
Shaffer (2004) and also Miss Boroumand’s book (1995). sections, are confirmed by statistical data (r = 0.557), (sig =
Cronbach's alpha for the second questionnaire also shows the 0). The relatively high correlation between these two
figure represents 0.866 which represents a high level of validity and variables is telling the fact that the attitude of men and
confirms its authenticity. women, in government sector organizations of Kerman, is
significantly different. Accordingly, male managers in
Kerman have mostly passive approach to crisis, and the
Participants
type of their views toward crisis is very optimistic and they
According to the results of the study, studying the sample and assume that crisis is far from their organizations, while
analyzing the data show that 60 percent of the responding female managers are generally concerned about
population are male respondents and 40 percent of them are occurrence of crisis in their organization and they feel
women. Also, nearly 21 percent of respondents’ ages are between threatened by assuming crisis being close to their
20 and 30. Nearly 33 percent are between ages 30 to 40. organization.
Approximately 31 percent are between ages 40 to 50. 12 percent of
the respondents belong to ages 50 to 60 and almost 2 percent of The third hypothesis claims that managers’ leadership
respondents are more than 60 years of age. style, can affect their attitude toward crisis. The results (r =
0.350), (sig = 0.002) from this study also reflect the fact that
managers with different styles of leadership, have different
RESULTS attitudes towards crisis.
And finally, the last but not the least hypothesis is
In this study, our goal has been to review one of the considered as kind of a combination of all the above
hypotheses. This hypothesis can be raised like this: the
factors in the management literature that has been less
managers’ gender, by affecting the type of their leadership
considered by the time. Topics of sex and gender
style, affects their
differences have come into researchers’ consideration for
attitude toward crisis. Morley, Chantal , Collet, Isabelle, Milon, Marité , Maillet, Katherine ,
McDonnell,Martina, (2007). "Female Leadership: Individual strategies
to counter gender stereotypes and the model of the leader",int
management
Discussion Ott Steven, Jay M, Shafritz (2000). "Organization theories: myths," Ali
Parsayyan, Tehran, Farzaneh Publication
Poor Quli, Arian (1380). "Leadership style determinants of formal
Regarding women, the two variables of manager’sattitude organizational structure", Journal of Knowledge Management, Year
toward crisis and manager’s leadership style both are XIV, No. 53, Summer 1380, pp 75-100
dependent on each other but regarding men the two Powell, Gary (1990) ."One More Time: Do Female and Male Managers
variables don’t have a specific relationship with each Differ?" ,Academy of Management Executive
other. Regarding women this relationship is direct; Rajabi, Abbas Karimi, Yahya, Bagheri, honest, Karimi, Sadegh (1388)
"Crisis Management", Institute of Higher Education Jaber ibn hayan
meaning that by changing their leadership style from Reimann, Cordula (2001). "Towards Gender Mainstreaming in Crisis
autonomous to participatory, their attitude toward crisis is Prevention and Conflict Management", Health, Education, Nutrition,
shifted from crisis proneness to crisis preparedness. Emergency Aid Building, Division 43
Rezayian, Ali (2006). "Principles of Management", Tehran, Eighteenth
Finally, it should be mentioned that perception of edition, development organizations and study books Humanities
preparedness for crisis is more gender-based than being (Samt)
neutral regarding gender. In an assumed crisis female Robbins, Stephen Pi (1999). "Theories of organizational behavior
manager are significantly more willing to achieve a concepts and applications", translated Parsayyan and Muhammad Ali
Arabi, Volume II, seventh edition, Tehran, Office of Cultural Research
democratic collective- participatory solution than their Rosener JB (1990). "Ways women lead”, Harvard Business Review,
male counterparts. As our results show, it seems that the 68: 119-125
participatory leadership associated with "femininity" is Sohrab, Ruddy (1385). "Literature Review of Women and leadership
more useful. differences between men and women leadership styles", Tehran,
Fourth International Conference on Management
Tabarsa, Gholam Ali, Jamal Nazari, Wish (1387), "Gender effects on
patterns of industrial management", Journal of policy in the
REFERENCES nineteenth, No. 196, August 87, pp 21-27
Van Emmerik, Hetty, Euwema, Martin C. Wendt.H, "Leadership
Alvani, Seyed Mehdi (1996). "Crisis Prepared and Crisis Prone Behaviors, around the World: The Relative Importance of Gender,
Organizations", Knowledge Management Journal No. 35 and 36, versus Cultural Background", Utrecht university.
Winter 96 and Spring 97. Woodyard, Tyrone M (1998). "Crisis Communication:A Commanders
Alvani, Seyyed Mehdi (2007). "Public Management", published twenty- Guide To Effective Crisis Communication", Maxwell Air Force Base,
ninth, Third Edition, Tehran, New Publication. Alabama.
Anderson Neil, Lievens Filip , Van Dam Karen, Born Marise, (2006) "A Yazdanpanah Mahshid (2005). "Planning and decision making in crisis
Construct-Driven Investigation of Gender Differences in a management"; site crisis management articles.
Leadership-Role Assessment Center", J. App. Psychol. 91(3):
555566.
Azad Reza (2000). "Theoretical and Applied principles of systematic
management", First Edition, Tehran, blessed Publications.
Brush CG (1992)." Research on women business owners: past trends, a
new perspective and future directions", Entrepreneurship Theory and
Practice, 16: 14-18
Carless, Sally A (1998). "Gender Differences in Transformational
Leadership: An Examination of Superior, Leader, and Subordinate
Perspectives", Sex Roles, 39(11/12): 887-902
Hersey, Paul, Blanchard, Kenneth H (1999). "Organizational Behavior
Management", translated by Qasim Kabiri, Sixth Edition, Tehran,
Jihad University Press Institute (Majed)
Hussain Abbasi, Laleh, (2009). "Crisis Management and Passive
Defence", Journal of Exploration and Production, Vol. 58, July 2009.
Kotiranta, Annu, Kovalainen, Anne, Rouvinen, Petri (2007) "Female
Leadership and Firm Profitability", Eva analysis, no 3.
Mano_negrin, Rita, sheaffer, Zachary (2004). "Are women cooler than
men during crisis? Exploring gender differences in perceiving
organizational crisis preparedness/proneness ", Women in
management review. 19(2): 109-122.
McCarthy, Shaun (2002). "The Function of Intelligence in Crisis
Management: Towards an Understanding of the Intelligence
Producer-Consumer Dichotomy"; translated by Mohammad Reza
Tajik (for) presidential strategic studies center; Tehran; Culture of
Conversation.
Ming-Yi Wu (2009). "Sex, Gender Values, and Expected Leadership
Conflict Management Styles in the Taiwanese Public Relations Field",
Western Illinois University, China Media Research, 5(2),pp89-96
Mitchell, Terence R (1998). "People in the organizations: understanding
their behaviour" (1998) translated by Hussein Shokrkon, Tehran,
Roshd Publication.
Moghimi SM (1998). "Organization and Management"; research paper,
First Edition, Tehran, Termeh Publication